Tag: plant

Flowers and Plant Symbolism in the Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages, the imaginary is an integral part of reality. The world of that time cannot be conceived otherwise. Within this panorama, both real and wonderful, plants play a major role in various domains. Whether from a political, heraldic, literary, or material perspective, the plant world is everywhere. Often, as is common almost everywhere in the Middle Ages, the Scriptures justify certain choices and give meaning to the staging of particular flowers, plants, or vegetative structures.

First, we will focus on the literary domain with the case of the honeysuckle in the poetry of Marie de France. Subsequently, with the example of medieval gardens, we will explore how correspondences are woven between the material world and the imagination of the people of that time. Then, we will examine the fleur-de-lis, viewed more from a “political” angle, to clarify the myths surrounding it. We will conclude with a brief symbolic history of the apple.

Natural Symbolism in Marie de France: Honeysuckle and Hazel

Among the works attributed to Marie de France, a 12th-century poet, there is a collection of twelve brief stories written in octosyllabic verse, the Lais. These stories, which are relatively short in length, are imbued with assured love and eroticism. In the 12th century—the period of composition of these “poems”—fin’amor was flourishing. However, this carnal passion was not accessible to everyone. It was the privilege of noble people, of the Lady and her lover. The erotic symbolism of the lais is embodied in various elements, some of which are quite material. Nature can also play the role of awakening and revealing the senses. Fauna is particularly favored, especially birds, which are much appreciated by the poetess. Additionally, flora is well-represented, which is what interests us here.

To describe the union of lovers, Marie de France uses the famous and evocative image of the honeysuckle entwining the branch of the hazel tree. This theme already appears in various mythologies, such as in Celtic tradition. This vegetal metaphor is actually used to courteously illustrate the union of Tristan and Iseult. However, the embrace of the two lovers should not be perceived as purely carnal. As mentioned, Marie de France’s poetry is part of the fin’amor tradition, where courtly values are paramount. The honeysuckle conveys an image of purity and freshness, perfectly aligning with the sentiment the poetess wishes to evoke in the reader.

While the honeysuckle itself carries a strong symbolic charge, the hazel tree—and more broadly, the surrounding trees—give the story an ambiance conducive to the flourishing of romantic feelings. Both attractive and unsettling, the forest is a space where sensuality can bloom. Hidden behind the branches, the two lovers experience a privileged moment. It is also thanks to the wood that Tristan is recognized by his beloved. On a hazel branch, he carves his name, allowing Iseult to follow his trace.

The image of the honeysuckle entwining the hazel branch is also an evocation of absolute and infinite love. Indeed, as Marie de France clearly states, once separated, the two plants die shortly afterward. The honeysuckle and hazel form an inseparable couple, just like Tristan and Iseult. Should separation occur, the outcome will be tragic. This is encapsulated in Marie de France’s beautiful concluding phrase in the lai: “Neither you without me, nor I without you.”

The use of plant imagery here invokes both purity and freshness, where the erotic tension is thereby intensified. It is this interplay of dualities that gives the poetess’s lai its full flavor.

Reality and Imagination in Medieval Gardens

From the 11th to the 13th century, the population of the West grew significantly, leading to an increasing demand for gardens. Consequently, the medieval lexicon is rich in terms used to describe these types of spaces, sometimes described from a utilitarian perspective, other times staged in literature infused with Christian or secular culture. Generally, the courtil refers to the small plot of land adjacent to the house where some vegetables are grown for local consumption.

From the 13th century, the term casal appears in the southwest to describe a similar type of space. Alongside these utilitarian gardens, the pourpris is more present in literature. It typically refers to a plot enclosed by a wooden fence or thorny bushes (hawthorn, rosebush…). Similarly, the jarz or vergier are places of tranquility where lovers meet among flowering trees, preferably in May.

Contrary to what one might think, gardens are not only found in rural areas. Indeed, until at least the 12th century, the urban fabric remained sparse enough to accommodate numerous gardens, vineyards, meadows, or barns. Even in the second half of the 13th century, large urban centers still had many such spaces. Toponymy has preserved traces of this, as evidenced by the street names in Paris: Rue des Rosiers, Rue des Jardins, Rue du Figuier…

In 14th-century Reims, there were still about 46 urban gardens. As housing density increased and construction took over undeveloped land, gardens were pushed to the periphery while still remaining within the city walls. Cities were also surrounded by a “gardening halo.” These gardens supplied the city with vegetables, fruits, wine, and other roots or medicinal plants. In any case, in the city, owning a garden could be considered a sign of wealth. Aristocratic, knightly, and soon-to-be merchant families used this element to assert their social preeminence. Louis IX himself owned a vergier on the tip of the Île de la Cité.

The design of a garden was thought out based on the role it would serve. In general, care was taken to enclose it to prevent animal—and sometimes human—intrusions. Fruit and vegetable thefts were common and sometimes led villages into long-lasting disputes. To prevent this, one could use branches, hedges, stone, or bricks when the means allowed.

Beyond the purely utilitarian function, the enclosure also became a marker of a spiritual space that invited meditation. The enclosed garden then directly referenced those in the Scriptures. A prefiguration of Paradise on earth, it became the place where the divide between savagery and civilization took shape. Similarly, many jarz and vergiers featured fountains. Beyond the obvious utilitarian aspect, the clear and pure water flowing through them resembled the four rivers irrigating Paradise.

The flora of ornamental gardens was varied. Flowers were highly prized and sought after. Here, too, the symbolism of plants played a major role, as seen in the Roman de la Rose… In fact, rose cultivation was widespread in the Middle Ages. The red rose and its bud were enough to evoke love and eroticism. Alongside, one often found wild roses, gladiolus, lilies, daisies, and other wildflowers. In addition to offering a bit of shade and precious fruits, trees were cultivated with particular care.

There was also a great variety of species: service tree, cherry, chestnut, fig, pomegranate… Non-fruit trees like ebony, laurel, plane tree, or pine also composed the landscape of these medieval gardens. The same applied to aromatic or medicinal plants. Ultimately, a good ornamental garden was one that appealed to all the senses: the bright colors of the flowers; the varied scents of herbs; the softness of petals against the rough bark of trees; the enchanting sound of branches swaying, sheltering lovers hidden behind a thick flowering bush.

The Power of Flowers: The Lily

There are many myths and legends surrounding the fleur-de-lis. However, it is an authentic historical object connected to various fields, including politics, dynasties, art, emblems, and symbolism. This stylized figure can already be found on Mesopotamian cylinder seals or engraved on Egyptian bas-reliefs. It even appears in Japan as well as on Sassanid fabrics. The oldest depictions of the flower, resembling those known in medieval Western Europe, date back to the 3rd millennium BCE in Assyria. Of course, its meaning changes with each period and in each region. Nevertheless, the lily almost everywhere maintains connections with power.

The Middle Ages endowed the fleur-de-lis with a threefold religious dimension. First, it became a Christological symbol, based on the Scriptures, particularly this passage: “I am the flower of the field, and the lily of the valleys” [Song of Solomon 2:1]. With the development of Marian worship in the 13th century, the lily became a marker of purity and virginity, once again referencing the Scriptures: “Like a lily among the thorns is my darling among the maidens.” [Song of Solomon 2:2]. Medieval iconography frequently associates the Virgin Mary—and more broadly, noble ladies—with the lily. Finally, the evocative shape of the flower allowed theologians to make it an allegory of the Trinity and associate it with the three essential virtues: Faith, Wisdom, and Chivalry.

The lily is also associated with power, as mentioned earlier. From the 14th century, chroniclers enjoyed telling that Clovis himself was the first king to adopt it. However, the Merovingian’s choice of the fleur-de-lis is purely a medieval invention. The first serious material evidence of a direct link between the flower and royalty dates to 1211, with the seal of Prince Louis, the future Louis VIII. However, under the influence of figures like Suger or Saint Bernard, the Capetians, at least since Louis VII, seem to have used the lily as a sign of their piety, without yet making it a royal attribute.

The arms of azure scattered with golden fleur-de-lis are definitively attested around 1215, thanks to a stained glass window in the cathedral of Chartres. However, it is plausible that from the reign of Philip Augustus (1180-1223), the lily had already been incorporated into the royal arms. Thus, by using the floral emblem, the Capetian monarchy placed itself directly under the protection of the Virgin Mary. The king became the mediator between Heaven and Earth.

With its new coat of arms, the king of France distinguished himself from other sovereigns in several ways. While England favored the leopard, the Empire the eagle, or Castile the castle, the Capetian was the only one to use a floral emblem. Similarly, he was the only one to use a scattered pattern (semé). The cosmic dimension was undeniable and was reinforced by the choice of colors—blue and yellow—which directly evoked the starry sky. From 1372, the scattered lilies were replaced by three fleur-de-lis. This time, it was not the Virgin who watched over the monarchy but “the blessed Trinity.”

In general, from the 11th to the 15th century, the French monarchy maintained close ties with the plant world. Consider the lily, of course, but also the flowering rod, the scepter, and the flowered crown. Similarly, Valois princes and kings drew heavily on floral emblems: roses, daisies, irises, holly, currants… We can also add the famous oak of Saint Louis, of which Joinville enjoyed recounting that it “often happened in the summer [that the king] would go to sit in the woods of Vincennes after mass, lean against an oak, and have us sit around him.”

However, the use of the fleur-de-lis was by no means a royal monopoly. Elsewhere, it functioned as a heraldic emblem in its own right. It is mainly found in the arms of the lesser and middle nobility of northern Europe, or even in Italy. Similarly, in some regions like Normandy, many peasants engraved a lily on their seals. Here, it was a common figure with no apparent direct link to its power symbolism.

In rural areas, it was more associated with the plant world and fertility than with the monarchy. Cities like Lille or Florence even adopted the lily as their main emblem within their coats of arms. In both cases, the flower played a “speaking” role through the Latin terms lilium and flor. Finally, many abbeys or cathedral chapters used the lily, which then took on its full religious dimension. Ultimately, the fleur-de-lis in the Middle Ages had different uses and carried multiple symbols depending on the context in which it was found.

In medieval culture, the apple frequently relates to theft on one hand and pleasure on the other. In the West, it became the quintessential fruit, while this role was occupied by the pomegranate in Islamic civilization or the plum in Japan. In Latin, the term pomum was used to refer to fruits in general. We still find traces of this today: pomme de terre (potato), pomme de pin (pinecone), pomme d’or (golden apple)… The word pomum evokes the idea of roundness. A distinction was then made between fleshy fruits (malum) and those with shells (nux). In summary, the apple is first referred to as pomum and then as malum.

Since antiquity, the apple has often been associated with the walnut when depicting the plant world. In the medieval period, a new pairing emerged: the apple and the pear. These two fruits love and compete with each other simultaneously. The pear’s curved shape and soft texture made it resemble a woman, while the apple played the masculine role. Numerous proverbs depicted the two fruits. In the 13th century, it was said that “there is no worse pear than an apple,” or that “an apple given is better than a pear eaten.”

Mythology has long had a close relationship with the apple, dating back to antiquity (see The Judgment of Paris). Think of Avalon, described as the insula pomorum by Geoffrey of Monmouth in the 12th century. On this mythical island where heroes and illustrious kings rest, King Arthur awaits his messianic return. Everything grows naturally around him, and the place is guarded by the fairy Morgan le Fay. To attract certain travelers and grant them immortality, Morgan and her fairies waved apple branches. As often, the apple served as a connection between the world of the gods and that of men. Similarly, many mythical stories depicted this fruit as one capable of bestowing immortality.

The apple also entered the realm of power. Since the late Roman Empire, the scepter, crown, and spherical globe were the typical attributes of royal or imperial power. In the Middle Ages, Byzantine and German emperors, and some kings, retained the globe. It was not uncommon for it to be compared to a real apple, both in texts and in iconography. For example, at the end of the 12th century, the orb of the Holy Roman Empire was called the Reichsapfel, or “apple of the Empire.” In this case, the use of our fruit symbolized the prosperity and abundance guaranteed by the emperor.

It was also in the Middle Ages that the tree of knowledge (Genesis 2:16-17) took the form of an apple tree through a clever process. Indeed, in Latin, the word for apple and the word for evil are the same, malum. Medieval culture liked to link words and things. Furthermore, the apple tree as a symbol of knowledge could also find its roots in other mythologies—such as among the Celts—or in the Arthurian cycle. For example, it is under an apple tree that Merlin tests his knowledge when practicing magic.

In addition to these positive aspects, the apple was also viewed with suspicion and intrigue. The theme of the poisoned apple is already attested at the beginning of the 13th century in Le Morte d’Arthur (The Death of Arthur). Guinevere was accused of offering our venom-soaked fruit to Gaheris the White. Similarly, the apple could be associated with the Devil’s abode. At certain times, it could harbor creatures reviled by medieval culture—worms. These vile insects were believed to be born from decaying flesh. Moreover, the Scriptures remind us that “for the punishment of the ungodly is fire and worms” [Sirach 7:17-19]. A final negative aspect, which would deserve an entire article, is the connection between the apple and woman. The evil couple par excellence, it is the symbol of the Fall caused by Eve plucking the forbidden fruit.

Ultimately, the apple is one of the most prevalent fruits in both scholarly and popular culture of the Middle Ages. Taken in a positive light, it could bestow immortality, and blossoming apple trees were considered the most beautiful trees. Taken negatively, the apple became malevolent and dangerous, symbolizing female corruption and evil.

October 21, 2024
6 Incredible Things Plants Can Do

At first glance, plants may seem rather dull. They stand silently, photosynthesizing quietly. Not the most eventful life, right? But in reality, trees and shrubs have plenty of surprising and varied superpowers

Trees Communicate Using Fungi

Despite their outward calm, trees are quite resourceful. Evolution has forced them to develop various survival mechanisms. For example, they created the first prototype of the internet long before humanity existed.

You might think this sounds crazy, but it’s a scientifically confirmed fact: plants in forests share nutrients through underground fungal networks that envelop their roots.

Fungi live in symbiosis with trees—they help the trees in exchange for nourishment. This is called a mycorrhizal network.

The fungal threads transfer carbon, phosphorus, nitrogen, water, and many other substances between trees. If one tree is in the shaded understory and struggling with photosynthesis, it sends a distress signal to its more fortunate neighbors through the fungal network, and they send nutrients to help.

But trees of the same species don’t just help each other. Sometimes they try to harm their competitors by releasing toxic substances into the fungal network to drive out unwanted neighbors.

Some particularly bold plants even forgo photosynthesis entirely, relying solely on the nutrients they receive from the mycorrhizal network. It’s like tapping into your neighbor’s power line and stealing their electricity.

Plants Send Warnings to Their Kin About Danger

You might think plants are defenseless, unable to fight back when something starts eating them. That’s not entirely true—many poisonous plants exist. Even without poison, plants have developed original ways to protect themselves from being eaten.

For example, the cowpea, part of the legume family, can literally call for help if it’s being eaten by the caterpillars of the fall armyworm. When the larvae start munching on its leaves, the cowpea releases special phytocompounds that make the caterpillar think it’s inedible.

And that’s not all. Neighboring cowpea plants detect these compounds, realize a predator is nearby, and begin producing similar substances to make themselves unappetizing.

A similar defense mechanism is found in the common tomato, as well as in tobacco, sorghum, rice, and many other crops.

However, clever tomatoes have their match. Some especially cunning species of caterpillars have learned to release substances in their saliva that suppress the signals sent by the plants being eaten.

Trees Hire Entire Armies of Bodyguards

Unfortunately, most trees can’t smack aggressors with their branches like the Whomping Willow in the Harry Potter series. But that doesn’t mean they are defenseless. Some trees call on armies of tiny friends to handle their problems.

For example, the bullhorn acacia lives in symbiosis with ants of the species *Pseudomyrmex ferruginea*. These aggressive predators kill any insect that dares invade their territory.

The acacia produces special proteins that disrupt the digestion of insects and can even kill them, but these proteins are harmless to the ants. The tree feeds its protectors, and in return, they attack anything that threatens it—even livestock.

Moreover, the acacia lures ants to its damaged branches, which are being eaten by some predator. Using special signaling substances, the tree directs its soldiers to the aggressor and tells them who to attack.

Other trees not only use insects as their personal army but also feed off them. For instance, ants of the Azteca genus live in the leaves of the plant Cecropia and protect it from competing ants—like leaf cutters. Additionally, they nourish the plant: 98% of the nitrogen Cecropia gets comes from the ants’ waste.

Plants Pet Bees Hooked on Caffeine

It’s well known that a passion for coffee can become quite unhealthy. Even people with free will find it hard to resist the energizing beverage, and insects with their primitive instincts have no chance against caffeine.

According to research, plants from the coffee and citrus families use caffeine to attract bees—who enjoy nectar with a high caffeine content. The substance stimulates the insects’ neurons, causing them to dance more actively and attract more of their kin to pollinate the plant.

Caffeine, as discovered by scientists at Newcastle University in the UK, influences bee behavior to the point where they only pollinate the flowers that provide them with this substance. As a result, we end up with tricked insects hooked on alkaloids and plants that shamelessly exploit them for reproduction.

Some Plants Can Smell

It sounds crazy, but plants, like animals, use their sense of smell. As botanist Daniel Chamovitz explains, plants detect airborne odors and use them to determine, for example, the ripeness of their fruits or the presence of nearby insect predators.

But what’s even more amazing is that some especially cunning plants use their sense of smell not just for defense but for attack.

For example, Cuscuta, a parasitic vine well-known to gardeners, winds around other plants and feeds on their sap. Dr. Consuelo De Moraes, a biologist at Pennsylvania State University, claims that Cuscuta uses smell to find its victims.

In experiments conducted by De Moraes, the parasite ignored tomato dummies and accurately identified live tomatoes, even in the dark. The smell of the tomato helped it determine the direction in which to grow to reach its food source.

And They Can Even Explode

Meet Hura crepitans, or the sandbox tree, from the Euphorbiaceae family. In the Amazon rainforest, it’s called the dynamite tree.

Its pumpkin-like fruits, when ripe, literally explode, scattering spikes, seeds, and poisonous sap. The explosion is powerful enough to injure a person. Livestock frequently suffer from this tree as well.

Ingesting its fruits leads to cramps, vomiting, and diarrhea. So even if someone survives the explosion and reaches the pulp, they won’t go unpunished.

As if having grenade-like fruits wasn’t enough, the tree is also covered in sharp thorns that can cause serious injury.

The sap from its broken thorns causes a terrible rash, and if it gets into the eyes, blindness. Local tribes use it to poison fish.

September 19, 2024
Mexican Marigold (Tagetes erecta): The Flower of the Dead
In late October and the opening two days of November across Mexico, the entire country appears to burst into rivers of glowing gold and tangerine flame. Piled high in open-air marketplaces from Oaxaca and Michoacán to Mexico City, woven into towering arches over cemetery gates, and scattered in fragrant petal trails leading from street curbs right up to family altars is a single indigenous botanical icon: Tagetes erecta, known in English as the Mexican Marigold (or Aztec Marigold) and revered across Mexico by its ancient Nahuatl name, Cempasúchil—the sacred “Flower of the Dead” (Flor de Muertos).

Nahuatl Meaning of “Cempasúchil”: The Flower of Twenty Petals

Although English seed catalogs frequently call Tagetes erecta the “African Marigold” due to a sixteenth-century European shipping confusion after Spanish galleons carried the seeds from Mexico to Spain and North Africa, the flower is 100% native to the valleys and pine-oak mountains of central and southern Mexico and Guatemala, where indigenous farmers have cultivated it for more than three thousand years.

Its Mexican name, Cempasúchil, comes directly from the Aztec Nahuatl compound word Cempōhualxōchitl—combining cempōhualli (“twenty,” which represented a complete count or “many” in the vigesimal Aztec base-20 numbering system) with xōchitl (“flower”). Translating literally to “Twenty-Flower” or “Flower of Four Hundred Petals,” the name celebrates the dense, ruffled pom-pom head of the bloom, which packs dozens to hundreds of individual ray florets into a single blazing sphere standing up to three feet tall.

The Aztec Legend of Xóchitl and Huitzilin

Why did the Aztecs and their descendants choose this specific golden flower to bridge the world of the living and the world of the dead? Popular Mexican folklore preserves a poignant pre-Hispanic love story about two young childhood sweethearts named Xóchitl (“Flower”) and Huitzilin (“Hummingbird”).

Every afternoon, the two lovers climbed to the summit of a high mountain carrying bouquets of wildflowers to offer to Tonatiuh, the Aztec god of the Sun, swearing that their love would endure even beyond death. When war broke out, young Huitzilin marched off to battle and was killed. Heartbroken, Xóchitl climbed the mountain alone and begged the Sun God Tonatiuh to reunite her with her beloved:
- Moved by her devotion, the Sun God sent a single warm golden ray of sunlight down from the sky to touch Xóchitl’s cheek—instantly transforming the weeping young woman into a golden flower bud standing in the mountain grass.
- Moments later, a tiny hummingbird—the reincarnated spirit of Huitzilin—flew up and touched the center of the closed bud with its beak. Instantly, the flower unfurled into twenty brilliant golden-orange petals releasing a powerful, musky-citrus perfume: the first Cempasúchil, ensuring that as long as marigolds bloom and hummingbirds fly, the souls of the departed can always find their way back to those who love them.
A Sensory Lighthouse for Souls on Día de los Muertos

During Mexico’s annual Día de los Muertos (Day of the Dead, November 1 and 2), the Cempasúchil does not serve merely as a pretty table decoration; in indigenous and mestizo cosmology, the flower performs an indispensable navigational job:
1. Captured Sunlight for the Dark Road: Because its ruffled petals glow with the exact brilliant yellow-orange hue of the sun, the Aztecs believed the Cempasúchil literally stored tiny sparks of solar light inside its petals to illuminate the dark path up from the underworld of Mictlan.
2. An Olfactory Beacon (The Scent): Unlike delicate roses, Tagetes erecta stems and petals are packed with potent essential oils and terpenes that release a sharp, pungent, herbal-citrus aroma you can smell from across a street. Because spirits returning for their annual twenty-four-hour family visit are guided by scent and color rather than physical signs, families pluck thousands of fresh marigold petals and scatter them in a continuous **golden carpet trail** from the cemetery gravesite (or from the street outside their front door) straight to the indoor ofrenda (altar), ensuring no ancestor gets lost in the dark!
Natural Garden Protector and the Secret Behind Golden Egg Yolks

Beyond its spiritual beauty, modern science has validated the ancient Mesoamerican agricultural and medicinal wisdom surrounding Tagetes erecta. In traditional Mexican herbal medicine, infusions of the petals and leaves were used to soothe digestive colic, parasites, and respiratory coughs. In the garden, the roots of the Mexican marigold naturally exude a sulfur-rich biochemical compound called alpha-terthienyl into the soil—which suppresses destructive root-knot nematodes and fungal pests when planted alongside tomatoes, corn, and squash!

And today, commercial farms across Mexico, Peru, and India cultivate thousands of acres of Tagetes erecta for a surprising high-tech purpose: its petals are the richest natural plant source on Earth of lutein and zeaxanthin—carotenoid antioxidants extracted to make human eye-health supplements (protecting the retina’s macula from blue light) and added as a natural organic supplement to poultry feed to give farm-fresh chicken egg yolks their deep, rich golden-orange color.
November 4, 2023
Sea Daffodil (Pancratium maritimum): A Sand Flower
- Coastal perennial with fragrant summer blooms.
- Thrives in Mediterranean and Canary Islands.
- Holds religious significance in some cultures.
A member of the amaryllidaceae family, the sea daffodil (Pancratium maritimum) is also known as the sea lily. They are endemic to the Canary Islands, as well as the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. This plant can be found all over the Mediterranean’s shores. They are often found in coastal sand dunes and along beaches, where their leaves and scapes spend most of their lives buried in the sand.

What is a Sea Daffodil?

The flower of a sea daffodil. (Calimo, CC BY-SA 3.0)

The sea daffodil is a perennial herb that can become as tall as 30 inches (75 cm). As a geophyte, it develops a bulb of 2–3 inches in diameter (5–7 cm), which it uses to store nutrients. Following blooming, a flat spiral of five to six leaves forms at the plant’s base. The up to 2.5-foot-long, gray-green, coarse leaves are strap-shaped. Their breadth ranges from 0.2 to 0.8 inches (1 to 2 cm).

Peak Bloom

A patch of sea daffodil (Pancratium maritimum) on a southern Crete beach. (Gorillo.Chimpo, CC BY-SA 4.0, cropped)

The peak bloom time of the sea daffodil or Pancratium maritimum is in the summer, between July and September. The pleiochasium (an inflorescence when buds come out at the same time), with three to fifteen blooms, rests above two red-brown, papery bracts that are about 2 to 3 inches (5 to 7 cm) long on the inflorescence shaft, which may reach a length of up to 30 inches.

It is believed that ants spread the seeds of sea daffodils.

Flowers

Huge and fragrant, the blooms of the sea daffodil only open late in the day and close early in the morning. Three petals make up each of the hermaphrodite blooms. A white funnel-shaped corona tube, measuring between 2.5 and 3.2 inches in length (6 and 8 cm), forms from the growth of six similar flower bracts.

(Photo, Juan Emilio, CC BY 2.0, cropped)

The flower’s free bracts are linear-lanceolate in shape and range in length from 1.2 to 2 inches (3 to 5 cm). The white, twelve-toothed, funnel-shaped corona is attached to the filaments of the lower stamens and measures roughly two-thirds of the flower’s total length.

The six stamens stick out from the secondary crown in two concentric rings. An inferior, three-chambered ovary develops from the merging of three carpels.

Seeds

The 10–40 seeds are housed inside a weakly triangular, egg-shaped, 0.9–1.2 inches long (2.3–3 cm), loculicidal, three-lobed capsule fruit. The size of the 0.40- to 0.50-inch-long black seeds (11–13 mm). It is believed that the seeds of the sea daffodil are spread by ants. The seeds have a high buoyancy, making it possible to disperse them through ocean currents.

Where Does Sea Daffodil Grow?

(NeilRaviya, CC BY-SA 4.0)

In addition to its broad presence along the Mediterranean coast, the sea daffodil or Pancratium maritimum may also be found throughout the southern Black Sea coast, all the way to Bulgaria in the west and Transcaucasia in the east.

The Atlantic coast deposits extend from southern Brittany to the Moroccan city of Essaouira. This plant may have been brought to the island of Fuerteventura in the Canary Islands. Meanwhile, the occurrences on Faial in the Azores and in Bermuda are definitely an introduction by man.

White dunes and other comparable areas on sandy beaches are home to the sea daffodil. It is a representative species for the genus Pancratium in the plant social classification system.

Wall murals of the buildings unearthed on the volcanic island of Santorini in the Mediterranean Sea use sea daffodil blossoms as a recurring theme. Combined with the lily flower, they are utilized as a standard choice of plant in frescoes and inlays.

Sintra, Portugal. (Lijealso, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Sea Daffodil in Religion

Some plants, like the sea daffodil, are simply called “flowers” in the Bible.

Both the Song of Solomon (2:1) and the Book of Isaiah (35:1-2) sing the praises of the lush plain of Sharon and its namesake flower, the Rose of Sharon. Due to the similarity in the Hebrew names, the sea daffodil and the Rose of Sharon are sometimes mistaken for one another in Israel.

This flower was also referenced by several post-biblical poets. In 1726, a German translator of the Bible published a biography of Georg Balthasar Metzger with a poem he wrote:

May thou shalt be so humble
As the low Sarons,
And therefore stand reverently
And bowed before God,
So you will soon have the gifts
of His Spirit in you.

When her tortured body washed up on the shores of Ischia Island, the legend of Restituta of Africa says that the sea daffodils began to blossom right away.

A 16th-century sea daffodil (Pancratium maritimum) drawing. Daniel Rabel (1578-1637), Pietro Castelli (1590-1661).
References

Featured Image: PikiWiki Israel, — CC BY 2.5

Status of native species in threatened Mediterranean habitats – ScienceDirect

Catalogue of Plants Under Cultivation in the Melbourne Botanic Gardens – Google Books
September 18, 2023
Phalaris Aquatica (Harding Grass): Everything About It
Phalaris aquatica is one of the plants of the genus Phalaris (P. tuberosa, P. bulbosa, and P. nodosa) which are referred to as harding grass. Also known as bulbous canary-grass, it is an herbaceous plant belonging to the Poaceae (grasses) family.

Appearance of Phalaris Aquatica

Phalaris aquatica is a strong perennial plant that can grow to be 20–40 inches (50–100 cm) tall and has an upright, cespitose, and typically tuberculate structure. It forms mats, and its bluish-green, hairy leaves have a long blade, a membrane ligule, and no auricles (ear-like projections).

During the vegetative stage, leaves are put at the plant’s base; after it starts to develop ears, they are inserted at the plant’s upper nodes.

Phalaris aquatica has a spiciform (an inflorescence) panicle that is both dense and elongated, with spikelets (an arrangement of flowers) that each contain one hermaphroditic flower and winged, coriaceous glumes that are either toothed or “entire” (not toothed) along their margins.

Phalaris aquatica (harding grass) spikelets. (Image: Harry Rose – Flickr)

The plant’s roots are sturdy and far-reaching. It emerges from most of the tillers, and this is actually causing their subsequent death but also leading to regrowth from basal buds. The seed is small and covered by soft, very shiny bracts.

Distribution

Phalaris aquatica, or harding grass, originated in the Mediterranean basin, but now it is cultivated in many other regions that share that climate, including a few in Australia and the USA. It is famously grown in the Ebro valley and the cold southern regions of the Spanish peninsula.

The panicles (0.6–6.3 in; 1.5–16 cm) of flowers are compact and thick. (Image: Harry Rose – Flickr)

Phalaris aquatica forms storage thickenings (tubers) at the base of its stems or at the lower nodes. This happens after it has bloomed, usually near the conclusion of the growth season.

This ensures the plant’s continued existence even if its vegetative parts perish during the hot summer months. In the fall, new growth emerges mostly from the thicker stems’ axillary buds or, failing that, from the surviving stems.

Life Cycle

(Image: Alonre – NaturaLista)

The late summer is marked by elongation in these plants. In late spring, the internodes at the base of the stem thicken, and the root system deepens. Once the seeds are mature, the aerial parts are lost, and the tubers remain dormant until the temperature drops. After that, the autumn rains lead to the appearance of the buds.

Resilient to Various Conditions

Phalaris aquatica (harding grass), Switchbacks, Hawaii. (Image: Forest and Kim Starr – Flickr)

Although Phalaris aquatica may flourish in a broad range of soil types, it does particularly well in rich, deep loamy to clayey soils. The need for fertilizer becomes apparent when growth is stunted in soils that are both extremely poor and very heavy.

Temperatures of around 70°F (21°C) during the day and 60°F (16°C) during the night are ideal for further growth. Sunlight is essential for optimal development.

Phalaris aquatica can withstand chilly conditions and mild droughts. It can hold its ground against water for extended periods of time. It is tolerant of a broad pH range and has a robust root structure.

What Type of Crop is Phalaris Aquatica?

Phalaris aquatica (harding grass) flowerheads.

Growing harding grass, or Phalaris aquatica, helps farmers provide livestock with a nutritious feed source. It is a dryland farming crop that may be cultivated by itself or in combination with legumes (Fabaceae) like alfalfa (on alkaline soils) or subterranean clover (on acid soils).

The usage of Phalaris aquatica is severely limited because of agronomic issues, such as the extreme difficulty of establishing it. The high cost of the seed is related to the low seed output that results from the ease with which the plant’s shell may be removed. While early harvesting may help with this issue, it has the downside of reducing seed vigor.

Preparation

Sowing the seed needs well-prepared soil, a shallow depth of just 0.4 inches (1 cm), and a window of opportunity in early October (in southern Europe) or early spring. Phalaris aquatica grows more rapidly with rain and moderate weather. The green aphids are a real threat to Phalaris aquatica.

In pure form, the sowing dosage in Europe is 9–11 lb/ac (10–12 kg/ha), while in mixtures, it varies between 2.5–5.5 lb/ac (3–6 kg/ha). For the same reason, Ph. aquatica is not co-planted with any other kind of grass.

Due to its tiny seed size (about 35 grains/oz or 1000 grains/g), it takes a long time to get established and is easily choked out by competing plants. It’s not a good idea to use broadcast planting.

Question of Sufficiency

Halemau’u Trail, Hawaii, USA. (Image: Forest and Kim Starr – Flickr

Since grasses can’t grow without nitrogen, it’s best to repair less fertile soil using legumes before planting Phalaris aquatica. It’s common practice to include nitrogen-supplying leguminous plants (like a prolific meadow) with the Ph. aquatica.

Adding a nitrogen supply is known to boost the output of Ph. aquatica by 50–100 percent. Ph. aquatica is also particularly sensitive to a lack of sulfur.

When it Comes to Foraging

While in its vegetative stage, Ph. aquatica yields high-quality feed. Its nutritional value quickly declines during the stem elongation and heading stages, which is why it is recommended to cut it prior to blooming. This supports direct grazing.

Explicit defoliation encourages tillering. To protect fall harvests, it’s best to practice management in the spring that doesn’t include removing exposed basal buds. The initial growth of Ph. aquatica is always slow.

Sluggish Initial Growth

Due to this sluggish initial growth, less intensive and quick grazing rounds are recommended with highly damp soil to eliminate weeds. Phalaris aquatica is already a high-quality grass, and this quality is further ensured by brief grazing.

Although it may be slow to get going at first, once it does, Ph. aquatica maintains its wonderful conduct throughout the cooler months (autumn to spring). Cattle, in particular, think Ph. aquatica is great.

This plant is an excellent option for dryland pastures in arid regions due to its year-round growth, with the exception of the summer months. Its resurgence in the fall before other grasses is known as an advantage that ensures some level of output reliability even in drought years.

Yields

Ph. aquatica with high alkaloids is of poor quality because it reduces the forage’s palatability and digestibility and may cause behavioral and neurological problems in animals who eat it voluntarily. With the addition of nitrogenous fertilizer, forage yields can be enhanced from the typical 2.5–3.5 tons of dry matter per acres (6–8 t/ha) to 4–5 tons (10-12 t/ha).

Phalaris aquatica usually gives two harvests, the first at the end of August and the second in September. This plant has an energy value of 2.3 and 2.1 Mcal/kgDM during the winter and spring seasons, respectively.

Natural hybrids, such as the offspring of the Phalaris tuberosa and Phalaris arundinacea crosses, provide animals living at elevations exceeding 7,500 feet (2,300 m) above sea level with the opportunity to grow at a faster rate.

Two tons of dry matter per acre (5t/ha) can be harvested after each cut, and a total of three dry harvests are possible with Phalaris aquatica. It can withstand the cold, has a high nutritional content, and can be used as hay or silage, making it ideal for many regions.

Toxicity of Phalaris Aquatica

Harding grass or Phalaris aquatica’s high alkaloid content makes it poisonous to animals and can lead to central nervous system diseases like “phalaris staggers.” The forage’s acceptability, digestion, and consumption depend on these characteristics. Low light, dense planting, nitrogen-rich soil, and warm temperatures are all conducive to the production of this alkaloid in Ph. aquatica.

Phalaris Aquatica Varieties

Many popular commercial Ph. aquatica crops have their roots in Australia. While Australian phalaris benefit from better drought resistance and a shorter dormancy period, Seedmaster phalaris can have more shatter resistance and yield greater seed production.

There are also newer varieties of Ph. aquatica, including the Sirocco, Sirolan, and Sirosa Phalaris. They have been handpicked from a pool of resources amassed in Morocco. Because of the size of their seeds and young plants, they may establish themselves quicker than other varieties. The Sirosa and Sirolan variants have lower alkaloid levels and show greater resilience to summer dryness than the Australian type.

Taxonomy

In Centuria I. Plantarum written in Latin, Carl Linnaeus described and named Phalaris aquatica in 1755.

Cytology

Harding grass or Phalaris aquatica (Fam. Poaceae or Gramineae) and related infraspecific taxons have n = 14 chromosomes.

Etymology

The genus name “phalaris” may have been taken from the Greek word “phalaros,” which means “lustrous” or “glossy,” in reference to the ears’ (spikes’) reflective quality. The Latin species name “aquatica” means “aquatic” in English.

Synonymity
- Phalaris aquatica Delile ex Boiss.
- Phalaris avicularis Salisb.
- Phalaris ovata Moench
- Phalaris altissima Menezes
- Phalaris arundinacea subsp. bulbosa Paunero
- Phalaris bulbosa Ten.
- Phalaris elongata Braun-Blanq.
- Phalaris hirtiglumis (Batt. & Trab.) Baldini
- Phalaris nodosa L.
- Phalaris stenoptera Hack.
- Phalaris trabutiana Maire
- Phalaris tuberosa L.
August 7, 2023
Why do nettles sting?

They may be found in every field, along the roadsides, and even on the ruins of buildings. Ouch! You’ve managed to sting yourself with only one negligent stride and one clumsy hand movement. Even the slightest contact with nettles may result in a painful burning sensation that lasts for a long time and produces unsightly, flaming red wheals on the skin. But why exactly do nettles sting and cause a burning sensation? What precisely happens when you go too near nettles?

The so-called stinging hairs that are found beneath the leaves and on the stem of stinging nettles are there to prevent the plant from being eaten by animals. These defensive “pikes” of the nettle take the form of an elongated cell that is noticeably strengthened in the top region. These cells have a little head that is bent off to the side.

Stinging nettle under a microscope.

When this head is touched, it snaps off at a certain point. There, the cell wall is much thinner. And the hard remnant, which resembles a cannula, continues to be embedded in the skin. Hypodermic needles, which are used in the medical field, were made with this idea taken from nature.

The stinging nettle acts as a biological syringe, allowing a secretion to flow into even the tiniest of skin wounds. This secretion is what causes the excruciating pain and the swiftly developing swellings after touching nettles. The ingestion of as little as one ten-thousandth of a milligram of this liquid is all that is needed to bring about the undesirable effects.

Burning is an uncomfortable side effect caused by formic acid

The liquid that is expelled by the stinging hairs is a mixture of many distinct kinds of chemical compounds. Formic acid, acetylcholine, and histamine are the most prominent of them. Chemicals like formic acid and acetylcholine are mainly to blame for the stinging and burning feeling that stinging nettles cause.

On the other hand, the swellings, which may be very severe, as well as the itching, are mostly linked to histamine. Histamine is a chemical that also plays a vital part in other allergy-like responses, such as hives. The hives or wheals are more severe and persistent in one individual than they are in another, and this is because each person responds differently.

However, a negative outcome is not always inevitable after each encounter with stinging nettle. Because there is a strategy for dealing with the nettles which aren’t very liked. For instance, if you want to pick them to make a nutritious tea.

When pinching the stems and leaves, you should always start at the bottom and work your way up. Because the heads of the stinging nettle hairs do not break off, the harsh stinging liquid does not leak out of its packaging. However, this is something that requires experience and does not always work for everyone.

Home remedies for nettle sting

What do you do if you are “caught” by a stinging nettle and it starts to hurt so much? Broad and pointed plantain are among the home remedies used against stinging nettles since ancient times. To be more specific, the liquid or pulp that is extracted from these plants can be found in many meadows and along roadways. They have a painkilling and anti-inflammatory action, and they also speed up the healing process of wounds.

In the case of a nettle sting, you can stay calm, and cool while waiting for the sensation to wear off. However, in an emergency situation, cortisone or anti-allergic ointments are usually applied to the skin.

September 28, 2022
Why don’t all trees lose their leaves in the fall?

With the arrival of autumn, the leaves on most trees change color, becoming red, yellow, or brown. Oaks, beeches, and chestnuts turn entirely bare of leaves in a few weeks. However, conifers like firs, spruces, and other related species don’t appear to care much that fall and winter are on the way. Even in the dead of winter, their needles maintain their vibrant green color. Although most shrubs lose their leaves in the autumn, evergreens are an exception. Nonetheless, why? As to why certain trees and shrubs drop their leaves while others do not? There is science for a satisfactory explanation.

Frosty waters

Most plants have trouble with both the cold and a lack of water throughout the winter. The freezing temperatures of winter prevent water from seeping through the ground. This water supply is further depleted during frost because deciduous plants, in particular, lose so much water via their leaves during photosynthesis. Because of this, plants with full foliage can essentially freeze to death. As a result, many deciduous trees totally shed their leaves to prevent this fate. This shedding of leaves safeguards the leaves from being eaten by animals throughout the fruitless winter months.

Nitrogen reserves

However, the tree swiftly recycles all of the leaves it can utilize before they fall. It is no surprise that nitrogen is crucial for plant growth, and this includes nitrogenous protein-building components in particular. These components are broken down into water-soluble chemicals and sent to the plant’s main stem and roots as a kind of nutrition reserve. As a result of this breakdown, the leaves retain traces of their yellow and red colors. Nitrogen is the reason for the vibrant foliage of fall.

Budget-friendly conifers

However, most conifers retain their foliage throughout the year. They have a wax covering on their needles, so they lose less water via their already dramatically decreased leaf area, making them better able to withstand drought and cold. In addition, stomata (tiny openings for gas exchange with the environment) in fir, spruce, and other trees are buried deep in needle cavities. As a result, they can manage to maintain their needle leaves while receiving just a little amount of water.

Many conifers grow in regions where winters are long. Thus, they preserve their leaves because frost may still occur in early summer and it is already occurring in early autumn, giving them a reason to wait it out. The time with enough brightness and warmth is insufficient to allow for the formation of leaves and, subsequently, to also collect enough energy for fruits and seeds. Thus, the trees decide not to shed their leaves in the first place.

Both coniferous and deciduous trees have exceptions

Despite being a member of the conifer family, the larch also shed its leaves. The larch is a conifer that thrives in extreme cold, such as in the high mountains and the far north. There, not even conifers’ natural resistance to cold is enough to ensure their survival. To prevent any more water loss throughout the winter, it decides to shed its leaves as the best strategy.

However, evergreen foliage is not limited to conifers: Cherry laurel and rhododendron are two deciduous plants that keep their leaves throughout the winter. These crops are often sourced from warmer climates with shorter winters. Since this is the case, it is frequently not worth the effort for them to drop their old leaves and grow new ones each spring.

Those plants hold on to their leaves rather than invest in replacing them. Climate has a major role in this decision. Some evergreen deciduous trees and shrubs are able to make it through the colder and longer winters, but they are ultimately outcompeted by native species. They mostly exist as ornamental plants in a garden.

September 25, 2022
Why do plants grow slower in small pots?

All the diverse kinds of houseplants—olive trees, hibiscus, balcony roses—have one thing in common: They hate it when their pots are too tiny. The roots appear to inhibit growth if they are confined. To what end, though? If the plant is getting enough water, what is holding it back? Is it because there has been too much growth that there isn’t enough nutrient left in the potting soil?

Plant photosynthesis is stifled in smaller pots. This results in the plants having less energy available to make new plant tissue. The outcome is slower growth for the plant. This is not, however, because of a shortage of either water or nutrients in the soil.

Neither food nor water is the reason

The nitrogen levels in the leaves of plants grown in adequately sized pots were found to be almost identical to those of plants grown in smaller-sized ones.

In most cases, the amount of this vital nutrient in the plant’s green parts may be used as an indicator of how effectively the plant is being fed with nitrogen. However, the change is so little that it is often deemed insignificant. So, yes, a plant in a smaller container does get a somewhat reduced nutritional supply. But it still doesn’t fully account for its comparatively small growth.

What about water scarcity, for that matter? After all, the plant gets the needed moisture via its roots from the soil, isn’t it? But maybe it’s not receiving enough water if it’s unable to create as many of those stolons? Actually, plants in pots that are too tiny will not receive enough water. Since the smaller soils can’t hold as much water they dry up more rapidly.

Hydroponic plants, oddly enough, also develop significantly slower in smaller pots, even though their pots are always completely submerged in water. And obviously this cannot be the result of a deficiency in available water.

Plants can make predictions

If there isn’t a lack of water or nutrients, then what is it? Plants may alter their height and width to fit the container they are in. Magnetic resonance imaging allows scientists to see how, after being watered, the plants’ roots swiftly extend to a pot’s rim. This is almost like trying to predict how much room they will have to grow in the future.

Plants slow down their growth if there is narrowness at the root. It seems that this response is rather fast. In a study, a researcher named Hendrik Poorter recorded a reaction time of barely 10 minutes after putting the roots of a plant in a tight pot; the plant’s leaves grew more slowly than before.

This shows that there is a signal sent when a significant portion of a plant’s roots are unable to continue growing unhampered. The plant’s root system sounds this alarm, and sends a message to the plant’s upper sections above the soil, telling them to restrict their development as a precaution.

Plants need to be given 1 gallon of space for every 0.15 oz of their mass

But how large of a pot should a plant need to have? Scientists have developed a rough guideline for this: 1 liter of pot volume should be provided for every gram of plant biomass. In other words, 1 gallon of space for every 0.15 ounce of their mass.

A theoretically accurate method for determining the size of a plant’s pot is to weigh the plant. But this is still generally unpractical for indoor plants. Because a rubber tree that weighs about 2.2 lbs (1 kg) would need a vat that can hold about 265 gallons (1,000 liters), which is about the size of a dumpster.

Researchers believe that even small adjustments in pot size may have a significant impact on plant growth. According to that, increasing the size of the pot only by half results in a 20 percent rise in plant growth.

September 18, 2022
How do plants grow towards light?

In order for plants to make the most of their leaf photosynthesis, they have developed a variety of strategies. The direction in which light is coming in will determine the direction of growth, just as it does with houseplants that are placed in a sunny window. Because of this, they are able to meet their requirements for energy through photosynthesis to the greatest extent possible. But who or what is directing this movement in plants? How are the real, immobile plants able to angle themselves toward the sun even though they are located in the darkest shadows?

Proteins, stem cells, and phototropism

It is essential for a plant to direct its growth toward sources of available light while it is still in its immature stages. In the absence of light, many seeds are able to germinate and live off of the starch and fat that they have stored within their bodies. The young plants push their way to the surface of the soil by elongating as much as possible and working against gravity, which serves as their primary source of guidance.

They do this by using light-detecting proteins, which enable them to bend in the direction of the light to find the shortest path to the sunlight. Adult plants are also able to sway in the direction of the light that is the most intense because their stem cells extend more on the side of the plant that is not directly exposed to light. The term “phototropism” describes the process of growth in response to a light stimulus.

Auxin is a hormone found in plants that assists in bending

The well-known scientist Charles Darwin provided the very first in-depth description of plant motion in his seminal work titled “The Power of Movement in Plants,” which was published in the year 1880.

In 1937, the Dutch researcher Frits Went suggested that the hormone auxin, which is found in plants, might play a role in the process of bending in response to light. Even though numerous subsequent findings have supported the idea that auxin is involved in this process, there was a lack of evidence that for that for quite some time.

How it works?

Auxin is the factor responsible for the elongation of these cells. Producing and transmitting this plant hormone is the job of the cells that are located near the tip of the plant shoot. After making its way through the route and stopping at a number of relay stations along the way, it eventually arrives at its final destination, which is the cells on the dark side.

Auxin is transported from one cell to the next by a complicated network of proteins that act as exporters and importers. This allows the Auxin to reach its final destination. In the presence of auxin, cell division is prompted, and the stem of the plant grows in the direction of the light.

However, in the absence of the transport proteins, the hormone will be unable to reach its destination. So, what happens when either of these substances is lacking in the body? By inhibiting the export proteins in plants called “PINs,” it is possible to make a plant less sensitive to light.

Plants like this defy the pull of gravity and continue to grow upward regardless of the direction of sunlight. The same can be achieved by inhibiting the enzyme that was responsible for activating these proteins. And phototropism will once again stop functioning properly. Auxin is the substance that gives plants the power to exhibit phototropism, bending and growing towards the light.

September 18, 2022
Why are tomatoes first green and then red?

What causes the color change, and why does it occur? Tomatoes that have not yet reached maturity and are green have a grainy texture and an unpleasant flavor. From our ancestral experiences, we know that tomatoes are not truly edible until they have turned red. The majority of edible fruits have bright colors that signal when they are ready to be consumed. But why are tomatoes first green and then red?

Leaves turning into fruit

Tomatoes begin their lives as green fruit and turn red as they ripen. Chlorophyll is the pigment that gives plants their characteristic green color. Because of the pigment, the plant is able to take in the life-giving rays of the sun. Following the acquisition of this energy, the tomato is then able to convert carbon dioxide into sugar and oxygen. The tomato fruit originates from the development of the green-colored carpels, which are located within the ovary. The green color of the newly formed fruit is caused by the fact that its constituent parts were once leaves.

The chlorophyll in the fruit body that develops from these leaves is preserved all the way up until the very last stage of the ripening process. Lycopene is a unique pigment that develops in tomatoes as they ripen, which is responsible for the tomatoes’ characteristic brilliant red color. Lycopene is a member of the carotenoid family, which is also responsible for the distinctive colors that are found in foods like carrots, bananas, and egg yolks.

A gaseous plant hormone, ethylene

In this particular instance, the signal for the change in color is provided by the plant’s increased ethylene production. The presence of this gas, which many plants use as a hormone, has the effect of hastening the maturation process. Peaches, apples, pears, bananas, and figs are some of the fruits that fall under this category. Also included are bananas. Ethylene has additional effects besides simply modifying the color. The cell walls of the fruit break down, which allows the entire thing to become flexible. In addition, the quantity of compounds that produce a bitter taste decreases, while the quantity of tastes that are less offensive increases.

Because of this hormone, tomatoes can be harvested while still green, and they will continue to ripen and turn red after being stored. When stored in the same environment as ripe apples, the ethylene in the apples speeds up the maturation process, causing the berries to turn red much more quickly than they would have otherwise. However, if there are too many tomatoes, they will rot and become overripe because of the abundance. It is not a fable that a single bad apple can ruin an entire haul of fruit and vegetables.

The use of the color red as a cautionary signal

Are there any advantages the tomato gets as a result of the change in color that occurs as it matures? Numerous plant species produce colorful fruits to attract various forms of wildlife. Fruits are consumed by animals for their nutritional value, but the seeds of the plant are typically expelled undigested. When the seeds are mature enough to sprout, only then do they provide any benefit to the plant. Because of this, the immature fruit that is still on the tree cannot be seen because of the dull green color. Due to their bitter taste, eating them is not a particularly appealing option.

However, when it is ready to be eaten, the tomato turns a brilliant red color, which both alerts you that it is ready to be consumed and also makes itself easier to find. Both animals and people attribute the meanings of “ripe,” “juicy,” “tasty,” and “edible” to the color red.

September 13, 2022
How do plants know when spring is coming

It is getting closer and closer to spring as the days are getting longer and the temperatures are getting higher. Now that winter is coming to an end, nature will also soon emerge from its slumber: the first tips of new greenery are making their way out of the ground, the buds on many shrubs and trees are beginning to thicken, and crocuses, snowdrops, and daffodils appear to be just waiting to finally bloom. However, how do they determine when the time is right? What causes some flowers to bloom first while others lag behind?

There is a vast arsenal of different triggers, each of which is effective on its own or in combination with other triggers. Internal factors such as plant hormones, genes, or the minimum size of the plant can also influence whether or not it flowers and when it does so, in addition to external factors such as the length of the day and the temperature of the surrounding environment.

The chill of winter helps the formation of flowers

A drop in temperature is the primary stimulant that causes bulb formation in many bulbous plants. For example, daffodils, crocuses, and tulips require at least a few weeks of cold weather during the winter to initiate the first stages of flowering in the bulbs that make up their stems and leaves. These precursors are not activated, and the flower does not begin to sprout until the weather becomes warmer again in the springtime. Particularly low temperatures, on the other hand, can reverse this pushing of the flower. Because of this, the bud will not emerge from the protective soil even if there is an abrupt drop in temperature after the first few warm days.

Many types of fruit trees even have their own built-in version of a heat counter, which allows the plants to keep track of the number of warm days and calculate with a high degree of precision whether or not the climate is already suitable. The trees won’t start to sprout new growth until after a predetermined number of warmer days have passed. Because of this, even a small number of unusually warm days during the winter cannot cause flowering to begin. The hazelnut, on the other hand, does not have this temperature regulator, and as a result, it can “pleasure” people who suffer from pollen allergies even in the winter, provided that the weather is warm enough for a few days.

The flowering program is activated when the day length increases

The length of the days is another factor that plays a significant role, as many plants flourish when the winter nights become shorter and the summer days become longer. As soon as the ratio of daytime to nighttime hours reaches a predetermined point, they will start to bloom. There are several plant species, including crop plants such as lettuce and spinach, for example, that are solely stimulated by light.

But how exactly do these plants measure the length of the day? There is a possibility that, just like us humans, they could possess an internal clock as well. This ticks about once every twenty-four hours, and as a result, it serves as an inner reference point. Their genes also regulate the minimum amount of light exposure required during this time before they will start to bloom. This limit is different for each species, and it can even change between individuals of the same species.

An instrument measures how bright its surroundings are

Plants are able to detect light through phytochromes proteins, just like bacteria and fungi. (Credit: NSF)

Plants have light sensors embedded in their tissues so that they can determine whether or not it is bright or dark in their immediate environment. Plants are able to detect and absorb light through a group of photoreceptor proteins known as phytochromes. They make use of them to keep track of the length of the day, and then use a complicated mechanism to compare this learning with the time kept by their inner clock. If the specified limit value is then surpassed in the spring, this will trigger an all-domino effect of physical changes, and the plant will begin to bloom as a result of these modifications.

It is the other way around for flowers that do not bloom in spring but rather in fall or winter; for them, the dark phase of the night must first reach a minimum duration before they form a flower. It is already adequate for plants with such short day lengths to turn on the light for only a brief period each night to prevent them from blooming again. These can include things like the poinsettia or the flaming beetle, for instance. Horticulture requires the shading of certain plant species because the light from moving vehicles, for example, is enough to prevent flowers from opening properly.

September 10, 2022