The Frenchman Jean-François Champollion, one of the most renowned Egyptologists of the 19th century, developed the first scientific system for deciphering hieroglyphs. He famously stated, “I am everything for Egypt and she is everything for me,” leaving an indelible mark on history beyond his scholarly contributions. A product of the Revolution and the Egyptian expedition, Champollion played a significant role in fostering a unique bond between Paris and Cairo, a relationship that persisted two centuries later. Revered as the Prince of Egyptophiles, his essential legacy is still evident in Paris, notably through the presence of an obelisk at the Place de la Concorde.
Jean-François Champollion: Genius of Ancient Languages
Jean-François Champollion.*oil on canvas.*60 x 73,5 cm.*1831
Jean-François Champollion was born on December 23, 1790, in Figeac. His father, a bookseller originally from Isère, held pro-revolutionary ideas, even favoring the Jacobins.
The seventh child of the family, Jean-François, was noted for his keen intelligence. Legend has it that he taught himself to read amidst the books in his father’s shop. With a fiery temperament, he didn’t always fit easily into the school system but he benefited from the support of his older brother, Jacques-Joseph.
The latter, passionate about history and archaeology, recognized the potential of his younger brother. Well-regarded among the elite of Grenoble (he would become friends with Fourier and Berriat), where he resided, he brought Jean-François to the capital of the Alps to oversee his education. The young prodigy proved too gifted for his brother to mentor, so he entrusted him to an abbot. It was during this time that the future Egyptologist learned Latin and Greek, as well as Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac, and Chaldean.
In 1804, Jean-François entered the Imperial High School of Grenoble (now Stendhal High School) after passing the entrance exam with flying colors.
Note
The Rosetta Stone is an ancient Egyptian artifact dating back to 196 BCE. It contains a decree issued by King Ptolemy V in three scripts: hieroglyphics, Demotic script, and Greek. Its discovery played a crucial role in deciphering ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics.
While he didn’t quite fit into the militarized organization of the institution, he thrived intellectually, deepening his knowledge of ancient languages and embarking on his first research projects. His brother, involved in the famous “Description de l’Egypte” (a collection of research and results conducted during the Egyptian Expedition of 1799), along with an encounter with a Greek monk passionate about the land of the Pharaohs, prompted him to delve into the mysterious hieroglyphs.
Jean-François, who was only 15 years old at the time, set out to conduct a thorough investigation into them. In 1807, he left Grenoble (after dazzling its Academy of Sciences) for Paris, where he hoped to find the resources necessary for his work. As a student at the Collège de France, he further refined his linguistic knowledge. Convinced that Coptic derived from the language of the ancient Egyptians, he quickly became one of the greatest European specialists before turning his attention to the famous Rosetta Stone and various papyri.
Champollion Deciphers The Hieroglyphics of The Rosetta Stone
Place des Écritures, Figeac: Monumental reproduction of the Rosetta Stone.
At the age of 18, Champollion became a history professor at the University of Grenoble. Thanks to the political support of his brother, he was destined for a brilliant career. Alongside his teaching activities, Jean-François continued his research on hieroglyphics. A Greek text at the bottom of a stele brought back from Egypt by Napoleon Bonaparte‘s armies and previously studied unsuccessfully by Isaac Silvestre de Sacy and Thomas Young would change everything. With the help of the Rosetta Stone, on which texts in two languages (Greek and Egyptian) and three scripts (Greek, hieratic, and demotic) are inscribed, he formulated the fundamental hypothesis that the hieroglyphic system is both figurative symbolic and phonetic writing.
Despite his discoveries, Champollion would suffer from his own and especially his brother’s proximity to imperial circles. Jacques-Joseph, who during the Hundred Days had caught the attention of the Emperor himself (he had been his secretary during his stay in Grenoble), was gradually ostracized from political and academic circles after the Second Restoration. Jean-François, whose avant-garde theories and ego had earned him numerous jealousies, suffered the same fate, and both left Grenoble for Figeac. This exile to his childhood lands provided Champollion with the opportunity to perfect his work and improve his previously complicated financial situation.
By the end of 1817, he managed to return to Grenoble, taking advantage of the easing of political repression. Although just a librarian, he continued to attract attention both for his scientific activities and for his political opinions opposing the ultra-royalists. This led him to leave Grenoble once again for Paris in 1821. This year would be his greatest success.
Indeed, he then succeeded in deciphering the name of Pharaoh Ptolemy V from an inscription on the Rosetta Stone. The interpretation of Cleopatra’s name on the Philae obelisk followed this. Through a series of deductions and with a blend of intuition and logic, he established a value table for the various hieroglyphic signs.
On September 14, 1822, after exhausting work, Champollion was so convinced that he had unraveled the mystery of hieroglyphics that, overwhelmed by emotion, he suffered a mild attack (but nonetheless revealing the fragile state of health of this workaholic). Eight days later, he submitted to the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres a first summary of his discoveries. A summary of the hieroglyphic system would follow in 1824.
Champollion and Egypt: A Fatal Passion
The 1820s will see Champollion’s work receive the recognition he has long awaited. Benefiting from the support of scholars like Alexander von Humboldt (the famous German linguist and philosopher) and political figures, he manages, with the help of his brother, to finance a study trip to Italy. For his first departure from France, Jean-François goes beyond the Alps to scour libraries and museums, but above all the Egyptian collection of the king of Piedmont-Sardinia in Turin. There, he finds several pieces, notably from the 1799 Egyptian expedition, and accomplishes remarkable work, which earns him the interest of not only the Pope but also the King of France.
In 1826, Champollion was appointed curator in charge of the Egyptian collections at the Louvre Museum.
A consecration of a lifetime’s work, this position allows him to directly influence the development of nascent Egyptology. Enjoying a certain academic prestige, he convinces King Charles X to acquire several wonders, whether from the collection of the British consul in Egypt or from an obelisk from Luxor (offered by the viceroy Mehmet Ali), which now stands on the Place de la Concorde.
The Founder of Modern Scientific Egyptology
In 1828, at the peak of his career, Jean-François Champollion set sail for Egypt. After over 20 years of theoretical work, he would finally be able to see with his own eyes the monuments he had long dreamed of. Champollion, however, was a man who had grown weary from making sacrifices to advance his science at the age of almost 40. Egypt at that time was a remote country whose climate did not bode well for Europeans due to several endemic diseases.
Once again neglecting his health, the Egyptologist set out to verify on-site the validity of his theories on hieroglyphs. From his eighteen months of travel, he returned with an immeasurable mass of notes, documents, and notebooks, but also with a chronic illness (schistosomiasis?) that would eventually take his life.
Upon his return, Champollion, elected to the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres, took the lead as the very first chair of Egyptian antiquity at the Collège de France. He published four volumes of drawings and sketches on the monuments studied during his journey and completed his grammar and Egyptian dictionary, a masterful synthesis of his work. However, he would not have the opportunity to publish them himself (his brother would take care of that). He succumbed to an attack on March 4, 1832, at the age of 41, leaving behind an orphaned discipline but one with a promising future.
Religious devotion and joyous celebration are combined in Egypt around Christmas. On January 7th, the event is observed after a 43-day fasting period called “The Holy Nativity Fast,” during which people consume only vegan products. The Coptic Orthodox Church has a liturgy or service on Christmas Eve that might last until four in the morning. Meat, eggs, and butter are staples in the post-service feast as families break their fast together. Baba Noël, Santa Claus, is also invited to the party. Even though Christians make up a small percentage of Egypt’s population, many celebrate the secular parts of Christmas by decorating their homes and public areas with lights, trees, and ornaments.
Christmas Traditions in Egypt
The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria is home to between 5 and 15 percent of Egypt’s Christian population. According to the number of followers, the Egyptian Christian community is the biggest in the Middle East. There are some unusual Christmas customs observed in Egypt, which are as follows:
Fasting and Feasting: Christians in Egypt observe a strict fast for forty-three days leading up to Christmas, which, by their reckoning, occurs on January 7th. Known as the “Advent” fast, it starts on November 25th and concludes on Christmas Eve. Christians abstain from meat, dairy, and other indulgent foods during Advent as a spiritual and physical cleanse. The fast serves as more than just a personal practice; it fosters community among the Copts, strengthening their faith and providing mutual support.
Christmas Eve Mass: Coptic Orthodox Christians sometimes stay up until four in the morning on Christmas Eve for a special ritual or service. Meat, eggs, and butter are staples in the post-service feast as families break their fast together.
Household Tree and Light Decoration: Christmas is celebrated by Christians who gather as a family for worship sessions and adorn their homes with festive lights and nativity displays.
Baba Noël: Father Christmas is the Egyptian name for Santa Claus. Children hope that he will discreetly drop down some goodies through a window. Baba Noël might find some kahk waiting for him.
Egyptian Christmas Foods: On Christmas Day, Egyptian people give special foods like “Zalabya” (donuts) and “Bouri” (mullet fish) to the impoverished. They also enjoy sharing traditional Coptic meals with loved ones, such as fata, a casserole made with meat and bread.
Places to Visit in Egypt at Christmas
Christmas in Egypt is a special time because of the country’s rich history, vibrant culture, and traditions. Among the most popular Christmas destinations in Egypt are these:
Luxor
Luxor Temple Avenue of Sphinxes
Located amid what has been called “the world’s greatest open-air museum,” Luxor is home to a mix of modern architecture and ancient artifacts. Luxor undergoes a seasonal transformation during Christmas. The city’s historic tombs, temples, and ruins, including the Valley of the Kings and the Temple of Karnak, are open to visitors. Hot air balloon tours provide views of the lit temples, which is among the unique Christmas activities in Egypt.
The Giza Pyramids Complex
One of the best ways to celebrate Christmas in Egypt is to visit the Giza Pyramids Complex. Three pyramids—the Great Pyramid of Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure—stand tall and majestic. Since the weather is moderate and sunny, the pyramids stand out against the blue sky.
The Grand Egyptian Museum
A Christmas visit to the Grand Egyptian Museum is in order for any history buff with an interest in ancient Egypt. Among the world’s largest museums, this one houses priceless artifacts from ancient Egypt. During Christmas, the museum also goes all out with holiday decorations.
The Valley of the Kings
Where Egypt’s famous ancient pharaohs lie is known as the Valley of the Kings. Particularly during Christmas, this valley is a sight to see since this time of year offers moderate winter weather. The pharaohs of the 18th, 19th, and 20th dynasties are laid to rest here.
Traditional Christmas Foods in Egypt
Both Christians and Muslims in Egypt appreciate these meals, and on Christmas Eve, many families try to prepare a special supper. In Egypt, the most beloved Christmas dishes usually include the following options:
Kahk: On Christmas, the Egyptians bake kahk as early as the second day of Christmas, a treat that looks like shortbread biscuits. These are sugary, buttery cookies that are covered in chocolate with almonds or dried fruit.
Qatayef: A traditional Egyptian Christmas dessert, it is a pancake-like pastry filled with sweetened cheese or walnuts.
Ghyrba: One further kind of cookie that many Egyptians make for Christmas is the ghryba. It’s a shortbread-type biscuit, also known as qurabiya.
Fata: Christian Egyptians arrange a large feast after finishing their prayers; it includes many of the Egyptian foods that they abstained from for forty-three days. In addition to the lamb, this dish has the popular Egyptian dish “Fata,” a lamb broth served with rice, bread, red sauce, garlic, and lamb.
Rice Pudding: Christmas supper includes rice pudding, a traditional side dish made with milk, sugar, rice, and spices such as nutmeg and cinnamon.
Baklava: Layers of phyllo dough filled with honey and almonds form a delicious dessert known as baklava in Egypt, which has Turkish origins.
Fattah: Fattah is a lamb stock-steeped rice and bread dish topped with fried garlic and onions.
Baked Turkey or Lamb: The centerpiece of Christmas dinners in Egypt consists of baked turkey or lamb, while others have roasted chicken or lamb.
History of Christmas in Egypt
Christmas celebrations in Egypt have become more common, likely starting in the early 1990s. The Coptic Orthodox Church, the largest Christian denomination in Egypt, celebrates Christmas on January 7, and the month leading up to it is known as Kiahk. Coptic Orthodox Christians observe a specific fast, essentially adopting a vegan diet, for the 43 days leading up to Christmas, from November 25th to January 6th, called ‘The Holy Nativity Fast.’
Traditional Egyptian Christmas celebrations, rooted in the days leading up to and after December 25th and evolving from rituals honoring Heru (Horus), are considered a recent development in the celebration of Christmas, beginning in the early 1990s.
Despite a low Christian population (5 to 15 million), many Egyptians partake in this secular celebration. Commercialization is evident with the sale of Christmas trees, food, and decorations in most large stores. Streets, parks, and hotels are decorated for the holiday season. Baba Noël, or Father Christmas, is the Egyptian name for Santa Claus. The Egyptian children hope he might come through a window and leave some goodies. Some kahk might be left out for Baba Noël.
Coptic Christians are required to attend a specific liturgy or service on January 6th, Christmas Eve. Services start at 10:30 p.m., with some chapels open for prayer at 10:00 p.m. Many people gather in churches around 9:00 p.m. to socialize.
While some services may extend until 4 in the morning, most conclude shortly after midnight. After the Christmas service, people go home to prepare for the holiday feast. On the seventh day of Christmas, Orthodox Christmas, people gather at home for celebrations, often sharing “kahk,” special sweet biscuits, as gifts.
Public Holidays in Egypt
Every year on a certain day, the following official holidays take place in Egypt:
The Suez Canal, opened in Egypt in 1869, is a vital sea route that connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea and, by extension, the Indian Ocean. The Universal Canal Company was nationalized by Egyptian President Nasser, prompting immediate responses. The United Kingdom, France, and Israel, three allies, launched a military battle against Egypt. The United States and the Soviet Union, the world’s two superpowers at the time, stepped in quickly amid heightened tensions. Thus, the worldwide Suez crisis occurred in a very specific setting, characterized by the interplay of the Cold War, the Arab-Israeli disputes, and the end of colonialism.
The construction of the Suez Canal and British domination
Because of the Suez Canal, ships can travel from the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean without having to go through Africa. (Image: W. Commons. CC BY 2.5)
Since the late 18th century, people had been planning to create a waterway that would connect the Mediterranean and the Red Seas. In the middle of the 19th century, Ferdinand de Lesseps took it up. The former Consul General of Alexandria used his personal relationship with Sa’id of Egypt, now Viceroy of Egypt, to further his agenda.
He negotiated his way into a 99-year lease. In 1858, he established the Compagnie universelle du canal maritime de Suez (Universal Company of the Maritime Canal of Suez) to finish building the canal. The United Kingdom, however, was quick to reject the operation out of concern for its economic superiority along the route to India.
Even though it halted work for three years, it ultimately failed to thwart the success of the project. On November 17, 1869, the Suez Canal opened to the public. It stretched for a total of 162 kilometers and would facilitate increased shipping activity. The economic potential of this sea route between Europe and Asia was rapidly recognized in the United Kingdom. After purchasing the Egyptian stock, it became the company’s single-largest shareholder. The United Kingdom gradually consolidated its control over the nation by planting soldiers in key locations.
The nationalization of the Suez Canal
After the Suez Canal was nationalized in 1956, a statue honoring Ferdinand de Lesseps, a Frenchman who oversaw the canal’s construction, was taken down.
Since the 1880s, Egypt had been experiencing a growing sense of nationalism that eventually led to the country’s proclamation of independence. Upon signing a treaty with Britain in 1936, the latter withdrew its occupying forces from the country, with the exception of those stationed in and around the Suez Canal. Therefore, Britain maintained its sway over the seaway by making its defense a top priority. This intrusive presence was not well received by Egyptians, and King Farouk I’s popularity plummeted. In addition, the Arab-Israeli conflict broke out in 1948, further destabilizing the region. Despite the armistice, hostilities persisted.
Gamal Abdel Nasser took control of Egypt when the monarchy was overthrown, and in 1954 he successfully negotiated the British evacuation of all of their soldiers from the country. Simultaneously, the Egyptian president planned the Aswan Dam’s construction and asked the United States for funding. After being turned down by the British and the French, he nationalized the Suez Canal’s Universal Company on July 26, 1956.
The unexpectedness hit like a brick. The United Kingdom swiftly responded. Anthony Eden, the country’s prime minister, regarded this as a danger to commerce and the economy. Very soon, he was able to win over France, whose patience with Nasser’s advocacy of Algerian nationalists had worn thin. Meanwhile, American President Dwight Eisenhower steadfastly declined to join the battle.
The Suez crisis
While Eisenhower sought a diplomatic resolution, British and French representatives, together with representatives from Israel, met in private in Sevres. The three countries then devised an offensive strategy, which called for Israel to invade Egypt, whose forces were already engaged in combat on the border.
Two others would step in, claiming to be guarding the canal. And thus, on October 29, 1956, the Israeli army entered Sinai as planned. The French and British quickly issued a demand for the warring parties to get out of the canal zones. Nasser’s refusal was anticipated and exploited as justification for involvement by France and Britain.
Eisenhower was caught off guard by this involvement and attempted to take swift action. He was quite concerned that the Arab governments, in the middle of the Cold War, might start looking to the Soviet Union for help. The US president asked the UN to approve a resolution ordering a ceasefire because of this.
Despite this, Franco-British forces massed along the canal. When the Soviet Union’s forces were still stationed in Egypt, it threatened to launch rockets at the nations involved. The “two great ones” decided to stop their battle despite the pressures that opposed them, especially in light of the happenings in Hungary.
The aftermath of the Suez crisis
With the use of economic and political penalties, the United Nations was able to get Great Britain to comply with its decision. The French government was forced to agree to the ceasefire. Both countries felt humiliated by the loss and withdrew their forces from the zone under UNEF (United Nations Emergency Force) supervision by December.
Nasser, on the other hand, was becoming more well-liked among Muslims. Brief though it was, the Suez Canal crisis was indicative of broader underlying conflicts. Relations between the United States and the Soviet Union remained tight in the midst of the Cold War, which had been ongoing since 1946. It was impossible for the European nations, who were losing ground in the Middle East, to challenge the “big two.” Finally, the incident did little except reignite tensions between Israelis and Arabs, which eventually led to the Six-Day War.
TIMELINE OF THE SUEZ CRISIS
November 30, 1854: Ferdinand de Lesseps was granted the concession for the Suez Canal
The Viceroy of Egypt, Mohamed Sa’id Pasha (Sa’id of Egypt), granted Ferdinand de Lesseps a 99-year concession to construct the Suez Canal. The French businessman’s goal was to establish a sea connection between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. When the current concession ended, Egypt would take full ownership of the canal.
Ferdinand de Lesseps established the Compagnie universelle du canal maritime de Suez to handle the project’s finances and construction. The Suez Canal opened to much fanfare in 1869, despite difficulties with the British. This massive, 162 km-long project took 10 years to complete.
November 17, 1869: Inauguration of the Suez Canal
The opening of the Suez Canal in the 19th century and the Panama Canal in 1914 both contributed to the growth of marine traffic. Empress Eugenie, wife of Napoleon III, Prince of Prussia, Emperor of Austria Franz Joseph, and an English envoy attended the opening of the Suez Canal on November 17, 1869. Roughly forty ships made the journey via the canal’s 162 kilometer length on this particular occasion.
October 29, 1888: Internationalization of the Suez Canal
The Suez Canal became part of the international system thanks to a treaty signed in Constantinople (İstanbul) by various nations, including England. It was thus available for use by any ship, of any country, during both peace and conflict. However, this rule was not always adhered to in the years after 1875, especially during World Wars I and II, when England controlled the lion’s share of the Canal Company’s shares.
February 28, 1922: End of the English protectorate over Egypt
When the Egyptian independence movement became too strong to ignore, the British government declared that the protectorate it had created over Egypt in 1914 was officially terminated. Since 1882, Great Britain was effectively ruling the region. In spite of achieving independence, the nation still had very little control over its own affairs.
Indeed, the British monarch retained exclusive control over matters like Suez Canal security, military matters, and the safeguarding of foreign interests. Once the protectorate was abolished, Egypt became a monarchy, and Sultan Fouad I anointed himself king. However, it wasn’t really independent until an agreement was reached between France and Egypt in 1936.
August 26, 1936: Britain recognizes the independence of Egypt
In effect, as a result of the signing of an agreement between Britain and Egypt, Egypt became a sovereign nation. Egypt had become a monarchy by the time the British protectorate ended in 1922, having been formed in 1914. On the other hand, Britain maintained control over the country’s military and diplomatic affairs. As a result, its forces maintained a significant presence over most of the country. The signature of this pact required them to depart the nation, with the exception of the Suez Canal. In 1953, after the “free officers” coup d’état led by Neguib and Nasser, the Republic was declared.
23 July 1952: Overthrow of the Egyptian monarchy
The secretive group known only as “the free officers” ousted King Farouk in the middle of the night. Mohamed Neguib, a general, was named president after the proclamation of the Republic. Since the conclusion of the first Arab-Israeli war (1948–49), Egypt had been in a state of crisis. The monarch was blamed for Israel’s victory, and his capitulation to the British, who had established themselves on the Suez Canal, startled the country’s many political currents.
Young Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser, who later became Deputy Prime Minister, launched the progressive movement that toppled him. On July 26, King Farouk abdicated and fled to exile in Monaco. The military leader, General Mohamed Neguib, was elected president.
18 June 1953: Proclamation of the Republic of Egypt
Egypt became a republic after the “free officers” secret society staged a coup d’état the previous year to remove King Farouk. Mohamed Neguib, a general, was elected president. However, he was fired in November 1954 when he had a conflict with Lieutenant Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser. After then, all authority was given to Nasser. With the treaty of departure of the Suez Canal Zone in June 1956, he ended the British occupation of Egypt (which had started in 1882).
June 1956: The British fleet leaves the Suez Canal
When the final British warship exited the Suez Canal, Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser was able to celebrate. Since the collapse of the monarchy in 1952, Egyptians had been calling for the withdrawal of foreign forces. The British and Egyptian governments reached an agreement to completely evacuate the territory in 1954. Nasser declared the canal to be state-owned after its liberation. That way, the Aswan Dam could be built, he hoped. A serious crisis on a global scale was precipitated by the occurrence.
July 26, 1956: Nasser nationalizes the Suez Canal
When Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser visited Alexandria to mark the 5th anniversary of the revolution, he made public his plans to nationalize the Suez Canal and seize the assets of the Universal Suez Canal Company. After the United Kingdom and the United States declined to contribute to funding the Aswan Dam, he made the decision to go on with the project on his own.
France and England were charging passage fees on this waterway between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, and the “Rais’” response sparked a global crisis. Israel was the first to react, attacking Egypt on October 29; the United Kingdom and France followed suit by sending soldiers. The United Nations succeeded in ending hostilities by having Western soldiers leave the canal’s perimeter. Nasser was able to emerge from the political crisis in a stronger position.
October 22, 1956: An alliance was formed against Egypt
Upon hearing of Egyptian President Nasser’s declaration that the Suez Canal be nationalized, representatives from the United Kingdom, France, and Israel gathered in a secret location in Sèvres to discuss a response. The different delegates reached a consensus on a coordinated action in Egypt to take the canal. The interests of the three countries were distinct. Britain, which had ruled and controlled Suez for decades, was worried about the impact of nationalization on the British economy.
Since Egypt’s ruler backed Algerian nationalists in their fight against French colonialism, France interfered to remove him from office. To that purpose, Israel wanted Egypt to relinquish its occupation of the Gaza Strip. Two days of planning and deliberation resulted in the launch of the strike on October 29. As planned, Israel would attack the Sinai Peninsula. France and Britain then sent soldiers under the guise of protecting strategic canal locations.
October 29, 1956: Israel attacks Egypt
Britain, France, and Israel’s covert partnership had begun its operation a few days earlier. Israeli soldiers invaded Sinai as planned. The other two nations stepped up and offered to deploy troops to guard the canal against the Egyptian president. Nasser, however, would have none of this invasion and hence refused. French and British paratroopers dropped from the sky and soon invaded Egypt thereafter. Key objectives were Port Said and Fuad.
October 31, 1956: Franco-British intervention against Egypt
Unhappy with Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser’s plan to nationalize the canal, the British and the French invaded the Suez Canal Zone (July 26, 1956). Britain and France, therefore, attacked Egypt to ensure free passage through the Suez Canal. Beginning on October 29th, Israel had already invaded the Sinai Peninsula. On November 6, the United States and the Soviet Union applied enough pressure to bring an end to the fighting.
November 4, 1956: The UN created UNEF
The United Nations Emergency Force was formed after the Soviet Union and the United States applied pressure on the organization. Its goal was to ease tensions during the Suez Crisis by monitoring the complete evacuation of French, Israeli, and British forces. UNEF was the first UN military intervention force, and it was sent to Egypt soon after it was established. So far, only observational soldiers had been sent. Up to Nasser’s 1967 demand for its withdrawal, it stayed in the nation to maintain peace.
November 6, 1956: Cease-fire in the Suez Crisis
The United Kingdom, France, and Israel all agreed to the UN-mandated ceasefire. Since the war had drained the country’s resources, Britain had no choice but to join. The United States and the Soviet Union both urged the departure of soldiers, so the country could not rely on international help. Thus, the three nations were publicly defeated in their own fight. Slowly but surely, from October onward to December, French and British forces withdrew from the area.
March 29, 1957: Reopening of the Suez Canal
In order to restore navigation via the Suez Canal, Egypt reopened it. When the French and British initially attacked, President Nasser destroyed roughly 40 ships in the canal to prevent them from entering. After agreeing to a ceasefire in November of 1956, soldiers were able to leave the area and clearing could begin. Tensions with Israel, which had joined the Allies on the side of the French and British, persisted, though. This was already beginning to happen by the time of the Six-Day War in 1967, which ultimately resulted in the canal being closed once more, this time until 1975.
The most pivotal moment in human history occurred around 11,000 years ago, when agriculture was first developed. It made space for novel ways of thinking and doing things, as well as for a reorganization of society. For what reasons did modern Homo sapiens first begin farming? Actually, nobody can say for sure. The emergence of agriculture, however, was crucial to the subsequent growth of urban centers, literacy, and ultimately, civilization.
Since the Neolithic Era forward, human sustenance has shifted away from hunting and gathering to agriculture and livestock raising. In the 10th millennium BC, this shift began in the Near East and spread to other population hubs throughout the globe. Population expansion, attesting to a change in lifestyle that resulted in higher food demands, explains this phenomenon.
Several key innovations have shaped the history of agriculture, including the plow, crop rotation, irrigation systems, and the use of fertilizers. These innovations improved crop yields and made agriculture more efficient.
Improvements in Farming
Several times during the 10th and 8th millennia B.C., people on all four continents “developed” agriculture on their own. The archaeological remnants of plants and animals are our only source of information, although their numbers were likely far larger in reality. Even before the first traces of agriculture, it’s likely that ancient hunter-gatherers had established a kind of proto-agricultural by dispersing seeds or tubers from the plants they had gathered from the wild to ensure that the plants would not be depleted.
Neolithic agricultural equipment.
Recent hunter-gatherer cultures apparently still engaged in this method, as shown by anthropological research. Under the right circumstances, it has even developed into a full-fledged manufacturing sector. Tools like the millstone for grinding, the knife for harvesting, and the digging stick were all creations of the hunter-gatherers. There was no need to develop brand-new technologies to facilitate the emergence of agriculture.
While humans have been around for at least 300,000 years, agriculture as a subsistence economy didn’t emerge until around 11,000 years ago and it took centuries to become widespread. This means that fewer than 5% of human history, or around 500 generations, has been spent as “farmers.” Accordingly, natural selection has led to our species’ development, notably in our forager ancestry. Natural selection, however, benefited those who engaged in agriculture. The evidence may be found in the decipherment of the human genome.
For instance, lactase, an enzyme that allows newborns to digest lactose, a milk protein, has persisted in adults thanks to a genetic mutation in the DNA of Central European herders 6,000 years ago. After the age of four, most people lose the ability to digest lactose because this enzyme stops being produced. This mutation is now widespread throughout Europe but is rare or nonexistent in regions such as the Far East and South America, where milk production from domesticated animals is not commercially exploited.
Early agricultural societies used various techniques, such as slash-and-burn agriculture, terracing, and the cultivation of staple crops like wheat, barley, and rice. These techniques varied depending on the region and available resources.
Agriculture Helps Increase the Population
Paleolithic village.
Thus, the descendants of settled farmers rose to prominence at the expense of their nomadic ancestors. Because of their low reproductive success, the latter were driven to the margins of the earth, if not eradicated altogether, while farmers came to rule the world. The number of Homo sapiens has increased from 2–5 million to 8 billion since the advent of agriculture. This agricultural production system has never ceased changing natural vegetation, with more alarming environmental repercussions, and this is directly responsible for the dramatic increase in the world’s population.
Despite the wide spread of agriculture, only a select few societies were able to develop under the influence of this economic model. To begin, have a look at South-West Asia. Due to the semi-arid environment, the ruins in this area are in remarkably good condition, making it one of the finest documented regions in the world by archaeologists. Cereals like wheat, barley, and rye, as well as legumes like peas, chickpeas, and lentils, grow wild in their native environment in the Fertile Crescent (seen on the map). The previous ice age occurred 23,000 years ago, and at that time, wheat and barley were already being cultivated.
About 14,000 years ago, in the southern Levant, people settled down thanks to the great yields and easy storage of these plants (Israel, Palestine, Jordan). Then, starting about 11,000 years ago, locals started growing and using grains commercially on a huge scale. Through Darwinian selection, the plants that were most suited to cultivation eventually became the dominant species, while their wild relatives were extinct over the course of the next millennium. Domestication (or cultivar improvement) began with natural selection and evolved into the intentional breeding used today.
Early Stages of Livestock Breeding
Agriculture of Ancient Egypt.
Animal husbandry, including the domestication of the cow, goat, sheep, and pig, also began in this period, around 10,500 years ago. Plants and animals provided the starch (a vast energy store!) that powered the subsequent flourishing of civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Europe beginning in the 4th millennium BC. This agricultural assemblage could adjust to many climates, allowing it to expand from northern Europe to the Americas, Africa, and even Australia. The urbanization, irrigation, animal traction, and literacy that followed the development of agriculture.
Further annual grain plants were domesticated elsewhere, giving birth to additional civilizations as well. These included rice and millet in China, maize in Central America, quinoa in South America, and millet and sorghum in Africa. In tropical regions like the Amazon and New Guinea, horticultural systems based on tubers have become the backbone of subsistence agriculture.
That begs the question: why did we develop agriculture? Scientists have long been intrigued by this subject, and they often discuss it by bringing up topics like population expansion, climate change, technical, mental, and social advancements, or the overexploitation of resources. However, it is common for us to mix the causes with the results. The habitat, climate, and civilization of each agricultural domestication site are distinct from one another. The “why” question has been replaced by a focus on the “how” and “by what procedures” of agriculture’s spread to new areas of the globe.
Bibliography
Melinda Zeder (2011). “The Origins of Agriculture in the Near East”. Current Anthropology.
One of the first human societies, Ancient Egypt, had been around for a very long time. King Narmer of Egypt united Upper and Lower Egypt before the year 3000 BC. He ushered in a dynasty of pharaohs that ruled Egypt for nearly 2,500 years. The Nile’s frequent yearly floods ensured more bountiful crops, which contributed to Egypt’s and the Pharaohs’ long lifespans and prosperous rule. The river served as the primary north-south transportation corridor, and the vast desert that surrounded it served as a natural barrier against invaders while also providing a source of construction materials and valuable metals. As a result of the Nile’s depletion, Egypt became a desert, and the development of Egyptian civilization was likely prevented. Egypt is a gift from the Nile, as the Greek historian Herodotus put it in the 5th century BC.
The Nile Valley is 500 miles (800 kilometers) long, beginning at the first cataract of the river near the old Egyptian boundary and ending at the Mediterranean. The Nile rises in the Ethiopian Highlands, much to the south of modern-day Egypt.
Back in Ancient Egypt, the waters of the Nile River were swelled by the onset of summer’s heavy rains, and by the conclusion of the season, it overflowed its banks into Egypt. As the water levels dropped, the floods left behind a damp, silty landscape. The Ancient Egyptians never required flood walls or elaborate water management techniques.
Ancient Egyptians planted their seeds in the fall in the rich, soggy soil, and then allowed the crops to mature in the winter sun. Then, in the spring, they harvested the fields just in time for the next flood. Only when the Nile floods were really bad did the people suffer from famine.
Around the 6th millennium BC (6000 to 5001 BC), farmers established themselves in the Nile Valley. The Sahara, now a huge grassland punctuated by numerous lakes, was formerly cultivable when North Africa was wetter than it is now. The environment started becoming drier and more desert-like about 4000 BC. Some Egyptian farmers became nomad herders, while others settled in the Nile Valley.
The beginnings of Egyptian culture
People living in the Nile Valley had been dividing the country into two distinct parts for thousands of years: Upper Egypt, in the south, along the river, and Lower Egypt, in the north, surrounding the delta. The southern area was guarded by the vulture goddess Nekhbet, while the northern part was guarded by the cobra goddess Wadjet. Both regions also had their own symbols, the lotus and the white crown in the south, the papyrus and the red crown in the north.
A kingdom developed in the southern area of Upper Egypt just before 3000 BC. It was during this time that the pictographic writing system of hieroglyphics was in widespread use. According to history, Narmer, the first king of Egypt, united the land by leading an army to victory over Lower Egypt. He made Memphis the new state capital due to its central location and strategic importance. Egypt’s successor kings built a robust administration during their time in power. Due to his divine lineage as the son of Ra, the sun god, the king was able to rule for all time.
The documents that have made it down to us have allowed historians to create a thorough list of the royal dynasties that dominated ancient Egypt and the approximate dates of their reigns, which span nearly continuously from 2920 to 30 BC. They did this by creating time eras in Egypt’s history. Following the collapse of the early dynasties (2920–2649 BC), the old empire (2649–2134 BC) saw royal rule expand southward all the way to Nubia. The conflict between competing dynasties (the first intermediate period, 2134–2040 BC) was followed by the reunification of Egypt under the Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 BC).
Pharaoh: ruler, and deity or a god-king
The Pharaohs were the kings and queens of ancient Egypt. The Pharaoh was both a human king and the divine offspring of the sun deity Ra. The Egyptians saw the Pharaoh as the embodiment of the gods, who sent him to Earth to act as a mediator between the gods and humans. The Pharaoh only would become a god after his death if the Egyptians believed he had supernatural abilities, such as the ability to control the Nile’s annual floods.
How the Pharaoh’s authority shaped Egyptian society
During his reign, the pharaoh had unchecked authority since he served as head of state, commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and spiritual leader for his people. Supporting him in his efforts was a strong administration, with the viziers as the show-stopping protagonists. Since this was the case, the pharaoh enjoyed unchecked and consolidated authority.
The many facets of the pharaoh’s authority were represented by his characteristics. He represented national sovereignty by donning the pschent, the twofold crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. The uraeus, the snake symbol of protection, was tattooed on his forehead. The ruler held two scepters (the hook and the whip) as symbols of his authority.
Up to Alexander the Great‘s invasion of Egypt in 332 BC, 31 dynasties of pharaohs ruled Egypt in succession (because the following rulers, i.e., the Macedonian and Ptolemaic dynasties, were not really pharaohs).
Ancient Egyptian Empire
About 2649 BC, a time period known as the Old Empire began. Both the Egyptian kingdom and culture were expected to develop their signature features during this time. The Old Kingdom was the time when ideals were established that would serve as constant touchstones for years, if not millennia, to come.
The notion of divine kingship underpinned the whole of pharaonic Egyptian society. The king, as the reincarnation of Horus and the son of Osiris, acted as both an interpreter and an agent of the life force that kept the universe going. He was the only person responsible for managing the government and the economy. He had ownership of all of Egypt. The peasants, who were deemed to be dependents and were thus obligated to do tasks, did so in family teams overseen by royal authorities. The Old Kingdom monarchy was centralized and bureaucratic, yet it was not an arbitrary system. Power and fairness were always inextricably intertwined concepts.
In the beginning, only the king could attain immortality. When he dies, he becomes like the deity Osiris and watches over his home and the people from above. Therefore, the primary task of Egyptian dynasties was the building of tombs that would stand the test of time and ensure the king’s eternal legacy. The Egyptians led military expeditions against the Nubians, Libyans, and Sinai nomads since the reign of Snefru (about 2625–2601 BC) to acquire the raw materials needed for their great achievements, like wood from Lebanon.
The builders of the Egyptian pyramids
Massive structures began to arise throughout the Old Kingdom. Imhotep, minister to King Djoser, erected the first royal tomb at Saqqara, a seven-tiered structure with rows of stones defining the levels. This huge monument was built to honor a king who, even in death, continues to watch over his subjects.
Thanks to the pyramids of Giza, we know the names of Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure. The slanting sun rays symbolized by the pyramids’ form let the king’s soul reach heaven after death. For decades, a massive workforce was recruited to create these massive stone monuments.
The Pharaoh was mummified after his death. Mummification, a method that emerged in Ancient Egypt about the 3rd millennium BC, involved drying the corpse to prevent it from decomposing further. The bandage made the body seem nearly alive. In this way, the body would serve as a home for the soul all the time.
The pharaoh’s body was relocated to the pyramid’s central burial chamber. The walls of the chamber were covered with texts and magic formulae, and the luxurious items inside were meant to follow the departed into the afterlife. As soon as the funeral was over, the entrance to the room was blocked up with stones.
The pyramids were not constructed by slaves, as is often believed, but rather by trained artisans with the assistance of idle peasants during the flood season. How the hundreds of massive stone slabs were lifted and stacked one above the other remains a mystery.
Due to the high cost involved, pyramid building was abandoned after the end of the Middle Kingdom. When it came to displaying their riches and authority, the following Egyptian kings favored constructing temples adorned with huge bas-reliefs and sculptures.
The Middle Kingdom
The seated scribe, c. 2620-2500 BC. (Credit: Rama, BY-SA 2.0)
The period between the end of the 7th dynasty and the start of the 6th dynasty, or roughly 2152 BC and 2065 BC, is known as the First Intermediate Period. The invasions caused the region to become fractured, starvation to develop, and rebellion movements to proliferate, all of which coincided with the spread of the religion of Osiris, goddess of agriculture (who also taught mankind the technique of making beer).
In the year 2050 BC, after many years of civil conflict, Egypt was finally reunited under the rule of Mentuhotep II of Thebes. The Old Kingdom’s rigid structure was gradually dismantled and replaced with a more malleable Middle Kingdom governance, beginning about the year 2050 or 1786 BC.
During this time period, a theological compromise was reached with the Theban and Heliopolitan clergy in which Amun was connected with Ra. This was done in an effort to strengthen national unity. Throughout the 2nd millennium, the authority of the Amun priesthood was to be strengthened. Amenemhat I (1991-1962 BC) and Senusret III (1877-1843 BC), kings of the 12th dynasty, worked to reduce regional influence over the central government.
By acting as an intermediary between Amun-Ra and humanity, the pharaoh was able to increase his own authority, decreasing regional feudalism and guaranteeing the continuity of the kingdom during his own reign. Simultaneously, the possibility of eternal life opened up to a wider range of people. From now on, anybody could go there, so long as they adhere to the ritual’s tight guidelines. During this time, scribes reached the height of their power; they were the first real “middle class,” standing between commoners and nobles.
The Middle Kingdom wasn’t more “imperialist” than the one before it, but its kings still wanted to protect Egypt by fortifying its outposts. In the north-east, Amenemhat I had the “Prince’s Wall” built in front of the Bedouins (around 1976 BC); in the south, the high valley of the Nile was annexed up to Semma, beyond the second cataract, at the borders of Nubia. And it was protected by the construction, under the 12th dynasty, of fourteen fortresses that extended from Elephantine to Semna (Nubia).
Amenemhat III (1842–1797 BC) had a massive funerary complex, the “labyrinth” of the Greeks, in the center of the city and constructed and ordered massive works of drainage and irrigation for its expansion.
Egypt’s culture was revived after a period of invasion
A painting of an ancient Egyptian chariot. (Credit: Image)
After nearly three centuries of relative stability, the Ancient Egyptians began a period of turmoil known as the second intermediate period (1640–1532 BC). The inflow of Semitic inhabitants from Asia, who had been pushed out by the Indo-European invasions, threatens the stability of Egypt’s government. The Hyksos, who had established themselves in the region to the northeast of the Delta, waited until the pharaohs of the 13th and 14th dynasties fell from power to conquer all of Lower Egypt.
As a result of their military prowess, Egypt was able to acquire horses and chariots. Avaris, the Hyksos’ power hub, enters a new intermediate era as the seat of a 15th foreign dynasty. The Hyksos monarchs followed the Egyptian pharaohs’ example and adopted their cartouche and procedure, as well as Egyptian culture and religion.
Pharaoh: its origins and significance
The southerners put up a fight against the invaders. The rulers of Thebes took it upon themselves to free the land between Elephantine and Abydos. Even though Kamose was successful in his fight against the Hyksos, it was his brother, the Pharaoh Ahmose I, who ultimately expelled the invaders and united the land once more. When he assumed power in around 1552 or 1070 BC, he established the 18th dynasty and the New Kingdom. It was Ahmose who established the New Kingdom and the 18th dynasty (about 1552-1070 BC). It was during this era that the title “pharaoh” first appeared in historical records. This moniker, which translates to “great palace,” was chosen to reflect their prominent position within the administration.
The Egyptians realized that the period of seclusion from which their nation had benefited until the advent of the Hyksos was finished after experiencing foreign occupation. Egypt invested heavily in its military and fought a succession of endless battles for four centuries to secure its position of dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean marine commerce, the control of the Syro-Palestinian ports, and the caravan routes going to Mesopotamia.
The New Kingdom, in contrast to the Old and Middle Kingdoms, was unwaveringly imperialist; it vied with the Mitanni and the Hittites, the other two major nations of the time, for dominance of the Eastern Mediterranean, but it was never victorious.
The New Kingdom: the golden age of Ancient Egypt
Thutmose III (1481-1425 BC).
The 18th dynasty (c. 1570–1319 BC) was the height of Ancient Egyptian power and prestige on the international stage (thanks to conquests) and inside the country (thanks to the opulence of the court and the blossoming of literature and the arts; see the Necropolis of the Valley of the Kings). From the time of Pharaoh Amenhotep I (1546–1524 BC), Egyptian forces flooded Syria and reached the Euphrates; however, these early successes were rapidly nullified by local revolts and a dynastic crisis in Egypt (usurpation of queen Hatshepsut, 1503-1482 BC).
In 1482-1450 BC, under Thutmose III, all of the previous conquering efforts in Asia had to be restarted from scratch. This king, the greatest in Egyptian history, commanded no less than eighteen expeditions to Asia during his lifetime. At Megiddo (1482 BC), he destroyed a great Syrian-Palestinian alliance led by Mitanni, then he captured Kadesh on the Orontes (1474 BC), and finally he reached the Euphrates again, completing the conquest of Syria (1472 BC).
Ahmose, during the start of the 18th dynasty, retook control of southern Nubia, which had previously been subjugated to the Middle Kingdom. Expeditions led by Thutmose II and Thutmose III penetrated far into Kush, extending Egypt’s southern frontier to the fourth cataract (before 1477 BC). The New Kingdom’s administrative structure reflected a tremendous amount of regional variation. Once the middle class of scribes and prosperous peasants vanished with the Hyksos invasion, the pharaohs were forced to rely on a body of city officials that was considerably less in number than previously but was hereditary.
Nothing about imperial rule in the conquered nations could be described as dictatorial. When a viceroy was put in charge of Nubia, the region was rapidly and thoroughly Egyptianized. However, the pharaohs in Asia were content with a more lenient regime of protectorates and alliances, which left the local princes in place, and respected the local customs, languages, and indigenous religions. Economic responsibilities (trade contracts guaranteeing Egypt’s standing as a favored country), military obligations (annual payment of a tribute in kind: slaves, ore, horses, war chariots, livestock, timber, oil, etc.), and financial commitments all helped to establish Egyptian suzerainty (each subjugated people had to provide a contingent which served on the spot, under the command of Egyptian officers).
From the Amarna Period until the Ramesside Dynasty
Bas-relief depicting Amenhotep IV (Pharaoh Akhenaten, c. 1360- 1342 BC) while worshiping the solar disc, 18th dynasty. (Image)
It was under the reign of Amenhotep III (about 1417–1379 BC) that the “Egyptian peace” reached its pinnacle, ushering in an age of extraordinary affluence, luxury, and sweetness of life. The Theban priesthood, however, had not stopped expanding its sphere of authority and land holdings since the New Kingdom’s outset; the high priest of Amun had become something of a de facto second personage of the State.
Amenophis IV (1379–1362 BC) chose to leave the worship of Amun, the deity of his dynasty, and create the pure religion of Aten, the solar disk, as a reaction to this interference and, possibly, also to base the Pharaonic empire permanently on a religion more broadly available to men of all nations. The king, now known as Akhenaten (which means “Splendor of Aten”), and his wife, Nefertiti, relocated the capital from Thebes to the city of Akhenaten (or Amarna in Egyptian).
The Theban priesthood, representing Egyptian particularism, fought back violently against the revolution. Upon becoming king, Tutankhamun (1361–1352 BC), Amenhotep IV’s son-in-law and heir, had to immediately make peace with the Amun priests, return to Thebes, and reinstate the traditions. The crisis not only crippled the Egyptian monarchy outside (the Hittites having replaced the Egyptians in Syria by around 1375 BC), but also severely damaged its reputation domestically. After a period of chaos after the death of young Tutankhamun, the general Horemheb took control (1348–1320 BC) and began the restructuring of the state on the basis of the strictest traditionalism, with the backing of the Theban church, which was more powerful than ever. Egypt’s 19th dynasty (1319–1200 BC) was an attempt to revive the country’s former Asian dominance.
Sometime between 1318 and 1304 BC, Seti I retook southern Palestine. Ramses II (1304–1238 BC) attempted to retake Syria from the Hittites, but was defeated at Kadesh (c. 1300 BC), and subsequent campaigns were fruitless. Finally, in 1284 BC, the Egyptians and Hittites signed a treaty dividing Syria between them, and the treaty was confirmed by Ramses II’s marriage to the daughter of the Hittite king Hattusili III. This meant that the New Kingdom gave up on Eastern dominance for good, but it also brought around forty years of calm, during which classical Egyptian civilization shone its last light (construction of the funerary temple of Abu-Simbel, of the hypostyle hall of Karnak).
Decline of the pharaohs and end of Ancient Egypt
With the threat posed by the Hittites eliminated, the territory now needed to be protected from the Sea Peoples, who were making their way inland from the coasts of Asia Minor and Greece after being pushed out of those areas by subsequent Indo-European invasions and the arrival of the Dorians in the Aegean Sea. Merneptah, son and successor of Ramses II, drove them back.
Because of Pharaoh’s oppression, the Jews decided to escape Egypt and go with Moses to the land that God promised them. The New Kingdom’s collapse started with the death of Ramses III, the second king of the 20th dynasty. After the Assyrians and Libyans destroyed the empire and surrounded it, the priesthood of Amun, led by high priest Herihor, seized authority in Upper Egypt.
Egypt had lost the ability to defend itself against the relentless invasions, notwithstanding brief periods of strength under the reigns of pharaohs Shoshenq I (945-924 BC) and Psamtik I (664-610 BC). The final pharaohs were so badly off financially that they couldn’t even afford a tomb before it was destroyed. From then, Egypt fell under the rule of the Nubians, the Assyrians, and the Persians until finally capitulating to Alexander the Great’s army in 332 BC. The Ptolemies, a family of Greek ancestry, took control of Egypt and established themselves as the ruling dynasty.
Up to the 2nd century BC, Alexandria, the Ptolemaic capital, was a thriving economic and cultural hub. The Ptolemaic empire eventually collapsed due to internal strife, populist uprisings, and battles with the Seleucids. A series of weak monarchs led to the collapse of the Ptolemaic dynasty in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, when Rome became more involved in the country’s affairs.
Cleopatra was the last and most well-known of the Ptolemaic monarchs. She reigned autonomously at first but eventually received help from Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. After she and her son Ptolemy XIV, Caesarion, died in 30 BC, the Ptolemaic dynasty collapsed and Augustus seized Egypt for the Roman Empire. Incredibly, even the earliest known civilization managed to leave behind a rich cultural and artistic legacy that would be appreciated by future generations.
