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  • Do Jewish People Celebrate Halloween? There’s Almost No Need to

    Do Jewish People Celebrate Halloween? There’s Almost No Need to

  • Nebuchadnezzar Statue: A Golden Image in King’s Dream

    Nebuchadnezzar Statue: A Golden Image in King’s Dream

    In the framework of the Bible and the Book of Daniel, the Nebuchadnezzar statue takes on religious and historical significance. Nebuchadnezzar II, the second Neo-Babylonian ruler (605–562 BC), had a dream in which he saw the image of a golden statue. He dreamed of a tall statue composed of four distinct metals: a golden head, silver chest and arms, bronze belly and thighs, and iron legs and feet. The Jewish prophet Daniel saw in this monument a foreshadowing of global politics.

    The statue likely represents the Babylonian, Persian, Alexandrian, and Roman empires.

    Some believe that the statue represents the Babylonian, Persian, Alexandrian, and Roman empires. Each metal stood in for a separate dynasty, with gold representing Nebuchadnezzar’s own empire and the other metals representing those that followed. The dream encapsulated the Persian historiographic view of successive global dominations and also offered hope to the Jews of their oppressors’ downfall by divine intervention.

    The Meaning of Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream

    Nebuchadnezzar Statue - Golden Image in the King's Dream and prophet daniel
    ©Malevus

    Architecture, mathematics, and astronomy all reached new heights during the rule of this empire. Jerusalem was taken and the Jews were exiled as part of Nebuchadnezzar’s military victories.

    A Golden Statue

    Nebuchadnezzar (c. 642–562 BC) had several disturbing dreams in his second year as king. One of these dreams included a massive, magnificent statue of a man fashioned from a variety of metals. In this dream, a gigantic statue appeared with a golden head, silver chest and arms, bronze belly and thighs, iron legs, and iron and clay feet.

    Nebuchadnezzar sought the advice of his magi to decipher the detailed meaning of his dream. The price of failure in doing so was certain death. While the magi were unable to explain it, Daniel, a Jewish prisoner in Babylon, was able to interpret the dream through an alleged divine revelation.

    Its Meaning

    Nebuchadnezzar Statue

    This dream was a Persian historiographic iconography for the political outlook of the region at the time.

    According to the Jewish prophet, various powerful countries were shown in the dream. The dream illustrated both the inevitable decline of even the most powerful earthly kingdoms and the ultimate triumph of God and the building of his eternal kingdom.

    The statue’s golden head signified Nebuchadnezzar’s dominion, while the other metals stood for the other kingdoms that followed. This statue was the image of the Persian historiographic iconography of the time, which showed a worldview where a chain of dynasties dominated the globe in series.

    The Falling Stone

    Nebuchadnezzar Statue crushed by stone
    ©Malevus

    Nebuchadnezzar’s dream also offered the Judeans some encouragement. According to that, God would ultimately smash their Greek oppressors, as symbolized by the statue’s crushing by a stone mountain, alluding to the narrative of the golden calf.

    The stone that fell from the sky and smashed the statue in Nebuchadnezzar’s dream referred to a kingdom set up by God that will never be overthrown or handed to other people. In this tale, the iron, the bronze, the clay, the silver, and the gold were all crushed by one stone, which was cut from the mountain without the use of human hands.

    According to the Bible, the stone that destroyed the Nebuchadnezzar statue grew into a mountain and covered the whole earth, representing the kingdom of God.

    Appearance of the Statue

    Materials

    Nebuchadnezzar saw an enormous and terrifying statue. The statue included four distinct metals, each of which stood for a different bodily part:

    • The statue’s head was crafted from pure gold.
    • The chest and arms were made of silver.
    • The belly and thighs were made of bronze.
    • The legs were made of iron, and the feet were a combination of iron and clay.

    Dimensions

    The statue’s height was believed to be around 60 cubits or 90 feet (27.5 m), and its width was about 6 cubits or 9 feet (2.7 m). The statue was noteworthy since it represented the inevitable decline of even the most powerful empires on Earth.

    Interpretation of the Metal Parts

    The Nebuchadnezzar statue is divided into four sections, each of which represents one of four kingdoms:

    1. Head of gold: The economic might of the Babylonian Empire (612–539 BC) and the divine hegemony of the Babylonian pantheon by Nebuchadnezzar are symbolized by the golden head.
    2. Chest and arms of silver: They represent the conquering and replacing of Babylon by the Medo-Persian Empire (539–331 BC). The Persian and Median empires are symbolized by the silver chest.
    3. Belly and thighs of bronze: They represent the Greek Empire (331–146 BC), which defeated the Persian Empire. The bronze belly and thighs stand in for the Greek state.
    4. Iron legs and iron feet mixed with clay: They represent the Roman Empire (27 BC–476 AD), which defeated the Greek Empire. Iron legs stand in for the once-mighty Roman Empire.

    Compared to Other Ancient Statues

    Colossus of Rhodes.
    Colossus of Rhodes.

    Here are some other ancient statues with similar purposes or meanings:

    • Colossus of Rhodes: Chares of Lindos, in 280 BC, created the Colossus of Rhodes, a statue of the Greek sun God Helios, in the city of Rhodes on the Greek island of the same name. Its height was around 108 feet (33 meters).
    • Ancient Greek sculptures: Early on in their creative development, the Greeks settled on the human figure as their primary focus, similar to the humanoid Nebuchadnezzar statue.
    • Statues from the Early Dynastic Period: The Early Dynastic Period (c. 2900–c. 2350 BC) statues discovered in Mesopotamia on Level VII are from the late dynastic era. They depict a standing male worshiper and a standing female worshiper, which shows the traditional purpose of ancient statutes and the notion of worshipping.
    • Statue of Zeus at Tarentum: Lysippos erected a bronze statue of Zeus at Tarentum that stood at 72 feet in height.
    • Atlas statue at Sicily’s Temple of Zeus: The Temple of Zeus in Sicily includes almost 40 statues, including an eight-meter-tall Atlas monument that was constructed in the 5th century BC.

    Parallels to the Nebuchadnezzar Statue in Other Cultures

    There are parallels between the Nebuchadnezzar statue and other antique sculptures and buildings. The Bahman Yasht, a Persian holy scripture, has a schema similar to that shown in this golden statue, in which a tree with branches made of different metals represents the many dynasties that have held sway throughout history. This scripture received its present form in the 9th or 10th century AD, but it is believed to represent an ancient tradition of worldview.

    The statue’s depiction of the rise and collapse of earthly kingdoms is reminiscent of the Hindu notion of the four yugas, or progressively immoral epochs of human history. Kali Yuga, which lasts for 432,000 years, is believed to have started in 3102 BC.

    Ancient peoples thought similarly about how history repeats itself and about the development and collapse of great civilizations. To do that, the ancient peoples communicated their values and ideas to their communities through works of art and monumental structures, just like today.

    Visions of Statues and Kingdoms in Ancient History

    Although Nebuchadnezzar’s dream in the Book of Daniel is the only known instance of a monarch having a dream in which he sees a statue depicting the rise and fall of kingdoms, there are other examples of dreams, sculptures, and pictures playing important roles in ancient history.

    1. Egyptian statues: Ancient Egyptians often portrayed their gods and pharaohs on sculptures. The ka, or vital energy, of the person depicted was believed to be stored inside these sculptures. They were not always seen in dreams, but when they were, they had great religious and political weight.
    2. Godnapping in Mesopotamia: In ancient Mesopotamia, there was a phenomenon known as “godnapping,” in which the monarch of the victorious side would steal the gods (usually statues) of the losing side. The seizure of these idols represented a shift in authority since they were viewed as divine symbols.
    3. Lions in ancient cultures: Lions of all kinds were a profound representation of Nebuchadnezzar. The lion has been a significant cultural icon for thousands of years in the region and it was a common motif for ancient sculptors to portray them in statues as a sign of authority and prestige.

    These examples do not involve dreams of statues predicting the rise or fall of kingdoms, but they do show how dreams, monuments, and pictures have been utilized to transmit important political and religious messages throughout history.

    Purpose of the Nebuchadnezzar Statue in Babylonian Tradition

    Nebuchadnezzar’s dream statue had deep cultural significance in Babylonia. It was a metaphor for the global empire Nebuchadnezzar envisioned in which his own kingdom would be the only superpower. Because Nebuchadnezzar’s own kingdom was depicted by the golden head.

    Statues in Babylonian civilization were used for both ceremonial and utilitarian reasons. They were often used to strike fear in the hearts of one’s opponents and flaunt the king’s riches and authority. One example is the 95-foot-tall golden statue commissioned by King Nebuchadnezzar II. To show his dominance, he ordered that whenever the music played, everyone must bow down and worship his golden statue.

    The statue in Nebuchadnezzar’s dream was both a made-up prophetic sign and a representation of Babylonian culture at large.

    Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon and His Empire

    An important ancient civilization, the Babylonian Empire (1894–539 BC) is also known as the Neo-Babylonian Empire and it was located in Mesopotamia, which is now modern-day Iraq.

    During his reign from 605 to 562 BC, Nebuchadnezzar II established himself as the empire’s greatest ruler. He took over for his father, the first Neo-Babylonian Empire’s creator, Nabopolassar. Nebuchadnezzar II, or Nebuchadnezzar the Great, is often considered to have been the greatest ruler of the Babylonian Empire.

    In addition to his impact on Jewish history, Nebuchadnezzar II is known for his military power and his capital city of Babylon. In 605 BC, he defeated an Egyptian army headed by Pharaoh Necho II in the Battle of Carchemish and helped the Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire.

  • Habiru: A Mysterious Ancient People in Mesopotamia

    Habiru: A Mysterious Ancient People in Mesopotamia

    Different forms of the name “Habiru,” such as “Abiru,” “Apiru,” and “Hapiru,” all relate to the same group of people mentioned in ancient Near Eastern literature from the second millennium BC. The Habiru were precarious people who all found themselves on the outside of civilization. Numerous texts written between around 2000 and 1200 BC in Egyptian, Akkadian, Sumerian, and Ugaritic all make reference to them. Their existence is verified in Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Levant, and Syria.

    Some writings label the Habiru as nomads, while others use terms like “semi-sedentary,” “marginalized,” “outlaw,” “rebel,” “mercenary,” “slave,” and “migrant worker.” The significance of this name, as well as any possible ties between the Habiru and the Hebrews of the Bible, have been argued about in academic circles. In the Bronze Age, the Habiru lived in the peripheries of several states, somewhat unlike the Hebrews (ʿibrîm). However, these concepts are not synonymous with one another.

    Etymology of Habiru

    The wine press used by Habiru in the tomb of Puimre (TT39 Theban Tomb), 15th century BC.
    The wine press used by Habiru in the tomb of Puimre (TT39 Theban Tomb), 15th century BC.

    The term “Habiru,” appearing around 250 times in ancient Near Eastern documents of the second millennium BC, is of Semitic origin but lacks a clear definition. In Akkadian texts, it is transcribed as ḫabiru/ḫapiru. Scholars debate its exact meaning, with two possible etymologies considered. One suggests it’s related to the root ḫbr (“to bind, unite”), indicating “the confederates,” or the toponym ḫbrn (Hebron), translating to “the Hebronites.” Another interpretation connects it to the Semitic root ʿbr (“to pass”), denoting refugees or fugitives. In some contexts, it’s linked to the term ˓pr (“dust, clay”), signifying socially inferior populations (“the dusty ones”). The Sumerian equivalent, SA.GAZ, refers to desert-dwelling bandits, indicating that “Habiru” might have been adopted to describe them due to their organization into mobile groups, city threats, and avoidance of central authority.

    Who Were the Habiru?

    Idrimi of Alalakh, King of the Habiru. In the British Museum.
    Idrimi of Alalakh, King of the Habiru. In the British Museum. (Rama, cc by sa 2.0, cropped)

    Multiple 2nd-century BC sources mention the Habiru. They tend to cluster on the outskirts of major cities and states. Being an outsider to the places they visit is one of their defining features. They aren’t always tied together by shared history or homeland. In several historical accounts, they are depicted as violent and menacing, endangering the safety of many communities. To ensure their safety, several towns hired the Habiru to fight on their behalf as mercenaries.

    The local leaders and military commanders had to deal with them. They have both fought against the Habiru and recruited them as auxiliary warriors. They worked for local lords in Babylonia, Alalakh, and Hattusa. Their relations are more tense in Mari and Egyptian writings. They banded together to launch raids against civilized areas.

    The Amarna era provides the bulk of available information about these nomadic people. Habiru have been discovered in Egypt, where they have been held as slaves. They seem to be displaced people who were forced to leave their homes for different causes. They formed bands but never counted as a distinct group. When a new order was created in the Near East at the end of the second millennium, after the collapse of the previous Bronze Age, they disappeared from written records.

    Historical References to the Habiru

    Alishar: 19th century BC

    The word “habiru” was first documented in a letter from ancient Alishar Hüyük, Anatolia. Assyrian commercial sites existed in the area as early as the Paleolithic era (19th century BC). Prisoners from the Assyrian palace are mentioned in the letter as the Habiru men (“awili habiri”). Possible ransom terms and conditions are laid forth. A person named Enna-Aššur writes a letter to Nabi-Enlil.

    The question on Enna-Aššur’s mind was whether or not “the princess” was willing to let the males go. If they were held for ransom, he wanted Nabi-Enlil to pay it. He promised him that he would transfer the money without delay and stressed that he had no qualms about paying the desired sum. The fact that these Habiru males were connected to an Assyrian palace and had the financial means to pay any ransom attests to their high social rank. It’s possible that they were palace guards.

    Paleo-Babylonian: 19th–17th century BC

    The Larsa settlement, in southern Mesopotamia, recorded the presence of the Habiru during the reign of Rim-Sîn I, a ruler contemporary with Babylon’s Hammurabi. Equipment for Habiru troops came from the temple of Shamash’s (a deity) administration. Officers were outfitted with garments purchased with temple funds. The SA. GAZ is also mentioned in seven administrative papers from the time of Rim-Sîn I’s brother and predecessor, Warad-Sîn. These men received a few pets and chickens. After that, we don’t see any more Habiru in southern Mesopotamia.

    Habiru is also referenced in texts from Upper Mesopotamia and Syria during the same time period. Mari documents dating from 1810 BC to 1700 BC include them often. The Harran area was the target of coordinated invasions and pillages by Habiru during Zimri-Lim’s rule. According to a letter, two hundred Habiru troops supported a Zimri-Lim opponent. In this setting, the Habiru seem to be a part of the local people, as stated by Mary P. Gray. A contrasting approach was suggested by J.-M. Durand, who labels them “troublemakers, often associated with mischief.” He suggests that the phrase, when read as hapirum, is related to the Semitic root PR, which means “to leave one’s home.” In this sense, it is a political exile for someone who has left their home because of a power conflict, as was typical at this time in Upper Mesopotamia.

    A document written in Elamite Susa addresses the logistics of supplying Amorite troops stationed all throughout the country. The term “Habiru” is used to describe one of them.

    Around 1600 BC, an eight-column Akkadian clay artifact called the Tikunani Prism recorded the names of 438 Habiru, the vast majority of whom had Hittite origins. Located in modern-day Turkey, near the city of Diyarbakir, they worked for King Tunib-Teshub of the Tikunani kingdom in Upper Mesopotamia. This kingdom was apparently friendly with the Hittite monarch Ḫattušili I and even served as his vassal, as shown by a letter. A tablet from the same canon has oracle prophecies about Habiru invasions.

    Alalakh: 19th–15th century BC

    An 18th-century BC year name in Alalakh (“the year when King Irkabtum […] made peace with the Habiru”) alludes to the existence of Habiru inside or near the kingdom of Yamhad (an ancient Semitic kingdom). Several manuscripts from the 15th century BC, when the city was a vassal of the Mitanni, mention the Habiru. According to the Alalakh texts, the Habiru were more complex than simple bandits. The inscription of Idrimi (the King of Alalakh) tells the fictionalized tale of his life. After being cast out of his country, the exiled prince of Aleppo sought sanctuary among the Habiru in Canaan.

    Habiru, a fellow refugee from Aleppo, formed an army that he used to capture control in Alalakh. After some time, he was officially crowned king of Alalakh, becoming a vassal to the Mitanni and ushering in a new dynasty. The Habiru were now part of his main army. The Habiru now emerged as armed men under the leadership of his son and successor, Niqmepa. There were 1,436 men in all, and 80 of them possessed chariots.

    These gentlemen were representatives of society’s elite. A priest of the Hittite goddess Ishara was among them. Other sources made reference to SA.GAZ troops serving the kingdom, some of whom had Hittite-sounding names.

    Period of Nuzi: 15th–14th century BC

    A slave exchange treaty between Idrimi and Pilliya of Kizzuwatna. Treaty c.1480 BC. Clay cuneiform tablet.
    A slave exchange treaty between Idrimi and Pilliya of Kizzuwatna. Treaty c.1480 BC. Clay cuneiform tablet. (Fae, cc by sa 3.0, cropped)

    Nuzi, a small Mesopotamian city in the kingdom of Arrapha in what is now northern Iraq, has the names of many people who are classified as Habiru dating back to the 15th and 14th centuries BC. Nuzi attests for the first time that Habiru had been demoted from soldier to servant. Many of them hail from nearby Assyria. One Habiru’s origin is given as “Akkad,” while an Assyrian slave with the name of Warad-Kubi was referred to as a Habiru in an undertaking. It looks like he was a poor foreigner who decided to become a slave. As the mention of a scribe who was also a Habiru demonstrates, Habiru sometimes occupied positions of prominence in society. The name Habiru is usually spelled with a syllabic pattern in Nuzi.

    Hittites: 14th–13th century BC

    The Habiru were protected people in the Hittite kingdom. They were hired to do manual labor in the fields. Ḫattušili III issued a decree that said anybody from the Ugarit kingdom who entered Habiru’s area would be sent over to the Ugarit authorities.

    Known as ilâni SA.GAZ or ilâni habiri, the “gods of the Habiru” are mentioned in thirteen separate Hittite treaties. The presence of references to Habiru deities in official Hittite texts suggests that Habiru were an integral part of ancient Hittite culture. A certain city was taken by the Hurrians and handed to the grandfather of a Habiru called Tette, according to a manuscript detailing an arbitration between the towns of Barga and Carchemish by Mursili II. Habiru led a small kingdom in this instance.

    Ancient Egypt and the Amarna Texts: 15th–12th century BC

    Habiru mentioned as 'pr.w in Egyptian hieroglyphic script from this description of the Battle of Kadesh (13th century BC) from Abu Simbel.
    Habiru is mentioned as ‘pr.w in Egyptian hieroglyphic script from this description of the Battle of Kadesh (13th century BC) from Abu Simbel.

    From as early as the 18th Egyptian Dynasty, the “Apiru” (‘pr.w in Egyptian hieroglyphic script) appeared in writings. According to the records, Apiru visited the Middle East during Egypt’s New Kingdom. Amenhotep II boasts that he single-handedly seized 3,600 Apiru. To avoid having his horse stolen by an Apiru, Pharaoh Thutmose III’s commander Thoth asks for it to be kept within the city during the Capture of Joppa in the Papyrus Harris 500. The tombs of Puimre and Tomb 155, both dating to the time of Thutmose III in the Theban Necropolis, have depictions of Apiru engaged in the wine-pressing industry.

    Most of what is known about Apiru or Habiru in the Levant comes from the Amarna Letters. The diplomatic correspondence of Akhenaton (Amenhotep IV) of Egypt, written somewhere about 1340 BC, was sent to him by his vassals among the kings of Canaan and other modern monarchs. The Akkadian cuneiform script was used to write them.

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    Kings after kings were assaulted by nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes and they wrote to the pharaoh begging for protection.

    When fighting regional conflicts, these tribes often established temporary alliances with rival kingdoms. In some scripts, the logogram SA.GAZ designates the Apiru, but in others, the Apiru are referred to syllabically as Habiru. The word might be employed metaphorically on rare occasions to refer to other vassal kings.

    The Egyptian towns in northern Canaan were under constant assault from the Habiru throughout the Amarna era. According to the Amarna Letters, the name “Habiru” was used to describe a group of bandits who operated in the hilly highlands of Canaan. The Beqaa Valley seemed to be where they were doing the most damage. The Habiru were traditionally adversarial to Egypt. Damascus did join forces with them once, however, to fight Egypt’s foes. The Habiru were represented in the letters as the paradigmatic bandits.

    Invoking them helped justify condemning the violent actions of opponents. If an enemy king’s city was mentioned as joining the Habiru, it could be portrayed as a rebel against the pharaoh. It is not easy to tell whether concerns about the Habiru were a literary ploy to ask Egypt for help or if the Habiru really represented a strong power in Canaan. The Habiru seemed to be loosely organized tribes of nomads who had trouble fitting into Canaanite society at large. They continued to have little impact on regional politics. These bands may have been employed for regional influence methods beyond the rhetoric expressed in the letters.

    The Byblos governor (a city in Lebanon), Rib-Hadda, informed the Egyptian pharaoh that the Habiru were aiding the kingdom of Amurru in its growth. Their presence probably didn’t cause any problems for Egypt, and it may have strengthened the ties between Egypt and its vassal countries, who needed its help to fend off Habiru incursions.

    The Habiru or Apiru looked to operate on the periphery of urban politics, given that they could not be traced to any one city. However, they were not totally cut off from the metropolitan system, even though they had no links to cities.

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    They seemed to be involved in the political affairs of the towns of Canaan as well. An Amarna letter (EA 273) provides evidence of diplomatic contact between the Habiru and the towns of Ayyaluna and Sarha, suggesting that the Habiru were involved in political activity.

    The Habiru are still being mentioned in contexts beyond the Amarna era. Seti I’s Egyptians went on a mission to Syria and Palestine when the “Habiru from Mount Yarmuta” attacked a nearby city, according to a stele unearthed at Beit She’an, a city in Israel. Slave traders brought back to Egypt an untold number of Habiru.

    The determinative sign before the word “Apiru” was often taken to denote nomadic peoples.

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    So, they were also seen as nomads in the eyes of the Egyptians. Two post-Amarna era Egyptian texts, found in the Kumidu (Kamid el-Loz in Bekaa, Lebanon) administrative center, direct the relocation of Habiru communities from Canaan to Nubia. The Egyptians, Hittites, and Mitanni were all vying for dominance over Syria at the time of these expulsions.

    Several slaves, Egyptians, and foreigners, such as the Maryannu (ancient warriors) and Habiru (Papyrus Harris), are included among Pharaoh Ramesses III’s donations to two temples in Heliopolis. Eight hundred Habiru were among the workforce that Pharaoh Ramesses IV sent to the Wadi Hammamat (a river in Egypt) quarries. The Apiru or Habiru is not mentioned again in Egyptian writings after this inscription.

    Ugarit: 1300–1200 BC

    Ugarit is an ancient port city located in northwest Syria, and the majority of its surviving records are from the late 13th or early 12th centuries BC. These writings show that the Habiru were considered by the government of the kingdom. They were noted in reference to the distribution of oil rations. A “hill of the Habiru” signifies that these people were not nomadic but rather had a fixed location there.

    The Many Meanings of Habiru

    It is hard to generalize about the ethnicity of those who claim to be Habiru since they all have names with different roots. The names of the Habiru people are either West Semitic or another language, such as Akkadian, Hurrian, or Indo-European.

    Meanings of “Habiru” in Society

    It became obvious that the Habiru were dispersed all around the fertile crescent when literature describing them was uncovered. These disparate Habiru were not related ethnically or linguistically, and they existed on the outside of established cultures, sometimes operating illegally.

    Outlaws, mercenaries, and escaped slaves were depicted in the texts as members of a lower social class. Therefore, according to some observers, Habiru was a socially charged word used to describe those on the fringes of society.

    In all extant texts, the word “Habiru” by itself referred to a group of people who lived on the outskirts of settled societies, either raiding them, engaging in combat with them, receiving payment from them to attack others, or else seeking refuge among them and looking for a modest position at the bottom of the social ladder.

    Using some Mari texts as evidence, the Israeli archaeologist and historian Nadav Na’aman came to the conclusion that the word Habiru referred to migrants. He pointed out that in Asian societies of the second millennium, the word “Habiru” referred to the act of migration rather than a specific status related to how well the person adapted to their new environment.

    They were examples of the dissolution of social cohesion for the sake of undertakings associated with the acquisition of power, similar to an exodus.

    The Habiru: Hebrews in Disguise?

    The subject of whether or not “Habiru” is related to “Hebrew” has been discussed for over a century, but no clear answer has emerged. Since the 1887 discovery of the Amarna letters, the Habiru have been a major cause of unrest and insurrection across numerous Canaanite city-states, particularly in and around Urusalim (the name of Jerusalem on ancient Egyptian tablets in the 14th century BC; EA 290).

    Similarities between the two names, as well as the nomadic lifestyle and geographical and temporal overlaps, led scholars to suggest a link between the Habiru and Hebrews. However, as further references to Habiru were uncovered in the second millennium throughout the fertile crescent, this hypothesis was revised. In 1953, the topic of the Habiru was discussed at the fourth International Association for Assyriology. After it became clear that “Habiru” referred to a group of individuals, several academics gave up on trying to draw connections between the two.

    Others point out that the sociological part of the phrase, referring to uprooted people living on the margins of society, is consistent with instances of the Hebrew term in the Old Testament, which were frequently used derogatorily by outsiders. Therefore, although it’s unlikely that all Habiru were Hebrews, it’s plausible that some of their adversaries mistook Hebrews for Habiru.

  • Tower of Babel’s Height: Why It Was 200 to 300 Feet Tall

    Tower of Babel’s Height: Why It Was 200 to 300 Feet Tall

  • How Did King Solomon Die? Sources and Theories

    How Did King Solomon Die? Sources and Theories

    Solomon (r. c. 970–931 BC), the last king of a unified Israel, reigned for 40 years before dying of natural causes at age 60 or around. Josephus, a priest and historian of the Hebrews, claims that Solomon reigned for eighty years and died at ninety-four. But scholars who mainly look at 1 Kings 11 verse 42, believe that Solomon governed Israel for 40 years. How King Solomon died is not explained in the Bible, suggesting it was due to natural causes from old age. Almost all other royal deaths attributed to other causes have some explanation in the Bible. Scholars also believe that King Solomon died peacefully since no other references in the book say otherwise.

    -> See also: Was King Solomon Black?

    He Became King at an Early Age

    King Solomon

    It was at least seven years after David became king that Solomon was born in Jerusalem. David first ruled for seven years from the city of Hebron and Solomon was born in what would later become David’s capital, Jerusalem. He became king at the early age of 20.

    Since Solomon’s death was not the result of an assassination or any known ailment, it is often accepted that he passed away due to old age. Even though he was allegedly the “wisest man” to have ever lived, some signs point to his being unpopular, if not outright despised, as a king.

    According to Biblical tradition, Solomon’s wives and concubines caused him to abandon his faithfulness in old age. He reportedly had 700 wives and 300 concubines. Solomon also allegedly committed sins against the Israelite people by erecting altars to the false gods, namely Chemosh and Moloch. His devotion to the God of Israel had purportedly waned after marrying foreign women who worshiped different gods.

    King Solomon's pagan practices. King Solomon, with many ladies at his side, kneels before an altar of burning incense within the temple.
    King Solomon’s pagan practices. King Solomon, with many ladies at his side, kneels before an altar of burning incense within the temple.

    -> See also: Shulamite: Solomon’s Bride, Her Origin and Meaning

    Solomon Probably Died in His Sleep

    Therefore, according to most religious scholars, Solomon must have lived unhappy for the rest of his life and died unhappy despite his wealth. However, this is wishful thinking and there is no concrete evidence for this anywhere in the religious books. Solomon probably died in his sleep from old age, like most of his fathers did, including David.

    Solomon’s father King David, after a long and healthy life, passed away at the age of 70. The Bible never cites any other ailments David had in his old age except the lack of heat his body could not generate (1 Kings 1:1). Upon his death, David “rested with his fathers, and was buried in the City of David.” (1 Kings 2:10). When he died in c. 931 BC, Solomon was also laid to rest in the City of David.

    When King Solomon died, his son, Rehoboam, took over as king at the age of 41 (1 Kings 14:21-31), but ten of Israel’s tribes refused to recognize him as ruler and instead established the Kingdom of Israel under Jeroboam to the north, while Rehoboam ruled over the smaller Kingdom of Judah. After that, there was never any hope of reuniting the two kingdoms.

    -> King Solomon’s Net Worth: How Rich Was the King of Israel?

    Solomon’s Death in Islam

    According to the Qur’an, Solomon died while leaning on his staff, but the jinns working under him only realized that he had died when a woodworm ate his staff and Solomon’s dead body fell to the ground. According to Islamic legend, Solomon died when he was in charge of building the Temple in Jerusalem.

    In Islam, Solomon was a prophet of God who had the power to communicate with jinn and animals. Muslims further assert that he was a devout monotheist who justly ruled over the entire Israelite nation, received a level of kingship accorded to no one before or since, and obeyed God’s every command. As a result, they believe that he will spend eternity in Jannah (Paradise).

    Was Solomon Actually Shalmaneser III?

    The biblical King Solomon might be an invented figure. According to this theory, King Solomon is based on Shalmaneser III, who was “appropriated” by subsequent biblical writers. Shalmaneser III was the king of Assyria from 859 to 824 BC when he himself also died peacefully of natural causes in his temple at Kalhu, his capital city. Shalmaneser III passed away in his newly built Assur Temple, which was made of cedar and gold and dedicated to the national god Assur (Ashur).

    The Neo-Assyrian monarch Shalmaneser III reigned right after the death of his father Ashurnasirpal II. According to this interpretation, the mythical conquests and empire-building of Shalmaneser III, who lived to the south of Assyria, served as inspiration for the biblical narratives of King Solomon’s reign.

    Was Solomon a Despised King Before His Death?

    There were few significant battles under Solomon’s rule, and the kingdom generally prospered throughout his time in office. The writers of the Bible remember this time fondly since it was a time of relative calm and security. But Solomon’s rule was not problem-free. He took several foreign wives, and this is precisely the kind of thing against which Moses warned Israel in Deuteronomy 7:1-4. After that, Solomon’s commitment to the Israelite God allegedly waned.

    This happened when Solomon was an elderly man. The remainder of 1 Kings 11 is an account of God’s intensifying punishment of Solomon for his idolatry and the resulting devastation it brought upon Israel.

    Taxes, tribute, and commerce seem to have generated vast earnings for Solomon, who became wealthier than any other monarch in history. He married hundreds of royal brides and concubines from throughout the world because of his passion for exotic women. His military expansion and riches might be regarded as safeguarding the future of his people, and his neighbors expected him to seal covenant deals with them by marrying a royal woman of the reigning dynasty as evidence of his sincerity.

    But God had a different take on what motivated Solomon. In the Biblical story, Solomon’s frequent marriages to foreign women drew him away from God, who had warned the Israelites not to adopt the practices of the surrounding cultures. Solomon’s alleged fall from grace began at his late age and he was probably a despised king before dying in his sleep from natural causes due to his advanced age of 60 or so.

    Where Was King Solomon Buried?

    After ruling for 40 years from the age of 20 or around, King Solomon was laid to rest at the City of David in Jerusalem. However, owing to a lack of proof and historical documents, the precise site of his grave is unknown. Many people believe his grave lies near the Temple Mount. Others name the location of this supposedly massive tomb as “Mount Zion” in the Atlas Mountains in Northwest Africa, Jerusalem.

    However, no concrete archeological evidence has been uncovered to support any of these proposed locations for his grave. A tomb for King Solomon was presumedly built around the 10th century BC, albeit without any historical proof.

  • Cushi: Meaning and History of the Hebrew Word

    Cushi: Meaning and History of the Hebrew Word

    From its original use in the Hebrew Bible, the word “Cushi” has come to mean a person with a very dark complexion (near black) who is of African lineage. As the 20th century drew to a close, this phrase was widely seen as racist or, at the very least, insensitive. As a word, Cushi’s negative meaning is actually subtle, although most Hebrew speakers use it in a pejorative context.

    Original Meaning of the Word Cushi

    Someone from Cush (possibly modern-day Sudan, the area south of Egypt) is called a “Cushi” in the Hebrew Bible. According to the Bible, Ham’s oldest son was also named Cush.

    Due to an error in the translation of the Septuagint, Cush was mistakenly interpreted as Ethiopia in ancient times. The historical location of the Kingdom of Kush was in present-day Sudan, not Ethiopia.

    This misunderstanding developed because the Egyptians referred to the country south of Egypt as “Cush,” while the Greeks referred to it as “Ethiopia.” This misconception was further cemented when the Coptic Kingdom of Aksum also adopted the name “Ethiopia.” Itiyopis, son of Cush, supposedly constructed the first capital of the kingdom, Mazaber, as recorded in the Book of Axum.

    cushi, african man

    Usage of Cushi in History

    1

    The narrative of Canaan, son of Ham, being cursed by Noah can be found in the Book of Genesis in the Torah, where it is said, “Cursed be Canaan; a servant of servants shall he be to his brothers” (Genesis 9:25). The Europeans used this scripture to legitimize their treatment of black Africans as slaves, despite the fact that the original curse was aimed at Canaan and not Cush.

    2

    Miriam and Aaron, Moses’s siblings, are mentioned in the Book of Numbers (12:1), where it is said that the siblings spoke out “against the Cushite woman whom Moses had married.” Marrying a Cushite was taboo among the Israelites.

    Instead of supporting this plain meaning of the word Cushi, the French rabbi Rashi from the 11th century offers a more nuanced interpretation: “Cushite woman [in this verse] teaches that everyone acknowledged her beauty, just as everyone acknowledges the blackness of a Cushite.” He adds, “Cushite” in gematria is used as a word for beautiful.

    3

    As he was about to enter Egypt, Abraham told Sarah, his wife, “I know what a beautiful woman you are.” (Genesis 12:11), and Rashi explains that this means that they had “come among black and ugly people, the sons of Cush,” and that Abraham is terrified of them because he is not accustomed to seeing black people.

    4

    The prophet Amos asks the Israelites, “Are ye not as children of the Ethiopians [Cushi] unto me, O children of Israel? saith the Lord.” (Amos 9:7).

    5

    The Midrash Tehillim suggests that King David used a pejorative name for King Saul, the son of Kish from the tribe of Benjamin, when he wrote “A shiggaion of David, which he sang to the Lord concerning Cush, a Benjamite” (Psalm 7:1).

    6

    The prophet Jeremiah’s inquiry, “Can an Ethiopian [Cushite] change his skin or a leopard its spots? Neither can you do good who are accustomed to doing evil.” is one of the most well-known uses of the word “Cushi” in Hebrew.

    7

    The phrase “The Cushite did his part; the Cushite can leave” is a well-known idiom that Friedrich Schiller coined for his play “Fiesco’s Conspiracy at Genoa” in 1783. When Isaac Salkinson produced the first Hebrew translation of “Othello: The Moor of Venice” in 1874, he titled it “Ithiel the Cushite.”

    When Cushi Became a Racial Slur

    Initially, the Israeli Hebrew word “Cushi” was not used in a pejorative sense. However, this has changed in recent times. Other terms, like “Schvartze” (Yiddish for “black”), also made disparaging use of skin color at the same time.

    Cushi is also still being used positively in modern times. There is a “Cushi cat” in the popular 20th-century children’s book “Dira Lehaskir” by Leah Goldberg, which is sold on Amazon.

    Another children’s book by the German writer Erich Kästner called “The Animals’ Conference,” translated by Miriam Yalan-Shteklis, makes reference to a “Cushi child,” among other examples.

    In the 20th Century

    The term “Cushi” acquired its pejorative connotations in the second part of the twentieth century. For many Israelites the word Cushi is often regarded as the most overtly racist and condescending word in the language.

    This phenomenon can be attributed, in part, to the global influence of American culture. Many countries not only embraced the cultural elements of the United States but also adopted its negative attitudes and prejudices. There has been an identity created between the Hebrew word “Cushi” and the English word “Negro” in the last century.

    The triumph of the African American civil rights movement in the United States during the 1960s caused the word “Negro,” formerly a suitable descriptor, to become inappropriate.

    As the meaning of “Cushi” changed, so did its use in popular culture and the marketplace. Fearing it might impair ties with African nations, Kol Yisrael (Israel Radio) banned the children’s song “Kushi Kelev Kat” (Cushi Little Dog) in the 1950s. Israeli cheese, once known as “Cushi,” is now known as “Oshi,” while the chocolate-coated marshmallow treats “Krembo” was also formerly known as “Cushi.”

    Cushi as a Slur Against Ethiopian Jews in Israel

    african jew

    The phrase Cushi Israeli was used by the Israelis for Ethiopians during their immigration to the country (“Ethiopian Aliyah”). In Ethiopian society, people of different skin tones are treated differently. Cushitic Ethiopians don’t identify as black since they’re descended from Semites, not Africans. Within Ethiopia’s borders, black Africans and Cushitic peoples lived in almost complete isolation from one another.

    The Cushitic peoples (such as Habesha) also referred to people of African descent with dark complexions as “Tukur” (black). This was used by these groups, along with the Europeans, to enslave non-Cushitic Africans in Ethiopia (in Amharic, the Semitic language of Ethiopia, “Bariya” means “slave”).

    About 5 million black Africans were killed by Emperor Menelik II (King of Shewa and Emperor of Ethiopia) with the involvement of Ethiopia in the imperialist race to control Africa.

    Since Ethiopian people of varied skin tones were treated quite differently, Ethiopians (including Jews) often referred to themselves as brown (“Teim” in Amharic) or even red (“Kai”) if they were of a lighter complexion tone, rather than black (“Tukur”). People who identified as “black” were part of the slave content community. This provides context for their extreme sensitivity to the derogatory term “Cushi” in Israel.

  • Shunem: History and Origin of the Ancient Biblical City

    Shunem: History and Origin of the Ancient Biblical City

  • Shulamite: Solomon’s Bride, Her Origin and Meaning

    Shulamite: Solomon’s Bride, Her Origin and Meaning

  • Was King Solomon Black? Accounts and References

    Was King Solomon Black? Accounts and References

  • King Solomon’s Net Worth: How Rich Was the King of Israel?

    King Solomon’s Net Worth: How Rich Was the King of Israel?

    • King Solomon’s annual income from gold was $1.5 billion.
    • His powerful army included 10,000 horses and 3,000 chariots.
    • Solomon’s lavish palace featured pure gold utensils and opulent decorations.
    • No archaeological evidence supports Solomon’s legendary riches.

    Israel’s King Solomon was a powerful and wealthy monarch. God endowed Solomon with knowledge, and the Bible portrays his reign as a time of extraordinary wealth. Estimates of his net worth range from $2 billion to $2.3 trillion. However, the median estimates put Solomon’s wealth at roughly $170 billion. The biblical king amassed 500 tons of gold from his mines, which translates roughly to $30 billion today. By monopolizing the major trade routes passing through Israel, Solomon amassed vast tax revenues.

    -> See also: Shulamite: Solomon’s Bride, Her Origin and Meaning

    How Did King Solomon Become So Wealthy?

    Solomon received $60 billion in gold alone during his lifetime.

    1. The Kingdom of Israel was a significant trading center connecting Africa, Arabia, and Europe.
    2. Solomon’s fortified city was located on a busy trade route between prosperous civilizations. Merchants and travelers passing through the city had to pay a fee for passage, which was a significant source of income for his kingdom.
    3. He also had a close alliance with the Phoenician city-state of Tyre, which provided him with access to trade goods.
    4. He married the daughters of kings from neighboring kingdoms, which brought dowries and facilitated trade deals and his fame and reputation came from his belief in the rule of law.
    5. Solomon had control over highly productive mines, possibly copper mines, located far away and accessible through a long sea voyage.

    Solomon’s Acquisition of Wealth

    25 Tons of Gold Every Year

    king solomon sitting on his golden throne in his golden room
    Solomon sitting on his lavish throne. ©Malevus

    According to the Bible, Solomon’s annual base revenues were 50,000 pounds of gold. If we assume that the current value of a pound of gold is $30,000, then Solomon’s annual income from gold alone was about $1.5 billion in today’s money.

    Therefore, in addition to the taxes paid by merchants, the profits from trade, and the tribute paid by the Arabian kings and the governors of the Israelite districts, King Solomon annually received over twenty-five tons of gold.

    Since he inherited a strong monarchy and reigned for 40 years, this means that Solomon did $60 billion during his lifetime solely from annual gold payments. This wealth did not include other precious gifts he received from various nations.

    -> See also: How Old Was Solomon When He Became King?

    Taxes

    34 tons of gold were brought to Solomon’s kingdom from Ophir.

    Solomon restructured his kingdom into 12 districts that crossed ethnic lines in order to concentrate authority in Jerusalem. He maintained his father’s habit of marrying women from a wide variety of tribes and countries with whom he had alliances in order to appease the local populace.

    During his reign, Solomon taxed his people heavily. However, he also amassed a fortune through the collection of taxes and customs from traveling caravans.

    The Bible records (in I Kings, chapters 4–10) that 1,086 talents, or roughly 34 tons of gold, were brought to Jerusalem from Ophir (a port or region) by Solomon’s workers. About half of the ancient world’s known gold supply was thought to have been this amount in Solomon’s time. 34 tons of gold is equivalent to about $2 billion at today’s prices.

    For comparison, in Old Testament times (2000–400 BC), one talent was worth around twenty years of average payment.

    In addition to the taxes paid by merchants and traders, King Solomon also annually received over 25 tons of gold or 666 talents (a talent is about 75 pounds). There was also tribute paid by the Arabian kings and the governors of the Israelite districts.

    Precious metals were measured in talents throughout Solomon’s reign, and this was also the standard unit of currency. A talent, or 75 pounds, was also a unit of currency used throughout the New Testament era (10 BC–100 AD) with an approximate value of $1,000 to $30,000. At today’s prices, 666 talents of gold is worth almost $1.5 billion.

    Jerusalem temple

    Mines

    Solomon supposedly amassed 500 tons of gold from the mines.

    A victorious military campaign contributed to his rise to money and power. However, the mining of copper, iron, and gold also contributed to King Solomon’s net worth. Solomon mined gold from a location known as Ophir.

    Hiram, king of the Phoenicians, dispatched his ships to Ophir in pursuit of this gold after forming an alliance with David and his son Solomon. Solomon received around 16 tons of gold from these ships. The commerce ships sailed often to Ophir and other destinations, returning once every three years with precious metals, animal parts, and other goods.

    The Bible claims that King Solomon had around $2.3 trillion stashed away in his gold mines. The biblical king supposedly amassed 500 tons of gold from the mines.

    On the other hand, there are many who believe that King Solomon of the Old Testament was really an Egyptian pharaoh and that his tale has been misconstrued.

    Another major contributor to King Solomon’s riches was his ownership of the Timna copper mines in Israel. One of these ancient mines is still called Mikhrot Shelomo ha-Melekh (“King Solomon’s Mines”). This specific mine is about 1,000 feet long and more than 425 feet wide.

    Trade

    In addition to building the first temple in Jerusalem and running a kingdom, Solomon amassed vast wealth through his dominance of the spice trade.

    The international trade activities of King Solomon contributed greatly to his wealth. Solomon formed trade alliances with states like Tyre and Egypt, and every three years, his fleets would return with precious cargo like gold, silver, and ivory, as well as peacocks and apes.

    Direct economic benefits resulted from the expansion of his kingdom from the Euphrates to the Egyptian border. The spice market played a key role in Solomon’s enormous net worth. He was there to greet Queen Sheba of South Arabia when she arrived in Jerusalem, “bearing spices” on camels, along with gems.

    King Solomon's Net Worth. How Rich Was the King of Israel.
    ©Malevus

    There was a thriving spice trade in the area, with the Arabian Peninsula serving as a major export hub for all manner of aromatic resins, incense, and medicinal brews. Historically, the Eastern World was a major trading partner for Westerners interested in spices like nutmeg, ginger, cinnamon, clove, cardamom, star anise, turmeric, cassia, and pepper.

    Almost a thousand years before the start of the Christian era, some of these spices made their way to the region controlled by King Solomon. Solomon controlled the market for the ancient world’s most precious commodities: frankincense and myrrh.

    Free Labor

    Around 150,000 forced laborers were ready to serve.

    30,000 men made up Solomon’s levy of workers. 10,000 were dispatched to Lebanon in shifts, each working there for a month before returning home for two. Adoniram, Solomon’s tax collector who oversaw the system of forced labor, was in charge of this lucrative business.

    Cedar wood was a kind of timber that many ancient cultures placed a high monetary value and symbolic importance on.

    For the construction of the Temple, Solomon sent a work force of some 30,000 men to Hiram’s forests in Lebanon to harvest cedar and cypress trees.

    He also had 3,300 managers and supervisors overseeing a labor force of 70,000 people who carried loads and another 80,000 who mined stone in the highlands.

    Solomon employed this workforce to construct the city wall and fill in land on the east side of the city, in addition to constructing the temple and his palace practically for free labor. Hazor, Megiddo, and Gezer were all reestablished thanks to his forced workers.

    However, it appears that Solomon compensated the Israelites who were conscripted to work while he was king. This was in accordance with the prohibition against making Israelites into slaves found in Leviticus 25:44–46.

    Examples of How Rich Was King Solomon

    He was able to build grand structures, keep a strong army, and build and maintain an extravagant palace through his riches.

    King Solomon’s Golden Palace

    King Solomon's Palace.
    King Solomon’s Palace. ©Malevus

    Solomon used his riches to many different uses. The gold used to construct King Solomon’s palace was the real deal. The Bible portrays it as a gorgeous building, complete with an ivory throne covered in pure gold.

    The pure gold lampstands, flowers, tongs, bowls, pans, and dishes for carrying coals, the gold hinges for the doors, and the outer court were all items that Solomon specifically commanded to be made from gold for his palace, which took him 13 years to build.

    His cups were made of gold, and he had 300 bucklers and 200 massive shields made of gold alloy at his disposal.

    The Temple of the Lord

    The Destruction of Solomon's Temple.
    The Destruction of Solomon’s Temple.

    The most prominent use of Solomon’s wealth was in the construction of the Temple of Jehovah (God/Lord) in Jerusalem. He organized a “donation drive” that raised almost $120 million in modern money. He spent 5,000 gold talents and 10,000 silver talents to build the temple. Gold paneling, containers, pillars, jewel-encrusted courtyards, silver, spices, animals, fabrics, bronze, cedars, etc., adorned this structure, also known as the First Temple.

    The oracle altar and the floor of the Temple of the Lord were both covered in gold. Everything within the house, including the 15-foot-tall cherubs in the Most Holy and the altar of incense, was covered in gold. Gold leaf covered the cherubic figures, palm trees, and open flowers that adorned the structure’s walls. King Solomon’s great wealth was on full display.

    Inside of Solomon's Temple (The First Temple).
    Inside of Solomon’s Temple (The First Temple).

    This was a biblical temple in Jerusalem that dates back to the 10th–6th century BC and goes by several other names. Designed as a shrine to God and a permanent residence for the Ark of the Covenant, it was commissioned by King Solomon. During the 587 BC Siege of Jerusalem, Nebuchadnezzar II of the Neo-Babylonian Empire ordered the temple to be destroyed (2 Kings 25:8-9).

    When Nebuchadnezzar’s soldiers pillaged the First Temple, the money they made helped keep the Babylonian Empire going, and then the Persian Medes absorbed Babylonia and used this wealth to expand their own empire.

    Second Temple

    For comparison, according to the value of stonework, labor, money, silver, incense, oils, annual revenue, and land, the Second Temple’s treasury would be worth nearly a trillion dollars by today’s standards. This temple was built in 516 BC, around 500 years later.

    Historians justify the value of the Second Temple by associating it with the restoration of Roman power after the destruction of the temple in 68–70 AD. It was built at a fraction of the cost of the First Temple, despite its larger size. Because much less gold and more stone were present in the structure.

    His 10,000 Horsemen and 3,000 Chariots

    According to the Bible, King Solomon had a powerful army that included thousands of chariots and horsemen.

    Solomon’s armies had around 10,000 horses and 3,000 chariots. Archaeologists at Megiddo have uncovered two royal stable complexes with stalls for 480 horses.

    According to the Bible (1 Kings 9:15–19), he strengthened the defenses of Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer because of their strategic locations and importance as chariot bases.

    Solomon lived around 970–930 BC, and owning a single ancient Egyptian chariot in 1500 BC cost around 23 troy ounces of silver. For comparison, a Roman Legionnaire in 14 AD was paid around 32 troy ounces a year. Now add the cost of horses and the cost of maintaining them to this equation.

    Imagine Having 700 Wives

    Solomon lavished his many wives and concubines with extravagant palaces. It is said that King Solomon had a harem consisting of 700 wives and 300 concubines. The daughter of Pharaoh, women from Moab, Ammon, Edom, Sidon, and the Hittites were among the described wives. Although historical texts are vague on the subject, it’s assumed that he constructed lavish palaces for his many wives and concubines, similar to what Genghis Khan also did for his wives.

    Extravagant Presents

    The Bible portrays King Solomon as a wise and righteous leader who was beloved by his people; one of the reasons for his popularity was his lavish giving. He was quite generous with his money, and he was famous for lavishly rewarding his staff.

    When the wealthy king was visited by the Queen of Sheba, she saw the elaborate feasts Solomon hosted and the elaborate sacrifices he made at the Temple, as well as the food he ate, the living quarters his officials occupied, the structure of his palace staff and the uniforms they wore.

    Because she was so amazed by Solomon and all he had accomplished with “God’s aid”, the queen of Sheba presented him with 120 talents of gold, the equivalent of more than $48,000,000 at the time.

    Utensils Made of Pure Gold

    Solomon’s palace was one of the most opulent in history. The fine gold that adorned his throne set it apart as fit for a king. Everything in the House of the Forest of Lebanon, including his goblets and other utensils, was made of pure gold. This building likely served as the king’s palace’s main entrance in Jerusalem.

    No silver was used in any of the utensils stored in his palace. In Solomon’s time, silver was not used for anything due to its low value. This exemplifies the richness of the kingdom under King Solomon. Solomon’s personal goldsmiths were the Tawils, who hailed from the city of Azech in Tur Abdin (present-day Turkey).

    The throne had six steps leading up to it, and its back was rounded. Two lions stood at attention between the arms on each side of the throne. And there were twelve lions, six on each side, guarding the six stairs. Not a single kingdom produced something like.

    Other Kings Who Also Possessed Immense Wealth in Gold

    • The Egyptian temple of Amun-Ra at Karnak was gifted around 13.5 tons of gold by King Thutmose III in the second millennium BC.
    • Solomon’s temple covered in gold wasn’t out of the ordinary in antiquity. The Egyptian pharaoh Amenophis III built a temple covered with gold to the deity Amun at Thebes. There were gold-plated fixtures, a silver-paved floor, and electrum inlay on all doors and windows.
    • In the seventh century BC, Assyrian king Esarhaddon had gold applied on the walls and doors of the Ashur shrine. Nabonidus of Babylon (6th century BC), when asked about the temple of Sin at Harran, said, “I covered its inside with gold and silver and polished it till it gleamed like the sun.”
    • Inscriptions from ancient Egypt reveal that King Osorkon I (early 1st century BC), gave the gods a total of around 383 tons of gold and silver.
    • More than 37 tons of gold were extracted annually from the Pangaion mines in Thrace under King Philip II (359–336 BC).
    • Alexander the Great (336-323 BC), Philip’s son, conquered the Persian city of Susa and looted its wealth, which included more than a thousand tons of gold.

    -> See also: Was King Solomon Black? Accounts and References

    Doubts About Solomon’s Net Worth

    black King Solomon as a rich man
    ©Malevus

    There is no proof that Solomon’s Temple or the legendary kings David and Solomon ever existed. There are no historical records of such mighty rulers, so these people, after all, must be allegories. There is no archaeological evidence of the residences or reigns of the people described in the Bible as living in Solomon’s rich kingdom.

    According to archaeological estimates, there were only around 6,000 people living in Judah in the tenth century BC, with about 2,000 of them residing in Jerusalem. No monarch could ever collect enough tax revenue from so few subjects to maintain the lavish lifestyle portrayed in the Bible. Neither could he have mustered a force strong enough to plunder the prosperous western city-states.

    According to the Bible, King Solomon erected fortified walls around his capital city of Jerusalem, just like those in Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer. He also built an extravagant palace for himself. According to legend, he led a massive army consisting of 40,000 horsemen and charioteers and was so wise and wealthy that he was considered the greatest king in history.

    These assertions portrayed Israel’s Golden Age, a time of rapid recovery from military setbacks and the establishment of a prosperous empire. Archaeological discoveries, however, cast doubt on such accounts. Studies conducted in the 1960s uncovered a palace beneath the alleged stables, indicating that the buildings were likely not built by Solomon but rather by King Ahab, the seventh king of Israel.

    Subsequent excavations in the 1970s and 1980s revealed only fragments of pottery dating back to the 10th century BC and no evidence of Solomon’s purported golden palace or temple. For Israeli archaeologist Prof. Israel Finkelstein, there has been no discovery of Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem.

    This casts doubts about Solomon’s net worth and his status as a rich king in history.

  • Eleazar: Story of a Priest in the Hebrew Bible

    Eleazar: Story of a Priest in the Hebrew Bible

    • Eleazar succeeded his father Aaron as the Jewish people’s second High Priest.
    • He played crucial roles in Jewish ceremonies, offerings, and decisions within the priesthood.
    • Eleazar, alongside Joshua, helped divide the promised land among the Israelite tribes.
    • His lineage continued through his son Phinehas and ensured priestly succession.

    According to the Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament of the Christian Bible, Eleazar (Hebrew: אֶלְעָזָר, Elʽazar, meaning “God (El) has helped”) was a priest from the tribe of Levi and the second High Priest of the Jewish people, succeeding his father Aaron. Eleazar was Moses’ nephew. Elisheba, a member of the Judahite tribe and the sister of Nahshon, was Eleazar’s mother. Nadab and Abihu were his older brothers, while Ithamar was the name of his youngest sibling. On Mount Sinai, Eleazar and his brothers joined their father in being anointed as priests. Eleazar, Aaron’s son, married one of Putiel’s daughters and had a son, Phinehas, who succeeded his father as High Priest.

    The Israelites’ wilderness journey is believed to have taken place around the 13th century BCE. Eleazar’s involvement as the high priest and his role in the allocation of territories in the Promised Land occurred during this period.

    Eleazar’s Task

    moses aaron Most Holy Place male goat sacrifice

    Eleazar served as a priest in a number of capacities for the Israelites while they traveled through the desert on their way to Canaan. Even though grieving was banned for the Israelites in this situation, he and his brother Ithamar resumed their responsibilities as priests immediately after their brothers Nadab and Abihu were killed by the retribution of God’s fire. Because God’s anointing oil was on them, they were confined to the front of the Tent of Meeting (Tabernacle).

    In their first worship ceremony, they botched the sin sacrifice by letting the male goat burn to ash instead of being eaten in the Most Holy Place. Moses rebuked them for it, but their father Aaron eventually settled them down.

    Eleazar took charge of the Levites guarding the sacred objects while on the road. Before the camp could move, Joshua, his father Aaron, and his brother Ithamar had to enter the Holy Tent to prepare the Ark of the Covenant for travel by removing the veil, wrapping it with a covering of dolphin skin, and placing it on a fabric that was dark purple.

    Ark of the Covenant
    Moses and Joshua before the Ark of the Covenant (by James Tissot, c. 1900)

    In addition, a dark purple cloth and the serving dishes, utensils, and pitchers were to be laid out on the showbread table. It was intended to showcase the Presence’s bread. They then place a crimson fabric on top, a covering made of dolphin skin, and the poles of the Ark. The light source, its lamps, wick trimmers, trays, and oil containers were to be covered with a dark purple fabric.

    The Kohathites were to come and transport the sacred furniture and all the holy artifacts once Aaron and his sons had completed covering them, just before the camp moved away; however, no Kohathite was to touch the holy things under penalty of death. Eleazar was also in charge of the regular grain sacrifice, the aromatic incense, and the anointing oil. Everything in the Tabernacle, from the furnishings to the holy items, was under his purview.

    A Rebellion Against Moses

    Eleazar was tasked with retrieving the censers from the flames and having them hammered into sheets to overlay the altar as a memorial for the Israelites after Korah, son of Izhar, son of Kohath (Kehath), son of Levi, and his followers rebelled against Moses and were swallowed by the earth while 250 of his followers were consumed by fire from God while holding their censers.

    Eleazar was given a spotless, young red heifer that had never been yoked in order to use in the ceremonial cleaning water. The heifer was to be killed in front of him, away from the camp. Eleazar was then tasked with sprinkling the blood of the sacrifice seven times toward the entrance of the Tent of Meeting. After that, everything about the heifer—including its hide, meat, blood, and intestines—was to be burned in front of his eyes. Tossing cedar wood, hyssop, and scarlet wool upon the ablaze cow was Eleazar’s assignment.

    Then he could enter the camp after washing his garments and bathing himself with water, but he remained ceremonially unclean until dark. A ceremonially clean man was responsible for collecting the heifer’s ashes and placing them in a clean location outside of camp. The Israelite community was obligated to save these items for use in the sacrificial water, which was used to atone for sins.

    The Death of Aaron

    Moses was told to take Aaron and Eleazar to Mount Hor as Aaron lay dying. Aaron died on the mountainside after Moses took his clothes and placed them on Eleazar. After that, Moses and Eleazar came down the mountain.

    Moses and Eleazar were tasked with taking a headcount of all the Israelites who were at least 20 years old and physically able to serve in the military on the plains of Moab between the Jordan River and Jericho.

    Eleazar helped Moses judge disputes, including the dispute between Zelophehad’s daughters.

    The Urim and Thummim were used by Eleazar, the priest, to discern God’s will when Joshua, son of Nun, was anointed to replace Moses. Joshua would stand before Eleazar and Eleazar would utilize the Urim to ascertain God’s will for Joshua.

    The Israelite army returned to the camp on the plains of Moab by the Jordan near Jericho with prisoners, booty, and prizes following their victory against the Midianites.

    Eleazar, the priest, then addressed the troops that had set out for war, saying,

    This is what is required by the Lord’s command that Moses gave you: ‘The gold, silver, bronze, iron, tin, and lead—everything that can withstand fire—must be put through the fire, and then it will be clean. But it must also be purified with the water of cleansing. And whatever cannot withstand fire must be put through that water. On the seventh day, wash your clothes, and you will be clean. Then you may come into the camp.

    Instructing Moses, God said,

    You and Eleazar, the priest, and the family heads of the community are to count all the people and animals that were captured. Divide the spoils equally between the soldiers who took part in the battle and the rest of the community. From the soldiers who fought in the battle, set apart as tribute for the Lord one out of every five hundred, whether people, cattle, donkeys, or sheep. Take this tribute from their half share and give it to Eleazar the priest as the Lord’s part. From the Israelites’ half, select one out of every fifty, whether people, cattle, donkeys, sheep, or other animals. Give them to the Levites, who are responsible for the care of the Lord’s tabernacle.

    Following God’s instructions, Moses and Eleazar, the priest, acted accordingly. Following the troops’ looting, there were 675,000 sheep, 72,000 cattle, 61,000 donkeys, and 32,000 women who had never been sexually active.

    Eleazar’s Death

    After the Israelites reached the land of Canaan, the Lord gave Moses’ successors, Joshua and Eleazar, the priest, the responsibility of dividing up the country as an inheritance for the various Israelite tribes. At the entrance to the Tent of Meeting, Eleazar the priest, Joshua, son of Nun, and the chiefs of the tribal families settled the inheritance for each tribe after Joshua had completed battling for the country of Canaan. The land partition was finalized at this point.

    Eleazar was involved in the casting of lots to determine the allocation of the territories of the Promised Land (Canaan) to each Jewish tribe, ensuring that the allocation was done in accordance with God’s guidance.

    Eleazar, Aaron’s son, passed away, and he was laid to rest among the hills of Ephraim, on a hill that had been granted to his son Phinehas. This spot probably lies in the Samaria neighborhood known as Awarta. The Israeli government restricts Jewish pilgrims to a single night’s stay around the 5th of the Jewish calendar month of Shevat (January–February).

    Families of Priests

    Zadok of Eleazar and Ahimelech of Ithamar were the two priests who helped David establish order among the priesthood. It seems that there were more family heads (chiefs) among Eleazar’s offspring than among Ithamar’s. Therefore, they separated them as follows: 16 family heads for Eleazar’s offspring and 8 family heads for Ithamar’s.

    Since there were “holy leaders” and “leaders appointed by God” among both the descendants of Eleazar and the descendants of Ithamar, they distributed them fairly through random selection. In the presence of the king, the authorities, Zadok the priest, Ahimelech son of Abiathar, and the chiefs of the priestly and Levitical families, the Levite Shemaiah son of Nethaneel entered their names. Eleazar lost one tribe, and then the same happened to Ithamar.

    The rotation order for these 24 groups was determined randomly, and it looked like this:

    1. Jehoiarib; 2. Jedaiah; 3. Harim; 4. Seorim; 5. Malchijah; 6. Miyyamin; 7. Hakkoz; 8. Abijah; 9. Jeshua; 10. Shecaniah; 11. Eliashib; 12. Jakim; 13. Huppah; 14. Jeshbab; 15. Bilhah; 16. Immer; 17. Hezir; 18. Happizzez; 19. Pethahiah; 20. Ezekiel; 21. Jachin; 22. Gamul; 23. Delaiah; 24. Maaziah.

    Genealogy of Eleazar

    Phinehas was Eleazar’s only son with his wife, who was a daughter of Putiel.

    The descendants of Eleazar, in chronological order:

    Phinehas, Abishua, Bukki, Uzzi, Zerahiah, Meraioth, Amariah, Ahitub, Zadok, Ahimaaz, Azariah, Johanan, and Azariah.

    Azariah

    In Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem, Azariah, son of Johanan, worked as a priest.

    From Amariah to Ahitub to Zadok to Shallum to Hilkiah to Azariah to Seraiah to Jehozadak is the family tree of Azariah.

    Seraiah

    When the people of Judah and Jerusalem were carried into exile by Nebuchadnezzar, Jehozadak son of Seraiah was among those who were captured.

    Ezra

    Ezra son of Seraiah son of Azariah son of Hilkiah son of Shallum son of Zadok son of Ahitub son of Meraioth son of Zerahiah son of Uzzi son of Bukki son of Abishua son of Phinehas son of Eleazar son of Aaron, the chief priest, was among the first to return from exile.

    The author of the Book of Ezra, Ezra, came back from exile in Babylon. He was a scribe well-versed in the Ten Commandments that Moses had received from the Lord, Israel’s God. Because the Lord his God was with him, the king granted all his requests.

    Jehozadak

    Jehozadak son of Seraiah, the High Priest, also went into exile in Babylonia; therefore, he may have been a sibling.

    • After the Temple was rebuilt, subsequent High Priests also traced their ancestry back to Eleazar,
      • beginning with Joshua son of Jehozadak (ca. 515–490 BC).
      • Joshua’s son Joiakim, around 470–490 B.C.
      • Joiakim’s son Eliashib, 470–433 B.C.
      • Sometime between 433 and 410 B.C.E., Joiada, son of Eliashib, was expelled from the Temple by Nehemiah because one of his sons had married the daughter of Sanballat the Horonite.
      • Jonathan, son of Joiada, c. 410–371 B.C.E.,
      • Jaddua son of Jonathan, sometime 373–320 BC, during Alexander the Great‘s rule. Some people referred to him as Simeon the Just.

    Phinehas son of Eleazar held the rank of High Priest in the household. However, during the reign of High Priest Eli, it was passed on to the family of Ithamar for reasons that aren’t totally known. According to Samaritan accounts, the descendants of Ithamar and Pinehas son of Eleazar fought among themselves and eventually split into two camps on Mount Gerizim, close to Bethel: those who followed High Priest Eli and those who did not.

    The Ithamar family, descended from Eli the High Priest, held the post of High Priest until Abiathar, the fourth descendant of Eli, was removed from office by King Solomon, who then reinstated Zadok of the Eleazar family. This was the fulfillment of predictions regarding Eli’s family that had been spoken via the prophet Samuel.

    According to the same Samaritan account, the line of High Priests descended from Phinehas was broken with the passing of the 112th High Priest, Shlomyah ben Pinhas, in 1624 AD. As a result, Ithamar’s kin once again assumed the role. Elazar ben Tsedaka ben Yitzhaq served as Samaritan High Priest in 2009.

    Eleazar in Christianity

    The Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates Eleazar on September 2, while the Armenian Apostolic Church honors him as a Holy Father on July 30. However, the Old Testament Bible mentions more than one person with the name Eleazar:

    • It is thought that the Ark of the Covenant was protected by Eleazar son of Abinadab.
    • Eleazar, son of Dodo, was a powerful soldier in King David’s army. His name is sometimes translated as Elhanan.
    • One of those entrusted with the sacred items brought to Jerusalem from Babylonia was Eleazar son of Phinehas.
    • In the genealogy of Jesus Christ contained in the Gospel of Matthew, Eleazar son of Eliud is included. Joseph was Jesus’ adoptive father.
  • Moses: The Story of a Legendary Character

    Moses: The Story of a Legendary Character

    Rabbinic Judaism, Christian theology, and Islamic belief all agree that Moses existed. He was an Old Testament prophet who led the Hebrews out of Egypt and into the Promised Land and who is credited with receiving the Ten Commandments from Yahweh (God). There is minor information available about Moses’s life outside of the canonical books. To the point that in 1906, historian Eduard Meyer proclaimed that Moses did not exist. Moses, who we mostly know from the Bible and more specifically from the Torah, where he parted the waters of the Red Sea and brandished the Tablets of the Law, has nevertheless played a significant role in the history of the Jewish people.

    Who was Moses?

    The finding of Moses. (Painting by Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665, Italy)
    The finding of Moses. (Painting by Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665, Italy)

    Moses, a member of the Hebrew tribe of Levi, was born in the Egyptian province of Goshen somewhere in the 13th century BC. It is one of the twelve Hebrew tribes that settled in Egypt in about the 17th century BC.

    Moses’ birth was timed just before the pharaoh (perhaps Ramses II or his successor Merneptah) began killing off Hebrew infants to quell any potential insurrection. Moses’ mother put him in a basket and hid him among the Nile reeds so he would be safe. Pharaoh’s daughter feels sorry for the orphan and decides to adopt him, raising him in the palace as a prince.

    She “drew him from the waters,” and therefore, the Bible says, she named him Moses. According to the most plausible theory, the name Moses derives from the Egyptian word mosu (“son” or “child”). The second theory says the name originates from the Hebrew verb, meaning “to pull out” or “draw out” [of water].

    Moses and the Burning Bush

    Moses and the Burning Bush (by Arnold Friberg).
    Moses and the Burning Bush (by Arnold Friberg).

    In his adulthood, Moses learns about his real origin and the plight of the Hebrews while visiting a construction site. As part of his rebellion, he murdered an Egyptian who was oppressing his people. Moses departed Egypt for the land of Midian after committing the crime. To help him feel more secure, the local priest, Jethro, arranged a marriage between Moses and his daughter. During this time, God spoke to Moses in a “burning bush” on Mount Horeb (in Sinai), charging him with rescuing the Hebrews from slavery in Egypt.


    Moses, fortified by God’s message at the Burning Bush, went back to Egypt to lead the Hebrews out of slavery and into Canaan, the Promised Land. With the help of his brother Aaron and the miraculous powers bestowed upon him by Yahweh (God), Moses was able to get a meeting with Pharaoh and convince him to allow the Jewish people to celebrate Passover in the desert.

    The Pharaoh still refuses and ramps up his persecution of the Hebrews, despite the miraculous transformation of Aaron’s rod into a serpent. Not deterred, Moses makes another appeal to the king, which is once again denied.

    The Nile’s water turns to blood, the plague strikes Egyptian cattle, locusts blanket the ravaged nation, darkness falls for three days, and eventually, all the first-born Egyptians perish in a single night as Yahweh actively intervenes to demonstrate his power. The fact that Yahweh had killed his own son was probably a factor in Pharaoh’s decision to release the Hebrews. This was the start of a forty-year migration known as the Exodus.

    Scientists contend that the red algae bloom at the time caused a lack of oxygen, which led to the death of fish in the Nile.

    The leaving of Egypt and the crossing of the Red Sea

    The children of Israel crossing the Red Sea. (by Frédéric Schopin (1804–1880), Art UK)
    The children of Israel crossing the Red Sea. (by Frédéric Schopin (1804–1880), Art UK)

    The Hebrews believe they have escaped the Pharaoh’s control, but the Pharaoh changes his mind and sends his chariots after them. The Egyptian army approaches as the Hebrews look out across the Red Sea (also known as the “Yam Suph”).

    Moses stretched out his hand to the sea, and the waters parted, creating a channel between the liquid barriers through which the people could pass.

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    When the Egyptians passed through, Moses asked Yahweh to bring the sea back to where it was, killing the pharaoh’s army.

    The Israelites kept marching forward under Moses’ leadership. The Hebrews now had to cross the desert to get to their ancestral homeland. To appease his people’s hunger and thirst, Yahweh sent quails, then a dew that, once evaporated, turned hard as ice (the manna [an edible substance] of the desert, foreshadowing the Eucharist [the Lord’s Supper]), and lastly, water that Moses mustered from a rock.

    Tablets of Stone

    On two tablets of stone, God outlines the Ten Commandments for Moses to read on Mount Sinai. (Painting by Joseph von Führich)
    On two tablets of stone, God outlines the Ten Commandments for Moses to read on Mount Sinai. (Painting by Joseph von Führich)

    The Hebrews arrived in the Sinai desert three months after leaving Egypt. Moses left the people in the care of Aaron and walked to the base of Mount Sinai. After fasting for a total of forty days and nights, the prophet received the Ten Commandments from God.

    These rules formed the basis of the covenant between Yahweh and his people.


    When Moses returned to the Hebrews, he found that they had abandoned their trust in God and instead worshipped a golden calf that they had fashioned with the aid of Aaron.

    In his rage, Moses destroyed the Tablets of the Law he had received from God and set the idol’s statue on fire after doing that. The prophet, however, begged Yahweh not to turn away from his people and to forgive them, and Yahweh listened to his petition and asked the prophet to renew the covenant atop Mount Sinai. Forty days later, Moses descended from Mount Sinai with two rewritten Tablets of Stone.

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    The Hebrew people pledged allegiance to the Law of Moses, which promoted strict monotheism and reverence and awe for a God who is both unseen and almighty. Once in Canaan, Moses led the Israelites to Canaan.

    At the age of 120, Moses passed away on the verge of the Promised Land. His legacy transcends Jewish history and has played a crucial role in the development of the early Judeo-Christian Church.