Tag: gaul

Romanization of Gaul and Integration of Gaulish Elites
Julius Caesar‘s conquest of Gaul in 51 BC led to its provincialization and integration into the Roman Empire, particularly under Augustus, who created the provinces of Lugdunensis, Aquitania, and Belgica, while the Transalpine region became Narbonensis. But what about the Gallic elites? Did they also succeed in integrating into the imperial elites? What was their relationship with Rome and the emperor?
Sources
Discussing the Gallo-Roman elites presents a source issue, as they are limited. Regarding texts, besides Caesar’s Commentaries, we can cite Livy (who died in 17 AD and was close to Augustus), Strabo (who died around 25 AD), but especially Tacitus and Suetonius, both living in the 2nd century AD.
Epigraphy is a major source, as inscriptions were often made by the elites. Lastly, funerary monuments also inform us about the Romanization of these elites.
Here, we will address the Gallo-Roman elites broadly, meaning the Gallic notables following the Romanization of Gaul.
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These individuals were socially recognized at the local level for political, administrative, or even broader activities, such as in the economic domain. They became elites by integrating into the highest spheres of power, even reaching the Senate in Rome. We will discuss the Three Gauls and Narbonensis until the Antonine period.
A “Pro-Roman” Gallic Elite?
Even before the Gallic Wars, there was already an elite that could be described as “pro-Roman.” This was particularly the case with the Aedui. Their relations with Rome date back to around 120 BC, when the Romans defeated the Arvernian king Bituitus, benefiting the Aedui. They became privileged partners of Rome, especially in trade, so much so that they were considered “fratres consanguineique populi romani” (brothers and kinsmen of the Roman people). It is no coincidence, then, that Caesar claimed to respond to their call for help in 58 BC, and that after the Gallic Wars, Aedui, with his help, became the first Gauls to enter the Senate.
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This Aeduan dominance persisted later under Claudius.
However, the Aedui were not the only ones already close to Rome. From the Republican era, the elites of Narbonensis were culturally and institutionally Romanized, giving them a more positive image in Rome compared to the notables of Gallia Comata, Aedui included.
The Dominance of the Iulii
After his victory, Caesar rewarded his allies with Roman citizenship, a distribution considered generous and criticized, according to Suetonius (a much later source): “Caesar leads the Gauls to triumph, and also to the Curia. The Gauls have left their trousers; they have taken up the broad stripe.” However, the reward was individual, as were grants of magistracies or land. The same applied under Augustus, who founded Autun (Augustodunum), the new Aeduan capital, where universities were created to teach Gallo-Roman notables Latin.
The Gauls elevated to Roman citizenship by Caesar and Augustus were called Iulii, after Julius. They mainly came from a military nobility and landowning aristocracy. The fate of two Aedui is noteworthy: Eporédirix, an Aeduan leader mentioned by Caesar in his Commentaries, was initially pro-Roman (he was with them at Gergovia!), but later joined Vercingetorix and was captured (or his namesake, as Caesar’s account is unclear) at Alesia.
Inscriptions from the 1st century BC later mention a C. Iulius Eporédirix (a Roman citizen from the 40s–30s BC), and we can trace them to the 1st century AD and a figure named Iulius Calenus, who, in 69 AD, was tasked by Vitellius’ victors with negotiating with the defeated at Cremona. This tribune, an Aeduan, seems to be a distant descendant of Eporédirix, illustrating the transition from an Aeduan chief to a Roman knight, a journey of a Gallic family seemingly fully integrated into the Empire.
However, this progression should neither be generalized nor idealized. The integration of Gallic notables into the imperial elite did not happen overnight and was not systematic. This explains the request made to Claudius and his response in 48 AD.
Claudius’ Role in Favor of the Gallo-Roman Elites
Born in Lyon in 10 BC, becoming emperor in 41 AD (after succeeding Caligula), Claudius had close ties with Gaul. Upon his accession, the Gauls of Gallia Comata did not yet have full citizenship, and the notables had no access to the ius honorum (the right to hold public office). Although under Caesar and early Augustus, some Gauls (Iulii from the Three Gauls, Domitii, Valerii, or Pompeii from Narbonensis) had gained equestrian rank and even Senate membership, this ceased after 18 BC. Narbonensis regained this right in 14 AD, but Gallia Comata had not. Hence the request made to Emperor Claudius.
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He responded with a famous text, which we know from Tacitus and especially from the Claudian Table, a bronze plaque discovered in the 16th century. Claudius decided to grant the ius honorum to the Aedui (and later to other Gauls). This caused outrage among Roman senators, as Claudius had anticipated, evidenced by his words: “Indeed, I see well in advance the objection that will be made to me…” Gaul, especially Gallia Comata, still had a negative image in Rome, tainted by the terror gallicus.
The Council of the Gauls
As in the rest of the Empire, the imperial cult served as the link between local elites and the emperor.
In 12 BC, Drusus, the father of the future Emperor Claudius, constructed a federal sanctuary for Gaul at Condate, near Lyon. Each year, on August 1st, the elites of the Three Gauls gathered there to celebrate their loyalty to the emperor around the altar dedicated to Rome and Augustus. The Assembly of the Gauls (or concilium) was led by an elected sacerdos, the first being logically an Aeduan, Caius Julius Vercondaridubnus. Under Tiberius, the construction of an amphitheater allowed for games to accompany the assembly’s meetings.
The purpose of creating this Council of Gauls was to integrate and Romanize the indigenous elites. The institution was above the provincial governor (also based in Lyon), answered only to the emperor (to whom it could present requests), and its members were of equestrian rank. It was a mandatory gathering of the Gallo-Roman elites, representing the sixty peoples of Gallia Comata. The Assembly thus played a real political role, and emperors, like Claudius or even Caligula, who in 39 AD organized an oratory competition, attended it.
The Evergetism of Gallo-Roman Elites
Another marker of the Romanization of the Gallo-Roman elites is their practice of evergetism, which refers to the benevolent acts offered to cities (and indirectly to the emperor), often in the form of monuments.
One famous example in Gaul is the amphitheater of Lyon, mentioned earlier. Its construction was initiated in 19 AD by the sacerdos of the Santones, Caius Julius Rufus. This prominent local figure also gifted an arch to his city of Saintes, where, in an inscription, he does not hesitate to compare himself to Germanicus.
Other examples exist, such as a portico donated by the Bituriges to the baths of Néris, a theater in Eu, or another in Jublains.
Transformations and Integration
The integration of Gallic notables was essential for the Empire. By maintaining good relations with the indigenous population, the imperial elites could better exercise their functions in the province. Meanwhile, the local elites could aspire to social advancement.
However, these relations were not always straightforward, especially in Gaul, and often proved asymmetrical. This partly explains the relative integration of Gallo-Roman elites into the imperial elites, with notable differences between Narbonensis and northern Gaul (Gaule chevelue).
Other factors are at play: we previously mentioned the military and landowning background of the Iulii. They appear to have struggled following the revolt of Vindex in 69 AD, which led to repression among their ranks. They lost influence within the Gallo-Roman elite, which began to diversify, integrating, for instance, notable merchants—a trend that intensified under the Antonines. However, these conclusions should be tempered, as sources are scarce.
This heterogeneity of Gallo-Roman elites, combined with a level of urbanization that was less pronounced than elsewhere (and since elites are formed in cities), ultimately resulted in Gaul being less represented within the imperial elites (the equestrian order, and even more so the senatorial order) compared to provinces like Spain or North Africa.
October 15, 2024
Halloween: Origin, Meaning, and History
The origin of the term “Halloween” has long been a mystery. It’s an abbreviation for “All Hallows’ Eve,” which means All Hallows’ Day (All Saints’ Day). Halloween’s origin dates back more than 2,500 years to when the Pagan people were celebrating a festival that was then called Samhain. Both the new year and the dead were honored during this Celtic and Gallic festivity.
The druids kept the new fire burning, and the celebrations included ritual sacrifices, mead-sharing, and a feast. How was Halloween practiced among the Celts? The American celebration of St. Patrick’s Day has its roots in Ireland; therefore, what Irish tale gave rise to these traditions? Discover where and when this autumnal custom of Halloween originated.
The Origin and Meaning of Halloween
Samhain, the ancestor of Halloween.
Samhain, a Celtic celebration with spooky overtones, is where Halloween gets its start. Samhain, which means “end of summer” in contemporary Gaelic, is still the name of the month of November in Irish and other languages today. More than 2,500 years ago on a full moon night in October, when the Celtic year came to a close in Ireland, Great Britain, and northwest Gaul, this ritual festival was organized to celebrate the upcoming new year. This event was already celebrated in several countries during this historical period.
There are two distinct halves to the Celtic calendar year, the dark half starting on Samhain (November 1) and the bright half commencing on Beltane (May 1), and both are as significant. There were also two distinct seasons in Western European countries—winter and summer—because of the region’s moderate and humid environment. The community’s pace of life shifted as summer winded down. Herds were brought inside for the winter, relieving farmers of their duties during this season.
Why Is Halloween Celebrated on October 31st?
Unlike the Gregorian calendar, which was based on the sun, the lunar calendar used by the Celts meant that the dates of their most important festivals were not set in stone. Samhain was celebrated precisely on the night of the next full moon. Therefore, that is why October 31 is chosen as the date for Halloween for “convenience.” Samhain was more than just a religious celebration at the beginning of the new year since it symbolized the opening of the bridge between the living and the dead.
The Feast of Samhain, the Ancestor of Halloween
Samhain is a 7-day celebration that begins three days before the full moon and continues for another three days thereafter. It is mandatory for everyone to join, regardless of their social standing, or they will be punished by the gods. There are lots of pork, beer, mead, and wine during the Samhain feast. Pig, a god of destruction and terror, is revered as a holy food that grants eternal life. On the other hand, mead is a honey-water alcoholic beverage.
This festival is intended to create bridges between the two worlds (those of the living and the dead), where everyone is invited to come to the other side. This allows the deceased to lose their gift of invisibility. It is a celebration in the sense that people meet “in the middle” of the actual and abstract worlds.
Celtic languages have a shared etymology for the words “middle” and “drunkenness.” In addition to the usual fare of sacrifices and lighting a new fire, the Samhain celebration also included ritualized games and musical performances. For the druids to reignite a new fire in every home and usher in the new year, the Gauls put out their old fires.
In addition to being a religious holiday, Samhain also served as a political, military, and commercial event when deals were sealed. Although it was mostly a peaceful celebration, the renewal of the king’s authority served as a fitting capstone to the occasion.
The Roman invasion had an impact on Celtic culture since it introduced a harvest festival in honor of an Etruscan goddess named Pomona. Since Christianity condemned the Pagan practice, it was eventually replaced by the All Saints’ Day holiday celebration. Despite the destruction of their ancient temples, Pagan practices continued. The celebration of All Saints’ Day became an official holiday in Europe in 837. Thus, Halloween, or Samhain, was pushed back to be celebrated on October 31st, a day earlier than usual.
From Turnip to Pumpkin: The Celtic Legends Reached America
Following the potato famine (the “Great Famine”) of 1846–48, many Irish emigrated to the United States, bringing with them a wealth of folklore, including their renowned Samhain festival, which over time turned into today’s Halloween.
The Origin of the Pumpkin on Halloween
You’ve certainly heard the story of Jack O’Lantern, the drunkard who was sent out of heaven on October 31 for daring to play jokes on the devil before he was later killed. Jack O’Lantern was condemned to wander in the dark with a lantern for all eternity. The lantern was a turnip he was munching on, and the candle he placed inside to protect it from the wind.
At the end of the 19th century, Halloween was made a national holiday in the United States for the first time. US citizens started to celebrate Halloween with its associated custom of “Trick-or-Treating,” going from door to door in search of sweets. And the pumpkin, since it is much simpler to carve than the turnip, became the primary emblem of Halloween.
As for the kids going door to door asking for candy, that practice has its roots in Irish culture, where it was common for the impoverished to beg for food from the more well-off. The witches and wizards, as well as the concept of threatening the people with a nasty fate if they refuse, are both relatively modern developments.
Movies About Halloween
Friday the 13th, a 1980 horror film directed by John Carpenter, added more suspense to Halloween. This includes the original 1978 Halloween movie from the same director that went on to become the focus of a long-running, critically acclaimed series.
In 2022’s Halloween Ends, the myth is revived once again, cementing the festival’s reputation as a party that is both innocent for children and a source of overflowing and terrifying imagination for the older ones.
Tradition and Commercialism Collide at Halloween
Even today, people in Scotland and Wales continue to gather around bonfires as a symbol of Samhain or Halloween, since it is a custom that originated in the Celtic culture. Halloween games involving fruit, such as jumping into a pool to grab apples or apple bobbing, are a tradition in both the United States and Britain that dates back to the Roman harvest festival.
The tradition of using candlelight to illuminate carved pumpkins, the “Jack-o’-lanterns,” in the form of hideous masks dates back to the same Roman harvest festival.
Particularly in the latter half of the 20th century, Halloween became one of the largest holidays in many European countries, third only to Christmas and Easter. However, as Europeans already have many historical celebrations and Halloween has become too commercial, the holiday has lost its magic in Europe.
The distinction between the Day of the Dead celebration (which originated in Mexico) and Halloween is worth noting. The former is celebrated on November 2nd to remember the deceased, and it does not have a connection with Halloween.
October 14, 2022
Oppidum: The First Towns North of the Alps
The word “oppidum” (plural oppida) has its roots in Latin, and it refers to a hilltop settlement that was fortified around the end of the Iron Age and was modeled after Celtic culture. Oppidum is largely linked to the Celtic La Tène culture, which emerged in Europe during the 2nd and 1st centuries BC and expanded from Britain and Iberia in the west to the eastern margin of the Hungarian plain. The Gallic oppidum began as a small walled sanctuary used only in times of danger; over time, it evolved into a true city with commerce and the development of crafts.
For the majority of the time, they occupied important locations that were placed on high ground. Some of them became the capitals of one of the several tribes that inhabited Gaul, for example, Bibracte, which was the capital of the Aedui and was located on Mount Beuvray (Morvan). During the Gallic Wars, which Julius Caesar was leading, two more fortified sites, Gergovie and Alesia, were at the center of the conflict.
More than 90 oppida are found around the world to this day. The most popular countries are Germany, France, and Belgium.
The Celts’ Migration and Subsequent Settlement of Gaul
Around the second century BC, the people who later became known as the Celts halted their migration across various areas of Europe. They established their first settlements, known as an oppidum, in the region of Gaul. Some towns were the consequence of a hamlet that was relocated or transformed into another site. Others were built in places where there used to be no people at all.
Historians believe that the Cimbri and Teutons’ invasion of Gaul at the end of the second century BC and the creation of the Roman province of Narbonnaise led to the founding and growth of these settlements. Both of these events took place in the region now known as Narbonne. The first one highlighted the need to take precautions.
The second one gave the Gauls the opportunity to study Roman towns before attempting to recreate them. Archaeological finds over the past few decades have shown that the founding and growth of these towns are linked to major changes in the social structure of the Gallic civilization.
The Construction of Oppidum in Gallic Lands
Siege of Alesia, 52 BC.
The Siege of Alesia in 52 BC was one of Julius Caesar‘s biggest successes. The conflict ended the Gallic Wars and Celtic control in Western Europe. The war took place in one of the most popular oppidum towns, Alesia, located in today’s France.
The oppidum towns were surrounded by fortifications made of stone and wood, and they usually covered an area that was around 1000 acres or several square miles. The homes have the shape of rectangles with sides of around 33 feet (10 m). They consist of a wooden frame with clay panels attached to it and coated with clay. The streets meet at right angles to one another.
The excavations of towns like Villeneuve-Saint-Germain have shed information on the specialization of some neighborhoods, such as the presence of artisans who worked with skin, textiles, or metal. Sometimes the oppidum will have an open area that will provide a safe haven for the people living in the surrounding area as well as the livestock in the event of an emergency.
Around the year 100 BC, the towns began to expand and assume an increasingly prominent role in the region. They are true strongholds since the defensive walls around them were constructed using a method that originated in Gaul. They are constructed of dry stones and have an internal structure made of wood and iron.
Their length ranges from a few feet to several miles. The majority of the oppida are built into the terrain and are situated on higher ground. They are typically located on top of a hill that has a narrow plain in the middle connecting it to the plateau. These defenses were necessary against enemies. The Roman ram was not able to break through the walls of the oppidum since they were sturdy enough.
The Function Played by the Oppidum
Given their importance, it was sufficient to capture the rest of the populace in the area by capturing these towns. Thus, the function of the oppida settlements was important in Caesar’s Gallic War. They were the most important settlements in a region that was mostly comprised of villages and scattered farms, and they served as the primary hubs for economic and political activity.
There were other gatherings and festivals that took place there. It appears that the towns’ economic importance and the need to defend themselves from the enemy determined the location of the oppidum. In fact, given their location, they were often in a position to dominate significant trade routes.
Some of these towns were prosperous as a result, such as Bibracte, which was the capital of the Aedui and served as a hub for commercial commerce with the countries of the Mediterranean. These oppida were also the sites of a considerable amount of industrial activity. The rural regions were responsible for the production of raw materials and foodstuffs, while the cities were home to skilled artisans who were able to make completed items (tools, utensils, fabrics, weapons, etc.).
Bibracte Was a Popular Gallic Oppidum
Up until 1853, researchers believed that Bibracte, which Julius Caesar referred to as “the biggest and wealthiest city of the Aedui,” was the same as Autun, a Roman-built city.
On the other hand, what was once believed to be the walls of a Roman camp were later discovered to be the remnants of the ancient capital.
Since that time, we have learned via archaeological digs that Bibracte was a vast urban center that was totally encompassed by ramparts that were anywhere from 3–4 miles (5–6 km) in length.
This city served as a wonderful illustration of an oppidum. The excavations on Mount Beuvray have brought to light masonry structures that most likely belonged to wealthy Aeduan aristocrats.
This is in contrast to the findings made in the other cities, where no vestiges of habitat have been identified due to the wooden constructions used in their making.
This city’s prosperity may be attributed to two factors: first, its commerce with the areas around the Mediterranean, and second, the metallurgical industry that sprung up in the area.
Numerous remnants of blacksmith ovens and workshops have been discovered, in addition to a massive forge that is part of a network of workshops comprising a structure that is 260 feet (80 m) in length.
The Evolution of Gallic Cities
The famous oppidum Alesia. (Image credit: u/Zarth__)
Significant shifts could be seen in the structure of Celtic society as a result of the emergence of oppida around the same time. An oligarchic system replaced the hereditary monarchy as the dominant social structure throughout time. Power was held by important aristocratic families, who were dependent on support from the vast majority of the populace.
They agreed to provide their legal protection in return for the payment of taxes and the performance of military duties. When an aristocrat had more safeguards in place to protect him, he carried greater sway in society and was more persuasive in legal proceedings. Because of their privileged status, these families were able to exert influence on the religious, political, and economic aspects of Gallic culture.
The development of a Gallic cavalry and the disappearance of necropolises with burial grounds next to an oppidum are two additional significant shifts that are visible to the naked eye. At the same time that these communities were established, a cavalry force that would remain in existence permanently was formed, in contrast to the past, when soldiers were only mustered on an as-needed basis.
These new soldiers put quite a lot of time and effort into their training, and they chose a career in combat. They battled either for their city or for the wealthy aristocrats who employed them. They carried long swords and defended themselves with helmets, shields, and even chain mail at times. Their predecessors were not as well prepared as they were.
Because there is no evidence of graves in the area around these urban sites, it is hypothesized that the locals were incinerated and their ashes were buried instead of being laid to rest. This change happened at the same time as the first oppidum was built. This is more physical evidence that the oppidum was made in response to a major change in Celtic culture.
Following the Roman invasion, the majority of the oppida were demolished to make way for the construction of brand-new towns that were situated on plains or near rivers.
References
Oppida: A European Civilization – An international project by Culture 2000
John Collis, The Celtic World, (1995).
Digital reconstruction of the Staffelberg oppidum.
September 4, 2022