During one of the most famous conflicts in ancient history, which took place in 480 BC, the unified Greek cities fought against the Persian Empire. There were around 70,000 men in the Persian army, making them much more numerous. Their goal was to conquer Greece, but King Leonidas of Sparta and his 300 brave warriors stood in their way at the Thermopylae passage (a tiny area just north of Delphi) and gave the Greek allies time to prepare for battle. The result of the Thermopylae battle will have significant repercussions for the conclusion of the Greco-Persian Wars (499–449 BC).
Causes of the Battle of Thermopylae
In 499–494 B.C.E., the Greek cities of Eretria and Athens stoked an uprising in Ionia against the Persian Empire, triggering the anger of Emperor Darius. The Greeks fought against the Achaemenid Empire of Persia in the Greco-Persian Wars that followed. For its part, Persia conducted the First Greco-Persian War as a means of punishing the Greek cities for their uprising.
As a result, Athens emerged victorious. Darius, however, succeeded in expanding his kingdom by conquering a portion of ancient Greece. Beginning in 492 BC, with Mardonius at the helm, an expedition conquered numerous regions near Greece. To prove his dominance, Darius had the most cities in Greece pay for water and land (submission).
Darius increased the frequency of his excursions and invasions, particularly in the Cyclades, during the course of his reign. The Greek cities, in the meantime, are gearing up for war and have decided to construct a fleet. For this, they used the tactics of the Athenian general Themistocles. To reach Thermopylae, it was necessary to travel through Greek Thrace and Greek Macedonia, two southern regions of the country.
Darius intended to construct an even greater force, but he passed away in 486 BC, leaving his vast goals to his son, Xerxes I. Xerxes I is the one in charge of this Second Greco-Persian War. In this second installment, set to unfold in the summer of 480 BC, the strategic Battle of Thermopylae—a location notable for its narrowness due to its proximity to both the sea and the mountains—was to be fought. Historians disagree on the exact date of this battle, but it’s possible that the combat occurred on the 20th of August or at the beginning of September.
Who Fought at Thermopylae?
Themistocles led the Greek city-states at Thermopylae in battle against Xerxes I’s Achaemenid Empire. While an exact count of the Persian Army’s soldiers had never been made, experts now believe that it included anywhere between 70,000 and 300,000. A far larger number than the estimated 7,000 Greek warriors, 700 of whom were Lacedaemonian and 300 of whom were Spartan.
After the opening of the Battle of Thermopylae, a major portion of the Greek army chose to withdraw, severely reducing the size of the original force. Only around three thousand Greeks, headed by King Leonidas I and willing to risk death, engaged in battle (300 Spartans, 700 Thespians, 400 Thebans, and less than one thousand Helots and one thousand Phocidians). Actually, a lot of Greek cities took a neutral stance in this conflict.
Who Killed Leonidas I of Sparta at Thermopylae?
The Spartans were a noble and fierce people who lived in the city of Sparta. They have earned a reputation for being courageous, thrifty, morally rigorous, and stern. King Leonidas I of Sparta led the Greeks at the Battle of Thermopylae, where they distinguished themselves against the Persians with great bravery. Positioning himself in the narrowest section of the Thermopylae canyon, he managed to fend off numerous successful Persian assaults despite a large numerical disadvantage.
We don’t know for sure what happened to Leonidas I, but we do know that the Persian army encircled him when Ephialtes betrayed them. After the war, the body of the Spartan king was recovered and brought back to Sparta, where a grand tomb was built in his honor. In addition, the nation-wide Leonidas festival was established to celebrate the life and legacy of the national hero. His son, Pleistarchos, eventually took over as Spartan king.
Who Won the Battle of Thermopylae?
The Greeks, numbering about 3,000, used an efficient tactic to buy time and enable the Greek Union to prepare a defense. At the narrowest portion of the Thermopylae gorge, they battled in close columns, shields protecting them from the oncoming enemy. Ephialtes, who had fought with the Greeks for days, ultimately turned traitor. Leonidas and his army are hemmed in by enemy forces.
It was a brave move on the part of the Spartan king to order the majority of the Greek forces to retreat to safety, but he strictly forbade the Spartans from doing the same. His only allies now were the volunteers and Spartans who had stayed to fight against the Persian invasion. The Persians’ javelins and arrows ultimately killed the last survivors.
Even though the Greek Union was defeated and the Persians won the war, the heroic actions of the Spartans at Thermopylae are still remembered to this day. With only a few hundred men against the Persian army of tens of thousands, the Spartans were able to hold them off for several days, giving the Greek troops time to prepare a counterattack. Therefore, the Greek union’s loss was seen as partial, since it allowed one side to weaken the Persian army and the other to gain time with the remaining Greek warriors. The fate of the Greco-Persian Wars and the ultimate triumph of the Greek Union can be traced back to this decisive fight.
After the Battle of Thermopylae
Xerxes I and his army marched on deeper after the Battle of Thermopylae, where he was only partially successful. The Persians attacked and looted Athens on September 28th, 480 BC. The Persian triumph became clearer as time went on, right up to the climactic, enclosed Battle of Salamis. The Persian fleet was decimated and defeated badly this time. Greece played a key role in the triumph by providing the conditions for the soldiers to strategize and come together. The end of the Greco-Persian Wars and the beginning of Greek independence were both ushered in by this triumph. The Greeks and Persians continued to trade blows and form alliances for another 150 years.
However, the Athenians were able to reconstruct their city using loot they had acquired from the Persians. In 478 BC, they established the Delian League and began spreading propaganda of triumph. By banding together, cities that wanted to combat the Persian threat were able to increase the scale of their offensives and invasions. At the same time, Athens’ rise to prominence was facilitated by the Delian League, much to Sparta’s detriment. These tensions eventually erupted into open warfare known as the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC). Sparta opposed the Delian League, led by Athens, to the Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta, which ended in victory for the Peloponnesian League.
Battle of Thermopylae at a Glance
What was the strategic importance of Thermopylae?
Thermopylae was strategically important because it provided a narrow passage through which invading armies had to pass on their way into Greece. The Greeks chose to defend this pass to slow down the Persian advance and protect the rest of Greece.
What impact did the Battle of Thermopylae have on subsequent events?
The Battle of Thermopylae had a significant impact on subsequent events in the Persian Wars. Although the Greeks were defeated, their heroic stand delayed the Persian advance, allowing for the Greek navy to win the Battle of Salamis. This, in turn, led to Greek victories and the eventual repulsion of the Persian invasion.
Has the Battle of Thermopylae been depicted in popular culture?
Yes, the Battle of Thermopylae has been depicted in various forms of popular culture, including books, films, and video games. The graphic novel “300” by Frank Miller and the subsequent film adaptation by Zack Snyder brought the battle to a wide audience.
Are there any monuments or memorials at Thermopylae?
Yes, there are monuments and memorials at Thermopylae, including a modern statue of King Leonidas. The site is a popular tourist destination and a place of remembrance for the heroic sacrifice of the Greek defenders.
The Achaemenid dynasty’s Persian Empire, also known as the Achaemenid Empire, was one of the largest ancient states. The dynasties succeeded one another, and the conquests connected a landmass far greater than that held by modern-day Iran (or Persia) until the empire faded away gradually under the Sasanians. Decades of history, including encounters with luminaries like Cyrus II and Alexander the Great, encompass the Persian Empire. Persia defined both antiquity and modern history. Delve deep into this empire, from the Achaemenids to the Sasanians, from Muslim rule to the founding of Iran.
Who was the founder of the Persian Empire?
The Persian Empire and the Achaemenid dynasty may trace their origins back to Cyrus II, often known as Cyrus the Great. In the beginning, Cyrus II defeated the Medes, and then he went on to capture the Kingdom of Lydia. The Persian Empire continued to expand with further victories on the Iranian Plateau and in Central Asia. Cyrus II, a person in myths and stories from antiquity and the modern day, died in combat around 530 BC.
Who were the kings of the Achaemenid Persian Empire?
After Cyrus II’s death, numerous kings took his place as leaders of the Achaemenid Empire. Cambyses II, Cyrus II’s first heir apparent, made a name for himself by conquering Egypt. Darius I, who dethroned Bardiya, used his newfound power to launch an invasion of Macedonia and the Cyclades. It was his son Xerxes I who lost the Second Persian War against the Greeks. The subsequent Achaemenid monarchs, like Sogdianos, Darius II, and Arses, had varying degrees of success.
How was the Achaemenid Persian Empire organized?
The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent, c. 500 BC.
By 550 BC, under King Cyrus II, the Achaemenid Persian Empire had emerged after his conquest of the Medes, and by 330 BC, the Empire had been wiped out by Alexander the Great’s conquests. During this time, the Achaemenid Persian Empire was run on a system of satrapies, with the general populace submitting to the authority of the Persian monarch. Justice and the pursuit of virtue were central tenets of Mazdaism, the religion of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Lydia, now a part of western Turkey, was where the first coins in history were originally created, and from there they spread over the Persian Empire.
What was the capital of the Persian Empire?
A general view of the ruins at Persepolis.
Ancient Pasargadae, in what is now Iran’s Fars Province, served as the initial capital of the Persian Empire. Various towns in Persia had succeeded as the country’s capital throughout the years. The Achaemenid Persian Empire’s most famous capital was Persepolis, whose name in Greek meant “the city of the Persians” and was built by Darius I. Even lesser-known cities like Ecbatana, Susa, and Babylon had their share of fame throughout history.
How did the Persian Empire become Seleucid?
Alexander the Great.
After defeating Darius III at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC, Alexander the Great was widely recognized as the last ruler of the Achaemenid Empire. In the next 20 years, Seleucus I established the Seleucid Dynasty. By the 1st century BC, the Seleucid dynasty—including Seleucus I, Antiochus I, Demetrios I, etc.—had ruled over Babylonia and Mesopotamia for many centuries. These people gained notoriety for their roles in the Syrian Wars (168 BC–274 BC) and the establishment of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom.
How did the Parthians conquer the Persian Empire?
The Parthians, once a nomadic tribe, established a kingdom in approximately 250 BC under the leadership of Arsace I. The Parthians, led by Mithridates I, took advantage of the Seleucids’ defeat to the Romans to declare their independence and establish themselves as the lords of Bactria and Mesopotamia. What they founded was an empire whose civilization was a synthesis of the Persian, Greek, and Armenian traditions. Ardashir I deposed the last Parthian monarch in 224 BC and established the Sasanian dynasty.
How did the Sasanians take power in Persia?
After defeating Artabanus IV, the last Parthian ruler, in 226 BC, Ardashir I established the Sasanian Empire and became its king. The Sasanians restored the Persian Empire to its former glory over the course of roughly four centuries. Religious leaders, soldiers, and farmers were the three main castes of Sasanian society, which was structured on a monarchical system. It marked the pinnacle of agricultural advancement and of Zoroastrianism as the official religion.
How did the Persian Empire collapse?
Muslims (or Arab-Islamic peoples) first started conquering Persia in about the year 637 AD. The final Sasanian monarch, Yazdegerd III, fought the Muslim caliphate and its development of the Islamic Empire for a long time. Once again, Yazdegerd III was beaten, this time at the Battle of Nahavand after losing at the Battle of al-Qadisiyya. As a result of these two setbacks, the Persian Empire began to crumble.
Once the Muslims took over, what happened to the Persian Empire?
Once Yazdegerd III passed away in 651 AD, all of Persia was free from Islamic rule. The Muslim caliphate cast doubt on Zoroastrianism and extended an invitation to convert to Islam to a broad segment of the Persian populace. In the realm of the erstwhile Persian Empire, Iranians and Arabs lived together for a long time without mixing. For instance, during that time, Persian rather than Arabic was recognized as the official language of Persia.
Where is Persia today?
Picture of Reza Shah, emperor of Iran in the early ’30s in uniform.
Modern-day Iran is a modern-day reference to ancient Persia. General Reza Shah Pahlavi led an uprising against Russian and British rule in the early 1920s. He declared independence for his country. He was so committed to modernizing his nation that he declared to the world that the land formerly known as Persia would henceforth be known as Iran. In Iran, countless items (vases, figurines, etc.), architectural remnants, and archaeological sites such as Haft Tappeh bore testament to the stamp of ancient Persia.
Key dates in the history of Persia
539 BC – The Persians conquer Mesopotamia
The Jewish people were permitted to return to their ancient homelands when the Persians conquered Mesopotamia. Not everyone followed this path; some stayed in Babylon or the countries that received them during the diaspora. After many years in exile, many exiles returned to Jerusalem to worship in the newly built Temple of Jerusalem. Although a new memorial was built, it paled in comparison to the Old Temple, and the monarchy never returned to the country again.
525 BC – The Persians conquer Egypt
Ancient Egypt had been weakened by invasions and battles of succession prior to its fall into Persian control. Then, King Cambyses II ruled over the whole region. Even though the last native pharaohs had forced the Persians out, they were able to take back Egypt a few years later.
498 BC – Capture of Sardis
The Greeks invaded the city of Sardis in Asia Minor as part of their war against the Persians. They burned down the lower town but were unable to take the citadel. Angry with the Greeks for their invasion of Sardis, Darius took his revenge at the Battle of Ephesus. After that, the Persian monarch Darius instituted a strict regime of punishment and control over the Greek population.
494 BC – Sack of Miletus
Aristagoras’ uprising in Ionia culminated in the destruction of Miletus at the hands of the Persian Army. The commencement of the Middle Ages can be traced back to this event, which is often referred to as “The Sack of Miletus.” The Achaemenid rulers would use this opportunity to retaliate against Athens for interfering with the revolts of the Greek towns in Asia.
490 BC – Darius destroys Byzantium
Darius I of Persia launched an invasion of the Greek city of Byzantium. Darius’s major goals during the First Persian War were to seize possession of a city that had a geographically advantageous location between Asia and Europe and send a strong message to Athens, which backed the Ionian Revolt.
September 13, 490 BC – Battle of Marathon
Miltiades led 10,000 Athenian hoplites into battle against invading Persian forces on the plain of Marathon. The Persians were outnumbered, yet they still lost badly. The First Persian War ended here, and Athens reached its zenith. This fight inspired the tale of Philippides, whose name is associated with the creation of the marathon race.
486 BC – Death of Darius I
After his father Darius I passed away, his son Xerxes I inherited leadership of the Persian Empire with the intention of exacting revenge for his father’s defeat at the hands of the Greeks. Xerxes I began the Second Persian War, which included an assault on Athens. The Achaemenid dynasty oversaw the rise of the Persian Empire, which lasted until Alexander the Great’s invasions in 330 BC.
483 BC- Discovery of the mines of Laurion
The Athenians discovered silver mines on their own land in Laurion. They used the wealth from these mines to improve life in Athens and to construct 200 warships (triremes) to bolster the Greek fleet. Themistocles made this strategic choice that would pay off at Salamis, the climax of the Second Persian War.
July, 480 BC – Junction of the Persian troops
The Persians had regrouped at Thessalonica, giving them access to 600 ships and 150,000 men. Greek forces, however, decided to pull back from the country’s northern coast and reorganize on the other side of the Pass of Thermopylae. The Greeks wanted to use the narrow nature of the area to their advantage.
September 17, 480 BC – Beginning of the Battle of Artemisium
In anticipation of the Persian fleet, 300 Greek triremes sailed to the cape of Artemisium to begin the Battle of Artemisium. The Greek fleet was forced to retreat in front of the opposing fleet, but in doing so they were able to slow the march of the Persian army. A storm hit a few days after this engagement, destroying most of the Persian fleet that had decided to go inland.
September 19, 480 BC – Heroic defeat of Leonidas at Thermopylae
The Battle of Thermopylae, 480 BC.
The Greek army had been forced to retreat toward the Isthmus of Corinth after a (possible) treachery. King Leonidas I of Sparta, aided by 700 volunteers, resisted the 10,000 Persians that had surrounded him. Leonidas I and his men fought to the death, and their sacrifice permitted the bulk of the Greek forces to retreat. The Parthenon was among the many buildings the Persians burned during their invasion of Athens.
29 September, 480 BC – Victory of the Greeks in Salamis
The Greeks, realizing their numerical disadvantage against the Persian fleet, feigned to retreat. In actuality, their goal was to guide the Persians across the very constricted Strait of Salamis. Parts of Persian ships were destroyed in this conflict because they were lured into the trap prepared by the Athenian strategist Themistocles.
August 27, 479 BC – Death of Mardonius in Plataea
Mardonius, an esteemed Persian leader, was killed while leading his army against a force of Lacedaemonians. Greek forces under Pausanias’ command took advantage of this to beat the Persians at Plataea, thereby ending the status quo between the two camps after the Greek victory at Salamis. This incident inaugurated the Persian Army’s retreat from the Ionian metropolises.
478 BC – The Spartan Pausanias takes Byzantium
After his impressive performance at Plataea, Pausanias was given leadership of the Greek forces so that they might continue their war against the Persians. Pausanias, a regent of Sparta, marched on Cyprus and captured Byzantium. The city, devastated by Darius a few years before, was being rebuilt.
478 BC – Formation of the Delian League
Several Greek communities decided to form a league in response to the rising imperialism of the time and their fleet’s victory at Salamis. Themistocles and Aristeides took the first move toward establishing the Delian League by initiating this treaty. This new organization, which gave Athens control over the army, solely applied to the fleet and had nothing to do with the regular soldiers.
472 BC – Aeschylus presents The Persians
Aeschylus suggested that The Persians be staged at Athens. References to the Second Persian War could be found in this Greek play, the earliest one for which we have a text. Aeschylus, who was there throughout the conflict, used his first-hand knowledge to write a tragedy that forever changed the genre. In fact, it was the first occasion in history that so many performers were onstage at the same time.
336 BC – Alexander the Great becomes king of Macedonia
The 20-year-old Alexander the Great succeeded his father as King of Macedonia. Without hesitation, he eliminated his enemies, put down the insurrection at Thebes, and kept up the war against the Persian Empire that his father began.
334 BC – Beginning of the war against the Persians
Alexander the Great fought the Persians beginning in 334 BC. With a force of 30,000 soldiers and 5,000 horsemen at his disposal, he rode forth in the direction of Asia and won the Battle of the Granicus, therefore enabling him to destroy Darius’s army. Alexander the Great’s conquests, which lasted a decade and required him to walk more than 6,200 miles (10,000 kilometers) on foot, were bolstered by this victory against the monarch of Persia.
332 BC – Alexander the Great conquers Judea
In the end, Alexander the Great was successful in his conquest of Judea. In this area, which the Persians had evacuated, the Jews were allowed a certain degree of independence. Many of them decided to make Alexandria their permanent home at that time. The influence of Hellenistic culture on Jews inside the kingdom led to tensions between Jews who embraced this culture, also known as Hellenistic Jews, and those who did not.
332 BC – Alexander arrived in Egypt where he was acclaimed as a liberator
The Battle of Issus, Francesco Coghetti, 19th century.
The Persian Army suffered yet another loss at the hands of Alexander the Great and his army at Issus (Cilicia). Darius was forced to evacuate Egypt since he was helpless against Alexander the Great’s invasion. The first Greek colony of Alexandria was founded by the King of Macedonia on the land where he was hailed as a liberator and acknowledged as a descendant of Amon.
October, 331 BC – Victory of Alexander the Great at Gaugamela
Alexander the Great was successful in defeating the King of Persia in Mesopotamia for the third time since the beginning of the war. Darius III was on the run in the mountains while Alexander the Great expanded his control over the Middle East and Egypt. As a result, Alexander the Great took control of the Achaemenid Empire’s wealth and was crowned the King of Asia.
330 BC – In pursuit of Darius
Alexander discovers the body of Darius.
Alexander the Great knew that he had to locate Darius if he was to succeed Darius as King of Persia. The new King of Asia set out on an expedition to find Darius. Darius, along with a small group of loyalists, had fled into the mountains just as Alexander the Great was about to arrive.
Before Alexander the Great arrived, Darius was murdered. Alexander decided to restore Darius’ royal status and vowed to seek revenge for his murder. To this end, he tracked down and killed the satrap Bessus in Bactria, who was suspected of being behind Darius’s murder.
329 BC – Three years to pacify Persia
Over the course of three years, Alexander the Great battled hard to conquer the regions of Hyrcania, Aria, Arachosia, Bactria, and Sogdiana. The new ruler of Persia established several Alexandrias over the course of his conquest. A yearning to return home was the last straw in Alexander the Great’s long and exhausting campaign to bring peace to Persia.
326 BC – A trying return home
Alexander the Great’s army was divided into three factions en route to the Indus Valley. Alexander the Great went toward the desert of Gedrosia, while Nearchus traversed the Persian Gulf and Craterus crossed the Balon Pass with his elephants. Alexander the Great and his army arrived in Susa in 324 BC and they immediately began planning the next invasions. Alexander the Great, on the eve of new conquests, embraced the quest of bringing together Macedonians, Greeks, and Asians into one nation.
326 BC – Alexander invades Punjab
Alexander the Great had crossed all of Persia and was now in the East. Alexander invaded Punjab despite opposition from King Porus and the deployment of elephants as a weapon of resistance. As a result of the battles, Alexander the Great had to abandon his quest for India because his warriors were too tired to continue. The Seleucid dynasty began with Alexander the Great’s landing in Punjab.
May 5, 614 – The Persians seize the True Cross
Jerusalem, a holy city for Christians, fell to the Persians under King Khosrow II (Chosroes II), who went on to steal the “True Cross” relic in 614. The churches were burned down, and 35,000 people were sold into slavery. Heraclius I, the Byzantine emperor who in 627 had beaten the Persians at Nineveh, later returned the True Cross to Jerusalem in 630. In 638, the city was conquered by Muslims.
December 12, 627 – Victory of Heraclius over the Persians
Heraclius I, Emperor of Byzantium, defeated Khosrow II, King of Persia, in a battle for control of Nineveh in 627 in the Middle East. In a triumphal march into the Sasanian Persian capital of Ctesiphon, Alexander compelled the Sasanians to hand over Egypt to the Byzantine Empire. After it had been looted by the Persians in 614, Heraclius I returned to Jerusalem with the True Cross in 630.
632 – Abu Bakr succeeds Muhammad
It was Abu Bakr, the Prophet’s father-in-law, who was named Caliph. He was able to calm tensions between Medina and Mecca that had arisen about who would follow Mohammed. Then, all of Arabia was forcibly converted to Islam. Omar, a devoted companion of the Prophet, was named his successor and went on to conquer Syria, Egypt, and Persia. After Omar’s death in 644, his successor, Uthman, carried on with the conquests.
1055 – Tughril Beg is recognized as Sultan in Baghdad
A Sunni Turkish Seljuk dynasty member, Tughril conquered Baghdad and was acknowledged as ruler by the Abbasid Caliph. This dynasty had previously ruled over Persia. By 1038, he had already overthrown the Buyid dynasty and taken control of Nishapur. The Fatimids were the first to build a Sunni Muslim empire in the region, and the Seljuks would follow in their footsteps by creating a massive state across Asia Minor and Syria. Conflicts over inheritance, the presence of the Franks, and local uprisings all contributed to the fragmentation of the region beginning in 1092.
1501 – The Safavids reign over Persia
The Safavid dynasty, founded by Ismail I, established a Shiite kingdom after the expulsion of the Timurids. The kingdom depended on “Twelver,” a philosophy that would become central to Iranian Shiism. Isfahan replaced Shiraz as the dynastic capital several years later. The Safavids, however, were wiped off by Afghan invasions in the 18th century and never recovered.
Alexander the Great (356-323 BC), one of history’s most successful conquerors, ruled over ancient Macedonia for 13 years. Alexander was a Greek king, explorer, and general. From the time of his first victory at the age of 18, he always moved his soldiers quickly into battle before the enemy lines were ready. He never lost a battle throughout his career. During his 13 years as King of Macedonia, Alexander the Great established an empire that stretched from Greece to what is now northwest India.
Alexander, King of Macedon
Detail of Charles Le Brun’s painting “Alexander and Porus” depicting Alexander the Great; it is located at the Louvre in Paris, France.
Alexander became King in 336 BC following the assassination of his father, Philip II, and was educated by the scholar Aristotle. In 336 BC, after crushing multiple uprisings, Alexander launched a massive invasion into Persian territory. Alexander started with repeated wins, eventually taking over almost the whole Persian Empire. Following his victories at Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis, Alexander set his sights on India next. He went as far as the foothills of the Himalayas, after which he returned to Babylon to rule over his conquests. The cultural legacy that his dominion spread to the East, however, did outlive him.
In general, knowledge of ancient Macedonia’s past is poor. During the Neolithic Era, several migratory peoples made their way there (c. 6200 BC). After 3000 BC, the mountainous areas between Mount Olympus and Mount Pindus were settled by people who spoke Greek. It was amid the fertile alluvial plains of Haliacmon and Axios that Perdiccas I of Macedon founded his empire in the 7th century BC. Philip II led his nation to new heights of success and growth in the 4th century BC. In 338 BC, he achieved victory against the Greeks and united Greece and Macedonia into a single kingdom.
Alexander, the son of Philip II and Olympias, the Princess of Epirus, became King of Macedonia at the age of 18 (336 BC) after his father’s assassination. He was a student of Aristotle, who provided him with a rigorous education that helped cultivate his intrepidity, bravery, and innate disposition for battle. His whole upbringing had been shaken by tales of Hercules and Achilles, mythical forebears of the Macedonian throne. He had already made his mark in his father’s army as a young man, showing great skill in battle. Because of his magnetic charisma, Alexander was unrivaled in his ability to inspire his troops to victory in the face of adversity. Not only did the young prince learn to ride very well (his horse’s name was Bucephalus), but he also helped his father in the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC, where he gained invaluable experience in the art of combat.
Alexander the Great and his horse Bucephalus by Domenico Maria Canuti (1645-1684).
Philip II of Macedon, who had recently conquered the Greek towns, was just getting ready to attack the Persian Empire when he passed away. Although Alexander was determined to carry out his father’s plan, he postponed it while he put down a rebellion in his nation. It had been 150 years since the Persians had made another effort to conquer Greek land. Since then, the Persian Empire’s decline continued unabated. However, King Darius III was able to raise significant troops in all four corners of his immense realm, from the Mediterranean to the Indus. His riches greatly surpassed that of Alexander.
This massive size, though, may end up being a hindrance. It took weeks for the messages to travel throughout the Persian Empire and months for the warriors to assemble into their regiments. Although they outnumbered their enemies, the Persian army was so disorganized and disparate that it was difficult to keep them under control. Conversely, the legendary Macedonian phalanx, although well-equipped and over-trained, demonstrated mobility and brittleness when faced with military tactics. Unlike his contemporary Darius, who was weak and unimaginative, Alexander was a strong and inspiring leader.
At the meeting of the Greek states held in Corinth (the League of Corinth) at the end of the summer of 336 BC, Alexander established his position in Greece and obtained the leadership of the Greek armies. So the new king of Macedon handed over the regency to his mom, Olympias. In 335 BC, Alexander launched a great military effort on the outskirts of the Danube to suppress a revolt by the Thracians. Upon its return to Macedonia, he swiftly crushed the rebellious Illyrians and Dardanians at the Lake of Prespa and then made a beeline for the insurgent city of Thebes. He subjugated approximately 30,000 people to slavery and demolished the city, saving only the shrines to the gods and the house of the poet Pindar. Now that he was unburdened, Alexander was able to focus his attention eastward.
The Conquest of Persia
Alexander cuts the Gordian Knot, painting date 1767.
After Alexander handed over power in Macedonia to one of his generals, Antipater, in the spring of 334 BC, he embarked on a military campaign against the Persian Empire, marking the beginning of a new “Iliad,” that of an aficionado of Homer. He led 35,000 warriors over the Hellespont (the present-day Dardanelles), accompanied by his top generals, Antigonus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus. According to legend, he fought 40,000 Persians on the banks of the Granicus near ancient Troy, losing just 110 men in the process. The myth claims that at that point Alexander failed to untie the mythical Gordian Knot during his walk in Phrygia. He then sliced it with his sword. He afterwards ruled over Asian nations all the way in Afghanistan to the east.
After his first major victory at the Battle of the Granicus in 334 BC, Alexander, at the age of 22, conquered Asia Minor and freed the Greek towns on the coast from Persian rule. But his fleet didn’t let him gamble on a naval battle since the Persians could turn the tables in a maritime battle at any moment. Refusing to make a further incursion inside, Alexander instead crossed Syria and traveled down the Mediterranean Coast to Phoenicia, where the Persian fleet was based. Along the way, he defeated Darius’s Persian army in the Battle of Issus (333 BC).
After then, the Persians offered Alexander little opposition. In return for their submission, these towns and regions saw this skilled leader as kind, since he promised not to increase taxes and kept his warriors from putting them into slavery. The strategy worked, as several towns capitulated rather than suffer devastation and looting. However, some cities, like Tyre, the largest Phoenician harbor, stubbornly held out. The Greek and Macedonian forces besieged the city for eight months before finally taking it. The city’s remaining inhabitants were then forced into slavery.
With the security of this key port in his grasp, Alexander turned his attention to Egypt, which for two centuries had been under the rule of the Persians. Memphis, the ancient capital, greeted him as a liberator and anointed him king. After establishing the city of Alexandria in the Nile Delta, Alexander the Great traveled to the oasis of Siwa in the desert, where he planned to see the oracle of Amon and learn that he was indeed the son of the Greek god Zeus, not Philip. Alexander’s fame became so large that even he started to see himself as a god.
Alexander the Great in the East
Francesco Fontebasso (1709-69), defeated Porus at the Battle of Hydaspes in 326. (Credit: Wikimedia Commons)
Alexander the Great left Egypt in October 331 BC to launch an assault on the core of the Persian Empire. Darius III suffered a second defeat at the Battle of Gaugamela, although his army outnumbered Alexander’s Macedonian army by a factor of six to one. Alexander took control of the Persian capitals of Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis, the last of which he burned as a symbol. Darius departed, having lost all hope. He died soon after being killed by relatives.
The Greek-Macedonian army continued their voyage in Central Asia for three years, finishing the conquest of the Persian Empire, which vanished forever in 327 BC. Then, Alexander headed in the direction of northern India. When Alexander reached the Himalayan foothills, he fought and won a decisive battle on the Hydaspes River (north of current Pakistan) in the Battle of the Hydaspes against the King Porus.
His weary army, on the brink of a coup, asked him to turn around. Although he would have happily pushed on to the east forever, Alexander conceded and turned back. With his army in tow, he followed the Indus to the Gulf of Oman and then began the arduous trek over the Gedrosian Desert (in Iran). In 324 BC, he was back in Babylon, his new capital.
“Alexander Entering Babylon” by Gérard Audran (1640-1703).
In June 323 BC, at the young age of 32, Alexander the Great died abruptly in Babylon, most likely as a result of his alcoholism. He had been preparing for further conquests in the Persian Gulf and the East. He had become a dictator after concluding that he was a god. Due to his failure to establish a strong central administration, his kingdom soon disintegrated into chaos.
The descendants of Alexander were quickly eliminated while still infants. Alexander’s generals, to whom he had committed the administration of the conquered provinces, fought amongst themselves in a series of conflicts, eventually dividing the territory between them to form separate sovereign kingdoms. Only Ptolemy in Egypt (the Ptolemaic Kingdom, founded 305 BC) and Seleucus in Persia (the Seleucid Empire, founded 312 BC) established long-lasting dynasties.
Alexander the Great’s lasting impact
Alexander the Great had conquered much of Asia, including the Indus Valley, and brought with him the culture of the Greeks. Greeks flocked by the tens of thousands to the new towns built in the conquered lands, many of which were named after Alexander. Alexander’s conquests encouraged economic transactions and the movement of individuals and ideas, both of which contributed to the spread of Greek culture and language among the people he conquered.
This time of dominance in the Mediterranean and Near East is known as the Hellenistic period. Stunning metropolises like Alexandria, Pergamon, and Seleucia supplanted Athens as the cultural capitals of the Hellenic world. Arts and sciences thrived, and scientists, mathematicians, and astronomers like Archimedes, Euclid, and Eratosthenes helped to define the era. However, only the upper classes were exposed to Greek culture, with the masses sticking to their traditions.
Due to Rome’s rise to dominance, the Hellenic World inevitably declined. Midway through the 2nd century BC, the kingdoms of Greece and Macedonia submitted. For them, the fall of the Seleucid and Ptolemaic dynasties in 64 and 30 BC was decisive. The Greek civilization, particularly in architecture, science, literature, and mythology, was much respected by the Romans, who seamlessly assimilated the legacy of Alexander. The Bible and the Quran both refer to his deeds.
Alexander served as an example for countless conquerors throughout history. Even today, aspiring military strategists research the illustrious wars of Alexander the Great, who, with a small army of a few thousand men, successfully extended the recognized frontiers of his era.
Frequently asked questions regarding Alexander the Great
Which philosopher has often been credited for training Alexander the Great?
The Greek philosopher Aristotle got young Alexander interested in science, medicine, and philosophy. He also taught him a lot about rhetoric and literature.
Which empire did Alexander the Great conquer?
Persepolis served as the primary capital of the Persian Empire, which was established by Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BC. After Alexander the Great beat Darius III in the Battle of Issus in 330 BC, he took over the Persian Empire.
How did Alexander the Great die?
In the spring of 323 BC, Alexander the Great returned to Babylon after a campaign that had taken him to the Indus River’s borders. The sickness he had in June ultimately proved fatal. His mysterious absence left his huge empire in shambles, with his top generals fought amongst themselves for control.
Bibliography:
Bill Yenne, (2010), Alexander the Great: Lessons from History’s Undefeated General.
David George Hogarth, (1897), Philip and Alexander of Macedon: Two Essays in Biography.
Peter Green, (2007), Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age.
