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Tag: battle of tours

  • Did Charles Martel Really Save Western Europe From the Arabs?

    Did Charles Martel Really Save Western Europe From the Arabs?

    Did Charles Martel really save western Europe from the Arabs? Psychologists would undoubtedly have a fit if they knew Charles was at a disadvantage in every way while his half-brothers flourished under their father’s reign. In fact, not even the court historians paid attention to him. In the end, his father disinherited him, and his stepmother sent him into captivity. He probably would have been executed if he hadn’t escaped. No one knows for sure what effects this had on the young Charles’ mind. Charles Martel (ca. 688/91–741), the prince who slayed his opponents like a hammer, did everything he could from that point on to live up to his moniker.

    Charles owed his delay to his mother Alpaida, who was likely simply a concubine of his father Pepin, whom Charles met long after Pepin’s marriage to the power-conscious Plectrude. She gave birth to Drogo and Grimoald, who went on to hold the greatest posts in the Frankish Empire.

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    Pepin of Herstal was the Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia, which was the name of the eastern part of the empire. After his victory over the western Neustrian nobles, he ascended to the position of the most influential man in the region. The Merovingian monarchs’ reign was at best nominal. The household emperors, who served as ministers, were wielding the actual power.

    However, Drogo and Grimoald both passed away before their father, prompting Plectrude to do all in her power to ensure that their grandchildren would maintain the typical status of the Arnulfing clan members—later renamed the Carolingians. However, Charles’ stepmother was no match for the nobles of Neustria, who successfully declared war on her. After Charles’s jailbreak in Cologne, several prominent Austrians came to his aid. He overcame his Western opponents and coerced Plectrude into giving him the Merovingian royal riches. From that point on, it was one hit after another.

    Charles began by confronting the princes who had supported his stepmother. The Carolingians had an uncompromising desire for power, and their troops plowed through the entire empire year after year, causing misery for the Frisians, Saxons, Bavarians, Alemanni, and, eventually, Neustria and Aquitaine. His political acumen was on display in the way he skillfully played on the animosity between the various families.

    The expanding Carolingian territories and the reclaimed royal property supplied the funds for his military endeavors. Similarly, Charles had no qualms about seizing church property. He presumably didn’t care much about learning or culture. The sword became his preferred method of command.

    Charles Martel’s Legendary Battle of Tours

    Charles Martel fought in the Battle of Tours, where today's historians claim that he saved western Europe from the Arabs.
    Bataille de Poitiers (Battle of Tours), table of Charles de Steuben (1837).

    The legendary campaign that Charles led to Poitiers (Tours) in the west in 732 is often recognized as his greatest achievement. Abd al-Rahman, the Muslim governor of Al-Andalus, opposed him. Al-Andalus was a province of the Arab Empire that had been founded on the Iberian Peninsula following the Arab defeat of the Visigoth Empire in 711.

    The Umayyad caliphs of Baghdad had repeatedly sent invading troops to Gaul, only to be beaten back each time. Because of the poor condition of the sources, the nature of the assault in 732 has not been resolved yet. Some historians have assumed the invasion was a regular invasion due to the importance of their commanders, while other medievalist historians assume it was one of the customary attacks, which were merely for plunder.

    The onslaught continued nevertheless, and the Duke of Aquitaine was powerless to halt it. The prosperous Loire Valley city of Tours appeared to have been the Muslims’ next target. The fact that Charles’ army was bolstered by Lombards, Saxons, Frisians, and Aquitanians indicates how dangerous the Frankish Empire was seen to be. On and around October 25, 732, the two sides fought between Poitiers and Tours for seven days. Abd al-Rahman gave the command to strike on the seventh day.

    From what little information we have, it appears that the Franks and their allies battled on foot, while the Arabs and Berbers rode horses. By forming a phalanx, Charles’ troops were able to fend off the onslaught and eventually wipe out the weaker, less well-equipped foe. When Abd al-Rahman was mortally wounded and fell from his horse, the morale of his troops plummeted:

    “Prince Charles boldly drew up his battle lines against them [the Arabs] and the warrior rushed in against them. With Christ’s help, he overturned their tents and hastened to battle to grind them small in slaughter. The king Abdirama having been killed, he destroyed [them], driving forth the army, he fought and won. Thus did the victor triumph over his enemies.”

    Fouracre, Continuations of Fredegar, p. 149

    Was Charles Martel Really the Savior of the West?

    Charles Martel divides the realm between Pepin and Carloman.
    Charles Martel divided the realm between his sons Pepin and Carloman.

    His reputation as the “savior of the West” has grown in prominence through subsequent generations. A popular saying goes that if Charles Martel hadn’t won, London and Paris wouldn’t have church steeples but minarets, and Oxford would have taught the Koran instead of the Bible.

    However, many historians of the present day view the Al-Andalus ascendancy as nothing more than a preliminary step. And according to others, those preliminary steps could eventually lead to the occupation.

    Some medievalists like Johannes Fried offers a fresh take on the meaning of this claim. He defends the fact that Pepin’s son Charles fought against the Saracens and that Duke Eudo of Aquitaine’s triumph formed the foundation of the narrative of the magnificent, all-decisive victory at Poitiers in 732.

    Whatever the case may be, Carolingian Charles became the appropriate figure of redemption after his army’s victory over foreign “infidels.” This let people forget the savagery of his early years as “king.” Due to his high status, he was able to administer the Frankish Empire as king following the death of Merovingian shadow king Dagobert Theuderic IV in 737 until his own death in 741. Pepin the Short, Charles’s son, was tasked with expanding the empire and establishing the Carolingians as the second ruling dynasty.

    Interestingly, another Arab invasion is more commonly mentioned in conjunction with Charles Martel’s triumph at Poitiers (Battle of Tours). This other one may have altered the path of European history as well: The Caliph Sulaiman launched an attack on Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, in 717. The Muslims’ invasion was repelled by the Greeks’ fire, leading to their ultimate defeat.

    It is stated that the Arab Empire’s offensive might was permanently weakened by this defeat. While this is true, it ignores the reality that in 751, its soldiers nonetheless penetrated deep into Central Asia and halted Chinese westward progress at the Battle of Talas. When the Abbasids, who succeeded the Umayyads in 750, relocated the seat of their empire from Damascus to Baghdad, which was located in the east of their territory, Byzantium and the rest of Europe disappeared from view from that point on.

    References

    1. Fouracre, Paul (2000). The age of Charles Martel. Harlow, England: Longman. ISBN 0-582-06475-9. OCLC 43634337.
    2. Kreiner, Jamie (2014). The Social Life of Hagiography in the Merovingian Kingdom. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 29. ISBN 978-1-107-65839-4. OCLC 1089392785.
    3. Albers, Petrus Henricus. “The Catholic Encyclopedia: St. Lambert”. www.newadvent.org. Robert Appleton Company.
    4. Barbero, Alessandro (2004). Charlemagne: Father of a Continent. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23943-1
    5. Riché, Pierre (1993). The Carolingians: A Family Who Forged Europe. Translated by Allen, Michael Idomir. University of Pennsylvania Press.
  • Battle of Tours: End of the Arab Invasion of Europe

    Battle of Tours: End of the Arab Invasion of Europe

    Historians disagree on the exact date, but October 25th, 732 seems to be when the Battle of Tours (Poitiers) occurred. During this period, the Umayyad caliphate of Muslims controlled almost all of Spain. They made repeated inroads into Gaul and even occupied the southeast of the region. The Duke of Aquitaine, Eudes (Odo the Great), faced another invasion in 732 and enlisted the help of the Franks under Charles Martel to repel it.

    Since the Franks and Aquitaine celebrated their victory against the Muslims headed by Abd al-Rahman, who was killed in the engagement, the decisive combat has been commemorated in history as the “Battle of Tours,” even though the precise site of the fighting is unknown. While warfare persisted for several more years, this incident came to symbolize the end of the Arab invasion of France. It will have been worthwhile since it increased Charles Martel’s influence and helped bring about the Carolingian victory over the Merovingians.

    Why did the Battle of Tours (Poitiers) take place?

    The Umayyad Caliphate maintained its massive growth in the early eighth century, expanding its control over most of North Africa and the eastern section of the Arabian Peninsula. In addition to controlling modern-day Portugal and Spain on the Iberian Peninsula, the caliphate also overran southern Europe with the help of a formidable cavalry of Berbers who had just converted to Islam. Located in the southeast of France, the Visigoths conquered the city of Narbonne and eventually became firmly rooted inside the Visigothic Kingdom in Septimania.

    They often made raids over the Pyrenees, known as razzias, to steal valuables. In 719, the caliphate started paying attention to the Frankish realm. In 721, during one of his expeditions, he was soundly defeated by Eudes, Duke of Aquitaine (Odo the Great), and his forces in Toulouse.

    But in 732, Abd al-Rahman led a new raid and ravaged Aquitaine. Duke of the Franks and mayor of the palace is a designation more often associated with a monarch than a mayor; thus, Eudes had to summon Charles Martel. Thus, Charles Martel and Eudes (Odo the Great), Duke of Aquitaine, will work together to repel the Islamic invasion.

    What is the correct place and date of the Battle of Tours?

    Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours, depicted in the Grandes Chroniques de France
    Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours, depicted in the Grandes Chroniques de France

    There is considerable agreement among historians that 732 was the year of the Battle of Poitiers; however, others say it occurred in 733. As for when exactly, it is still very speculative. This is unquestionably the 25th of October, 732, a Saturday. Arab reports, which are now considered the most credible, place the fight on the first Saturday of Ramadan (114 of the Hegira) or October 25. Historians are also sharply split about the precise location of the battle.

    Rather than mentioning the Battle of Poitiers, the Anglo-Saxon chroniclers of the period refer to the Battle of Tours. A reasonable assumption, given the apparent destination of Abd al-Rahman: Rahman’s sanctuary in Saint-Martin in Tours. Another theory places the conflict in the little town of Moussais-la-Bataille, inside the commune of Vouneuil-sur-Vienne, about 25 kilometers from Poitiers.

    Who were the main protagonists of the Battle of Tours in 732?

    In the Umayyad Caliphate’s army, Abd al-Rahman held the rank of general. In 721, he participated in the Battle of Toulouse. Hisham, the Caliph, named him wali (governor) of Al-Andalus in 730. Thus, he was in command of the whole Iberian peninsula that the Muslims had conquered during the preceding decades. Charles Martel, for his part, held the titles of duke of the Franks and mayor of the palace. During that ancient period, there was no such thing as France. Charles Martel ruled over what was still a divided Francia.

    He set out to expand his domain, particularly to the east. The Burgundians were also governed by Charles Martel. On the other side, Eudes reigned over the huge duchy of Aquitaine, which covered a sizable portion of present-day southern France. Eudes of Aquitaine, like Charles Martel, was an ambitious man, and in 719 their forces fought one another. Eudes, defeated, made a peace deal with the Franks and thereafter had to endure constant invasions from the south by the Arabs. An event that would lead him to form an alliance with Charles Martel in 732 for the Battle of Tours.

    How did the Battle of Tours in 732 take place?

    Charles Martel and Eudes mustered around 20,000 troops between them. Abd al-Rahman amassed a crowd of 25,000. Abd al-Rahman, true to the strategies that permitted Muslims to take over such a large area, sent out his powerful cavalry, which consisted mostly of Berber fighters. However, the other side employs an entirely different tactic.

    The bulk of the Frankish army is made up of foot men. Strongly armed and nearly entirely armored in steel, they are formidable foes. They formed a tight line to fend off the terrifying attack, as wave after wave of enemy riders were impaled on the impregnable barrier. A actual “rampart of ice” would be mentioned in the future by Arab historians.

    Who won the Battle of Tours in 732?

    After a week of fighting, it seems that Eudes’s forces were successful in attacking the Muslims from behind, forcing them to retreat in order to save not only their loot but also the families who had joined them on the raids. There was a retreat by the Arabs toward Narbonne. As Abd al-Rahman was slain in the battle, the victory was decisive. The Arabs lost a total of 12,000 troops in the battle, while their opponents lost just 1,000.

    What were the effects of the Battle of Tours in 732?

    The outcome of the Battle of Tours was pivotal for the development of the French monarchy. The big political victor was Charles Martel, who aided Duke Eudes of Aquitaine. Because Aquitaine stubbornly defied him, his power was diminished. As a result, he was able to quickly seize control of Bordeaux, a rich city. In the years after his death in 735, Eudes’ sons took over as dukes of Aquitaine. But this was a pivotal moment in history, and Aquitaine eventually became a part of the Frankish empire under Charlemagne’s rule.

    The second crucial point is the well-known saying, “Charles Martel defeated the Arabs at the Battle of Tours.” An asymmetrical dictum Although the extension of the Umayyad caliphate into Western Europe was halted thanks to Charles Martel’s triumph, the conflict itself persisted for decades. Bayonne, for instance, was ruled by Muslims until the year 759. Even when Charlemagne, the future ruler of Europe, arrived in the early ninth century, Europe still suffered from sporadic attacks.

    Bibliography:

    1. Mastnak, Tomaž (2002). Crusading Peace: Christendom, the Muslim World, and Western Political Order. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22635-6
    2. Oman, Charles W. (1960). Art of War in the Middle Ages A.D. 378–1515. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-9062-6
    3. Poke, The Battle of Tours, from the book Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World From Marathon to Waterloo by Sir Edward Creasy, MA
    4. Reagan, Geoffrey, The Guinness Book of Decisive Battles, Canopy Books, New York (1992) ISBN 1-55859-431-0
    5. Collins, Roger (1989). The Arab Conquest of Spain: 710–797. Oxford, England: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-15923-0.