The holiday season in Barcelona is full of life and celebration. From the end of November until the beginning of January, the city is decorated with lights and ornaments.
The Feast of the Immaculate Conception, nativity scene construction, and the distinctive Catalan traditions of “Caga Tió” and “Caganer” are part of the festivities in Barcelona. Guests may have a fun shopping experience at Fira de Santa Llúcia, the primary Christmas market in the city.
A big Christmas dinner with all the typical fixings is enjoyed by all the family on Christmas Day. After the Three Kings Parade, the Christmas season comes to a close.
Here are some of the Christmas customs in Barcelona and it is because of these customs that Christmas is so unique in this city.
Christmas Lights
The city is dazzlingly lit up with lights and decorations from the end of November until the beginning of January. Renowned Spanish architects and designers have left their imprint on Barcelona’s principal roads and structures.
On December 22, participants in the Spanish Christmas Lottery, affectionately called “el gordo” or “the fat one” in the local dialect, purchased their tickets after waiting in a long line of people. Prizes in this state-run lottery reach millions of euros, making it the biggest of its kind in the world.
Nochebuena, or Christmas Eve
Nochebuena, or Christmas Eve, is the most magical night of the year in Barcelona, and hotels and restaurants prepare special meals to mark the occasion. Soups, roasts, fish, or stuffed turkey are common main courses after a variety of appetizers, including Ibérico ham, shellfish, and tasty cheeses.
On December 25, the Barcelonians gather with their families once again to celebrate Christmas Day, also known as Navidad, and a big feast of roast lamb is served.
Caga Tió
The Feast of the Immaculate Conception is also when Caga Tió is released. A little log adorned with the iconic red Catalan hat, the Barretina, wears a mischievous grin on its face. Caga Tió simply means “Poo Log.” Youngsters take daily care of the Caga Tió between December 8th and Christmas Eve. Every night before bed, they give him Turron and wrap him in a blanket to keep him warm.
Nochevieja, or New Year’s Eve
Nochevieja, or New Year’s Eve, is a time when masses of people gather outside to ring in the new year as one.
Three Kings Parade
On January 5, Barcelona plays home to the Three Kings Parade, also known as the Cabalgata de los Reyes Magos, a magnificent spectacle that pays tribute to the biblical Three Wise Men.
Festive Delights
The typical Spanish Christmas candy, turrón, gleams in the supermarket aisles, encased in glossy golden wrappers.
Christmas Markets
El Mercado de Navidad, a massive Christmas market in Barcelona, occupies the city’s biggest plaza, Plaza Mayor, every year.
Belén, Nativity Scenes
There is a strong Catholic culture in Barcelona, and as a result, nativity scenes, or belén, are quite popular there.
Due to its strong associations with Mexican culture, the Day of the Dead is not generally observed in Spain. The celebration has its roots in pre-Columbian Mexico, namely the Aztecs, who observed a whole month in honor of the deceased. Skeletons sing and dance as flowers, fruit, and sweets adorn ofrenda altars on this celebration that embraces death as a part of life. Instead of the Day of the Dead, Spain celebrates Dia de Todos los Santos, or All Saints’ Day, on November 1, which is a Catholic feast day.
Reasons Why Spain Does Not Celebrate the Day of the Dead
The Day of the Dead has great significance in Spanish-speaking Mexico and other Central American countries, but it is not a festival that is observed in Spain. Several of the following explain why:
Roots in Culture: The Day of the Dead has its origins in ancient Mesoamerican traditions, primarily among the Aztecs and other indigenous peoples of what is now Mexico. As a result of its deep-rooted history, Spain has developed its own set of customs and holidays that are distinctive to the country.
Celebrations of Faith: Spain’s rich Catholic background is reflected in the fact that many of the country’s recognized festivals have a religious focus. Maundy (“Holy”) Thursday, Good Friday, Easter Monday, Corpus Christi, the Feast of Saint James (July 25), and All Saints’ Day (November 1) are all examples of some Christian holidays observed in Spain.
Different Rituals: Spain has its own rituals for commemorating the departed. On November 1st, the Spanish observe All Saints’ Day (Dia de Todos los Santos) by paying their respects at the graves of their ancestors and friends.
Disconnection: the Day of the Dead celebration did not emerge until well after the Spanish occupation of Mexico. As such, it cannot be traced back to any part of Spanish history or religion.
What is the Day of the Dead?
The roots of the Day of the Dead stretch back approximately 3,000 years. It is an ancestral Mesoamerican funeral rite of many other Latin-American festivals today. During the Day of the Dead, people in Mexico and other Central American countries pay their respects to the dead by visiting cemeteries and preparing ofrendas, or altars, as sacrifices for the departed spirits.
Day of the Dead festivities developed 1,000 years after the Aztecs began using skulls to commemorate the dead. A prominent emblem in the yearly festival to respect and converse with the departed is a skull, just like those originally put atop Aztec temples. This Aztec practice has persisted for almost another 600 years.
Even if the dead don’t eat the candy skulls, sugar skeletons, and delicious pan de muerto (bread of the dead), there are plenty of others who will be pleased to do so. Cempasuchil, or yellow marigolds, are another typical ornament of this celebration.
The date of the celebration was altered from the end of July to the beginning of August on the Aztec calendar so that it would fall on All Hallows’ Eve, or Dia de Todos Santos. Therefore, the first two days of November are dedicated to commemorating the Day of the Dead.
Spanish Traditions That Are Similar to the Day of the Dead
No Spanish customs are carbon copies of the Day of the Dead but there are parallels to be found.
-> All Saints Day: On November 1st, Spaniards observe All Saints Day, a holiday that is far more solemn and devout than the secular Day of the Dead. On this day of remembrance, many people pay a visit to cemeteries.
-> Altars: The Day of the Dead and Spanish customs both make use of altars. Some Spanish homes have built-in shrines to remember loved ones who have passed away, Mexican homes create ofrendas, or offerings, for the departed.
-> Flowers: The Spanish and Day of the Dead cultures both value flowers greatly. In Mexico, homes are decorated with yellow marigolds (or cempasuchil), while in Spain, flowers are brought to the graves of the departed.
-> Food: The Day of the Dead and Spanish culture both place an emphasis on food. In Mexico, relatives put delicacies of their dead on the ofrendas, whereas in Spain, families bring food to the graves of their departed ones.
This celebration has spread over the globe, particularly to places with sizable Latino populations. How it’s celebrated in those countries is as follows:
The United States: The United States celebrates the Day of the Dead in regions with sizable Mexican-Americans. Parades, fairs, and other activities are held just like in other countries. Many Americans who are not of Latin heritage also celebrate the holiday due to its incorporation into popular culture.
Mexico: The Day of the Dead is deeply embedded in Mexican and Chicano culture. In Mexico, families celebrate the return of their ancestors’ spirits with a meal, drinks, and a short reunion. Each year, the holiday lasts from November 1 to November 2. It is a national holiday and has been named Intangible Cultural Heritage by UNESCO. The day is marked with music, dancing, and parades.
El Salvador: During the first week of November, El Salvadorians celebrate La Calabiuza, their version of the Day of the Dead. Similar to Mexico’s customs, many inhabitants dress up as skeletons and dance around the city, some even carrying torches.
Guatemala: In this country, the Day of the Dead is commemorated with the Kite Festival, during which people release kites bearing tributes to the departed. It is called the Barriletes Gigantes Festival and takes place on November 1st. Literally, this means the Festival of Huge Kites.
Ecuador: On November 1st and 2nd, Ecuadorians commemorate El Dia de los Difuntos, or Day of the Deceased, with festive gatherings, meals with loved ones, and sweets with unusual shapes, like the guaguas de pan pastry, which is fashioned like a baby.
Haiti: Bringing together elements of both African Voodoo and Catholic customs, the Day of the Dead is commemorated in Haiti with a festival known as Fêt Gédé. Visits to cemeteries, building ofrendas, and adorning altars with candles, flowers, and other gifts take place on the first two days of November.
Philippines: Undás (All Saints’ Day or All Souls’ Day) is the Philippine equivalent of the Day of the Dead. The focus of their ceremonies is family and the memory of their relatives, and they include parades and feasts.
Peru: The graves of departed loved ones are honored with musical performances and floral offerings at Peruvian funerals.
Bolivia: After the festivities associated with All Saints Day in early November, the people of La Paz, Bolivia, observe Dia de las Ñatitas (or “Day of the Skulls”). On November 9th, the decorated and dressed skulls of deceased people are displayed in homes as a form of protection and vigilance. They also make sacrifices to the skulls, including cigarettes, coca leaves, wine, and other stuff.
History of the Day of the Dead
Dia de los Muertos, the Day of the Dead, is a Mexican celebration with origins in pre-Hispanic Mesoamerican traditions around 1000 BC. The celebration combines elements of Spanish tradition, Christian theology, and Mesoamerican ceremony. Celebrations commemorating the deceased on this day have their roots in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures.
Death was seen as a natural and necessary part of the cycle of life by the Nahua people, including the Aztecs, who formerly inhabited what is now central Mexico. People who died were thought to visit Chicunauhmictlan, or the Land of the Dead. It took the soul many years and nine more difficult levels to reach Mictlan, the last resting place.
During Nahua ceremonies performed in August to honor the dead, loved ones would bring offerings of food, drink, and tools to help the departed on their journey. This sparked the modern custom of placing food and other gifts on graves or on improvised altars called ofrendas in honor of the dead on the Day of the Dead.
Following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in the 16th century, Catholic and Christian tenets were gradually infused into the Indigenous people’s funeral rites. The dates of the holiday are always the 31st of October to the 2nd of November. At midnight on October 31, the gates of heaven are said to be opened so that the souls of children might spend a day with their loved ones again. On November 2nd, ancestors of adults may do the same.
Different nations and faiths today observe the Day of the Dead in their own unique ways, reflecting the holiday’s development throughout time. It was created and has the largest following in Mexico, but individuals of Mexican descent celebrate it all over the world. Despite its Mexican roots, this practice has gained widespread acceptance.
Up until the 1640s, the expanse of the Spanish Netherlands exceeded the modern-day area of Belgium. These territories were a part of the Holy Roman Empire, having a place within the Burgundian Circle, which encompassed Franche-Comté as well. Among these lands was the Duchy of Luxembourg; however, the Liège region, functioning as a neutral ecclesiastical principality, was not included. By the 17th century, the dividing line separating present-day Belgium and the Netherlands was located farther to the south compared to the boundary between the Spanish Netherlands (also referred to as the Southern Netherlands) and the United Provinces.
From the 15th century onward, the Netherlands emerged as a prominent hub of culture, nurturing diverse religious reforms and fostering the humanist wave. Erasmus of Rotterdam played a pivotal role in guiding the latter movement. Notably, Philip the Good founded the esteemed University of Leuven in the year 1425. The inception of the inaugural printing presses in Leuven in 1473 propelled the Netherlands to the forefront of European printing innovation. Due to its intricate trade networks and sizable financial reserves, Antwerp rose to become an economic center in the early 16th century.
Key Takeaways: Spanish Netherlands
The Spanish Netherlands, also known as the Southern Netherlands, was a historical region located in the Low Countries (modern-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of the Netherlands and northern France).
The Spanish Netherlands emerged as a pivotal theater during the Eighty Years’ War (1568–1648), pitting the Spanish Habsburgs against the Dutch Republic. Ultimately, the northern provinces of the Spanish Netherlands progressed into the autonomous Dutch Republic.
Distinguished artists such as Peter Paul Rubens, who cast an enduring influence on European artistry, hail from this region.
The Netherlands Entered into Opposition Against Spain
Spanish Low Countries c. 1700 (grey/green).
The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, also known as King Charles I of Spain, who was born in Ghent (present-day Belgium), demonstrated strong determination against the Protestant “heresy” that was gaining ground in the Netherlands in the 1520s. His fight for Christian unity was, in fact, a struggle to maintain cohesion among the scattered Habsburg possessions.
This battle against heretics served in the construction of a centralized modern state, granting the right to intervene in religious matters. Anti-Protestant laws against “Placards” (anti-Catholic posters) were issued between 1520 and 1550. In 1555, Charles V abdicated his claims to the Netherlands and Spain in favor of his son, Philip II of Spain.
The emperor had always been attuned to the social developments in the Netherlands; he spent his youth there and was fluent in Dutch, French, and Spanish.
Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, Governor of the Spanish Netherlands.
Philip II grew up in Spain and spoke only Spanish. Under his rule, increased taxation, the fight against Calvinism, and a policy of centralization led to numerous tensions with the population of the Netherlands. Philip II offered several representatives of the Dutch nobility a role in the States General, the assembly governing the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands.
He appointed his half-sister, Margaret of Parma, born in the Netherlands and fluent in Dutch, as the governor. By 1558, the parliament opposed Philip II’s demands by refusing to approve new taxes and demanding the withdrawal of the Spanish army.
The dioceses of the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands, inherited from the Middle Ages, no longer corresponded to geographical realities and administrative needs. The creation of new dioceses, a demand that had persisted for decades, was finally approved in May 1559, but it was decided outside the Netherlands without consulting local religious organizations.
The population grew concerned about the rise of Catholic religious absolutism and the strengthening of the Inquisition, which had been officially introduced in 1524. Protestant protests multiplied across the country, and in 1566, a delegation of noble members presented a petition to Margaret of Parma, urging her to halt religious persecutions.
This signaled the start of the “Beggars’ Revolt (Geuzen),” and Calvinist-led iconoclastic riots wreaked havoc on religious structures throughout the Netherlands.
The Breakup and the Birth of the United Provinces of the Netherlands
United Provinces of the Netherlands, The Four Days’ Battle, 1666. Image: Abraham Storck.
Philip II’s grip on the northern regions slipped, prompting him to dispatch his military to quell the uprising. By August of 1567, the Duke of Alba had marched into Brussels, leading a formidable force of ten thousand soldiers. He established the Council of Troubles, tasked with adjudicating all those who defied the authority of the Spanish Crown.
Commencing in 1568, William of Orange embarked on a resolute policy of resistance, culminating in the Union of Arras on January 6, 1579. This pact brought the southern provinces of the Netherlands under Philip II’s dominion. In response, the seven northern provinces—Holland, Zeeland, Gelderland, Friesland, Utrecht, Overijssel, and Groningen—retorted on January 23, 1579, forging the Union of Utrecht.
By 1581, the seven predominantly Protestant provinces asserted their autonomy via the Act of Abjuration, effectively declaring independence and establishing themselves as the United Provinces.
Conversely, the ten Catholic southern provinces remained under the sway of the Spanish Crown and morphed into the Spanish Netherlands. These territories, tethered to the Spanish monarchy, resisted assimilation into Iberian Spain due to their geographic separation by the expanse of the Kingdom of France.
Bearing the legacy of the Habsburgs’ Burgundian heritage, they exhibited a distinctive political and legal identity. A strong commitment to provincial and municipal privileges as well as ingrained self-governance traditions made this uniqueness abundantly clear.
To assert his authority, Philip II had to grapple with the political ethos of these former Burgundian domains, where a profound reverence for provincial and urban rights intertwines with deeply entrenched habits of autonomy.
A Short-Lived Period of Prosperity
Portrait of Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain, Archduchess of Austria.
The Netherlands experienced a notably prosperous era referred to as the “Archdukes” epoch, commencing in 1598 with the ascendancy of Infanta Isabella and Archduke Albert, who were the offspring and son-in-law of Philip II.
The sway of the Spanish continued to hold significant influence until the demise of Archduke Albert in 1621. This dominance was owed to the formidable Flemish military and the strategic geographical positioning of the Netherlands. The Archdukes asserted their authority as independent sovereigns, garnering international recognition for their rule.
In 1621, Infanta Isabella assumed the role of the Netherlands’ governess; however, her authority waned due to the resurgence of conflict with the United Provinces. Subsequent governors followed in succession in Brussels until the passing of the final Spanish Habsburg in 1700.
Their primary task was to uphold the Spanish king’s dominion, even as his financial and military backing progressively dwindled. Additionally, they had to navigate the influential counterforces posed by the nation’s elites: the cities, the influential clergy, and the nobility, who wielded control over governmental institutions at all tiers of the state.
The Spanish Netherlands: A Battlefield of the European Wars of the 17th Century
The Swearing of the Oath of Ratification of the Treaty of Münster, oil on copper by Gerard Terborch, 1648.
During the 17th century, the Spanish Netherlands were deeply entrenched in the throes of warfare. They actively participated on the European political stage, extending a warm welcome to a succession of esteemed political exiles who greatly supported the Spanish cause.
Notable figures among them included Queen Marie de Medici and her son Gaston d’Orleans, Duke Charles IV of Lorraine, Queen Christina of Sweden, and the future King of England, Charles II.
The conflict against the Dutch Republic persisted relentlessly until a twelve-year pause was reached in 1609. This hiatus concluded in 1621, and ultimately, in 1648, the Peace of Westphalia was established.
Louis XIV at Douai in the War of Devolution 1667.
Between the 1640s and 1650s, the Dutch emerged as staunch allies, pivotal to the survival of the Spanish Netherlands. Their concerns revolved around the aspirations of the French King, whom they were apprehensive about having as their neighbor.
The capture of Arras in 1640 by Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu marked a pivotal juncture, but the era of Fronde (from 1648 to 1653) enabled Philip IV of Spain’s monarchy to reclaim Dunkirk and Barcelona.
The definitive clash unfolded near Dunkirk in 1658, where the French, in alliance with Cromwell’s English forces, achieved victory over a combined army of Spanish and royalist English troops. The Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659 forestalled the Turenne-led French army from annexing the Spanish Netherlands.
In orange, the Spanish Netherlands before its split. In violet, the Principality of Liège. In pink, the princely Abbey of Stavelot-Malmedy.
In 1662, Louis XIV reacquired Dunkirk from the English prior to initiating the Wars of Devolution (1667-1668) and subsequently the Franco-Dutch War (1672-1678). These conflicts resulted in a substantial one-third territorial loss for the Spanish Netherlands.
The region became a focal point for intermittent conflicts and a theater of operations for the armed forces of prominent European nations. Following the culmination of the War of the Spanish Succession in 1713, the Spanish Netherlands transitioned into Austrian ownership.
Signed on June 7, 1494, the Treaty of Tordesillas established an imaginary line running across the Atlantic to the west of the Cape Verde Islands, demarcating the overseas possessions of Spain and Portugal. By this treaty, which would later be ratified by a papal bull, the Catholic Monarchs and King John II of Portugal shared the New World, which was still unexplored. Other European maritime powers were denied any rights to these new lands.
King Francis I of France would demand to see “the clause of Adam’s will that excludes him from this division.” The Native American, African, and Asian populations, however, were not consulted during the negotiation of Tordesillas…
Spain and Portugal Divide the World
As early as the mid-15th century, Portuguese navigators and explorers ventured into the Atlantic Ocean in search of a new trade route to Asia, establishing trading posts along the African coasts. The passage around the Cape of Good Hope, the gateway to the Indian Ocean, by Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias in 1488 paved the way to Asia. But soon, Portugal found itself in competition with the rising power of Spain. In the 1480s and 1490s, Portugal was forced to cede its territorial claims to the Canary Islands in favor of Queen Isabella, which was formalized by the Treaty of Alcáçovas in 1479.
It was especially the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus that made it urgent to establish a dividing line between the spheres of influence of the two Iberian countries. In 1493, a papal bull by Pope Alexander VI set the “demarcation” line from pole to pole 100 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. This was a victory for the Spanish, but the King of Portugal soon requested that this line be renegotiated. Negotiations began in May 1493 in Tordesillas, in the province of Valladolid.
By the Treaty of Tordesillas, signed on June 7, 1494, between the Catholic Monarchs and King John II of Portugal, Spain and Portugal set the line dividing their future overseas possessions: this line, originally established by Pope Alexander VI in 1493 at 100 leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde, was moved, at the request of the Portuguese, to 370 leagues. Any land discovered to the east of this line was to belong to Portugal; to the west, to Spain. The Treaty of Tordesillas was confirmed by Pope Julius II in 1506 (Bull Inter Caetera). Henceforth, all lands discovered to the east of this line would be Portuguese, and all territories to the west would belong to the Spanish Crown.
The treaty reserved for Portugal the most coveted trade routes, those leading to the precious spices of the East, establishing trading posts along the African coasts and in Asia. The adjustment made by Tordesillas granted Portugal rights over the American continent, where the small Iberian kingdom would establish its only settlement colony, Brazil.
On the other hand, Spain would be able to create a vast empire beginning with Mexico and Peru, rising to the rank of Europe’s leading power. The wealth from the gold and silver flowing from the Americas would finance its wars in Europe while stimulating the economy of the old continent. By 1550, Spain controlled almost all of South America, Central America, Florida, Cuba, and in Asia, the Philippines.
The newly found areas outside of Europe were split between Portugal and Castile by the Treaty of Tordesillas (7 June 1494).
A Quickly Contested Treaty
By the 16th century, the two nations began to make breaches in the Treaty of Tordesillas. The Portuguese colony of Brazil expanded far beyond the demarcation line, and in Asia, Spain seized the Philippines and Ternate, which were supposed to be within the Portuguese sphere of influence. The demarcation line and all associated agreements were abolished in 1750 by a treaty settling a conflict regarding the southwestern border of Brazil. The 1750 treaty was itself abrogated in 1761, and new disagreements between the two countries were settled by another treaty in 1779.
The northern European maritime nations (England, France, and the Netherlands) paid little attention to the various treaties signed by Spain with the papacy and Portugal, and from 1520 onward, their merchant ships increasingly entered the Caribbean Sea, supplying the major islands with African slaves. In the 17th century, as Portugal and Spain declined, they could only watch helplessly as new colonial empires emerged within their spheres of influence defined by the Treaty of Tordesillas.
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) at a Glance
Is the Treaty of Tordesillas still in effect today?
The Treaty of Tordesillas is no longer in effect, as it was superseded by subsequent treaties and agreements that shaped the geopolitical landscape in the centuries following its signing. However, its historical significance in shaping early European colonial expansion remains noteworthy.
What were the long-term consequences of the Treaty?
The Treaty of Tordesillas had significant long-term consequences for the division of colonial territories. It established Spain and Portugal as major colonial powers and laid the groundwork for their respective overseas empires.
How did the Treaty impact indigenous peoples?
The Treaty of Tordesillas did not consider the rights of indigenous peoples in the New World. As European colonization progressed, indigenous populations were often subjected to exploitation, forced labor, and cultural assimilation.
What led to the signing of the Treaty of Tordesillas?
The signing of the Treaty was prompted by the 1493 papal bull, Inter caetera, issued by Pope Alexander VI. This papal bull divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between Spain and Portugal along a meridian line, giving each empire exclusive rights to claim and colonize territories on their respective sides.
What was the purpose of the Line of Demarcation in the Treaty?
The Line of Demarcation was a key element of the Treaty of Tordesillas. It was an imaginary line drawn north to south on a map, approximately 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. Lands discovered to the west of this line would belong to Spain, while those to the east would belong to Portugal.
