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Palaeolithic: Summary of the Stone Age
The Paleolithic period commenced over 3 million years ago with the emergence of the earliest humans, who initiated the crafting of stone into tools and hunting implements. As nomads, they adopted a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, trailing herds and relocating due to seasonal changes to fulfill their dietary requirements. The conclusion of the Paleolithic era coincided with behavioral shifts prompted by climate warming, signaling the onset of the Mesolithic era approximately 11,000 years ago (subject to regional variation).
Spanning an extensive period of prehistory, the Paleolithic era is categorized into four sub-periods: the Lower, Middle, Upper, and Archaic Paleolithic. Each of these phases denotes significant advancements, such as the mastery of fire, rudimentary burial practices, advancements in tool technology, and the inception of artistic expression.
This epoch witnessed the emergence of various members of the Homo genus (including Rudolfensis, Habilis, Ergaster, Erectus, and Neanderthalensis, among others), ultimately replacing the Australopithecines. Numerous hominids coexisted and succeeded one another within the region.
How Did the Palaeolithic Begin?
The Paleolithic period heralded the emergence of the genus Homo approximately 3.3 million years ago, with the use of lithic tools being its defining characteristic. While the Australopithecus, contemporaries of early Homo species such as Homo rudolfensis, Homo habilis, or Homo ergaster, also utilized tools, theirs were rudimentary.
This underscores the significance of the Paleolithic era, commonly known as the “age of ancient stone.” These tools typically comprised pebbles with one or two flakes and were termed “choppers” or “flaked pebbles.
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At the outset of the Paleolithic, also known as the Archaic Paleolithic, early humans inhabited Africa. Notably, two prominent centers of lithic culture emerged: the Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania and Lake Turkana in northern Kenya. During this period, early humans engaged in sporadic hunting of small animals, scavenging, and gathering.
What’s the Difference Between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic?
Stone Age, both the Paleolithic and the Neolithic, are two major periods of prehistory. There are many differences between them, but the primary one is how humans eat. In the Paleolithic, hunting and gathering were the foundation of sustenance, while the Neolithic witnessed the emergence of agriculture and animal husbandry. Consequently, early humans moved according to the seasons to follow herds, while those of the Neolithic settled down.
Mastery of certain stone-cutting techniques also constitutes a major distinguishing factor between the two periods. In the Paleolithic, which means the “age of ancient stone,” only flaked stone tools are known (chopper, then handaxe, retouched point, etc.), while the Neolithic, the “age of new stone,” sees the emergence of polished stone tools.
Who Were the People and Civilizations of This Period?
The men of the Paleolithic era were nomadic hunter-gatherers. In other words, they lived according to the seasons and moved based on the food they could find in a given territory. The migrations of herds were important factors in their movements. Humans remained in Africa for a long time. Homo sapiens arrived in Europe 45,000 years ago, via the Mediterranean basin, where the Neanderthal man already lived, with whom they would coexist.
In Indonesia, we find the Flores man and the Denisovan man on the high plateaus of Tibet. The human population density was very low during the Paleolithic era. Including hot and cold deserts, it was estimated at 0.01 inhabitants per square kilometer. For comparison, the current figure is 50 inhabitants per square kilometer. The American continent was completely devoid of human presence until the Upper Paleolithic.
What Were Palaeolithic Habitats and Lifestyles Like?
The nomadic life of the Paleolithic period pushed men to diversify habitats. Thus, there are remnants of hunting stops, bivouacs, or more sustainable installations. When possible, men gladly take shelter under rocks. In the plains, the hut dominates, but one also finds the construction of dry stone walls for protection against the wind, as in Orangia 1, South Africa. However, the habitat remains temporary and rarely lasts more than one season.
The length of habitation depended on the resources available on-site, but a camp could be reused the following year. The evolution of tools and techniques allows men of this period to move from scavenging to hunting, and then to hunting increasingly larger animals. The domestication of the dog is also a major asset. The Paleolithic diet was omnivorous, consisting of a mixture of meat and plants (leaves, berries, and roots).
What Are the Paleolithic Periods?
The Paleolithic era can be divided into four main periods. During the Archaic Paleolithic, between 3.3 and 1.76 million years ago, man was content to hunt small animals or eat carrion in addition to his vegetarian diet. He used the carved pebble or chopper. From the Lower Paleolithic onwards, bifaces, spikes, and axes were used to hunt larger animals. The control of fire, around 400,000 years ago, improved living conditions.
The Middle Paleolithic, which began around 350,000 years ago, is characterized by the hunting of large animals, the use of ochre, and the advances of Homo sapiens in Africa: first burials and aesthetic creations.
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In Eurasia, Neanderthal man became extinct. Between around -40,000 and -9500, we enter the Upper Paleolithic. Entry into this period is propelled by a major innovation in hunting as well as the domestication of the dog.
What Tools Were Used in the Palaeolithic?
The first tool made of carved stone, used by humans during the Early Paleolithic, was the chopper. The edges are made sharp by percussion with another stone to skin carcasses and perhaps also to clean animal hides. Among the major lithic tools of the Paleolithic is the hand axe.
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Pebbles are carved on both sides to improve their sharpness. The use of wood for their construction allows for finer sizing.
At the end of the Middle Paleolithic, the hand axe becomes scarce to make way for finer-carved stone tools: blades, scrapers, points, burins, etc. They are used in the production of hunting weapons, such as spears and arrows. In the Upper Paleolithic, bone carving allowed for even more finesse in the design of hooks, spear throwers, needles, etc.
What Role Did Painting and Handicrafts Play in This Period?
The Paleolithic period heralded the emergence of the genus Homo approximately 3.3 million years ago, with the use of lithic tools being its defining characteristic. While the Australopithecus, contemporaries of early Homo species such as Homo rudolfensis, Homo habilis, or Homo ergaster, also utilized tools, theirs were rudimentary. This underscores the significance of the Paleolithic era, commonly known as the “age of ancient stone.” These tools typically comprised pebbles with one or two flakes and were termed “choppers” or “flaked pebbles.”
At the outset of the Paleolithic, also known as the Archaic Paleolithic, early humans inhabited Africa. Notably, two prominent centers of lithic culture emerged: the Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania and Lake Turkana in northern Kenya. During this period, early humans engaged in sporadic hunting of small animals, scavenging, and gathering.
How Does the Paleolithic Period End?
The Paleolithic era ended about 11,000 years ago, with the beginning of the Holocene interglacial period (the last geological period still ongoing). This marks the end of the great glacial periods, paving the way for the Mesolithic, a transitional period where humans were still semi-nomadic hunter-gatherers before settling down in the Neolithic. Homo sapiens spread across the world, eventually supplanting other hominid species. Mastering fire and continually refining tools, humans begin to bury their dead (Neanderthal being the first) and develop art.
Featured Image: TimJN1.
March 7, 2024
Monumental Stone Age structures discovered in Arabia
September 16, 2022
Oldest Known Surgery from 31,000 Years Ago
The oldest evidence of a surgery dates back to 31,000 years ago. This ancient skeleton’s missing left foot and ankle are no coincidence; the Stone Age guy had a successful amputation as a kid. A Stone Age healer removed a child’s foot and the patient lived. It was only recently that archaeologists on Borneo uncovered this oldest known surgery. They unearthed the remains of the young patient who had a healed amputation of his lower leg. According to the study published in Nature, he passed away between six and nine years after his procedure and was laid to rest in a karst cave. This discovery demonstrates the extraordinary sophistication of ancient hunter-gatherer healing practices.
Fossil evidence suggests that our ancestors utilized beeswax to alleviate toothache and tooth damage, as well as medicinal plants to address stomach issues and wound healing. Trepanations, high-risk surgeries in which the skull bone is pierced, have been documented as far back as the Neolithic (from 10,000 BC) and early Bronze Ages (from 3,300 BC). It is unknown, however, whether or not this was performed for ceremonial or therapeutic purposes.
Dead for 31,000 years
The TB1 Skeleton. The body was recovered in a tomb at Liang Tebo Cave.
© Maloney et al./ Nature, CC-by 4.0
Recently, researchers discovered evidence of an amputation that took place 31,000 years ago, making it the oldest known surgical procedure from the Stone Age. East Kalimantan in Borneo is a karst area where rock paintings as ancient as 40,000 years and other evidence of early human existence have been uncovered. Tim Ryan Maloney of Griffith University in Australia and his colleagues made the discovery. Prehistoric rock art is also found in the top half of the three-chamber Liang Tebo Cave.
The crew discovered the tomb while digging in the cave’s main room, where the skeleton had been well preserved. A young adult guy, around 19–20 years of age, was TB1, a dead man who was found buried with flint knives and a chunk of red ochre. Charcoal and a bone sample dated by Maloney and his team revealed the age of this burial as about 31,000 years. This places it in the Paleolithic Era, the time of early farmers and gatherers.
Amputation of the left lower leg and foot
But what really sets it apart is the fact that the left foot was not found throughout the excavation. Bone growth at the ends of the deceased man’s left tibia and fibula suggested that the damage had healed. To put it another way, the prehistoric kid must have made it through without his foot and with just half a lower leg. The fibula’s distal end was fully covered by new bone lamellae. This means that TB1 survived its injuries for an additional six to nine years.
How did this young man of the Stone Age break his foot? Fractures usually result in splinters and bruises after blunt force trauma, such as an accident or animal assault; however, TB1 does not have these characteristics. Instead, the ends of the leg bones seemed to be cut in a straight line. This points to a surgical amputation of the lower portion of TB1’s lower leg, the oldest known surgery in history.
The Oldest Evidence of a Surgery
This data suggests that a brave healer from as early as 31,000 years ago performed this potentially life-threatening procedure. Thus, the skeleton discovered in Kalimantan’s Liang Tebo cave provides the earliest evidence of a successful surgical amputation or even surgery. Scientists previously reported that a Neolithic farmer in France had his left forearm surgically amputated some 7,000 years ago and that the wound had healed in part.
This successful amputation dating back to the Paleolithic Era not only reveals a previously unknown aspect of ancient human medicine but also provides fresh insights into the social and medical practices of our predecessors. The common belief up until recently was that hunter-gatherer societies lacked the technological sophistication to do such complicated tasks. Major surgery or long-term patient care was seen as incompatible with the nomadic lifestyle and lack of education. But it was wrong.
Remarkably Educated Primitive Doctor
After the amputation, the Stone Age patient must have lived for another seven to ten years.
(Jose Garcia / Griffith University)
The discovery of TB1 currently disproves these previous conclusions. Even in the late Pleistocene, the ‘surgeon’ needed an in-depth understanding of limb anatomy and the muscular and vascular systems to prevent deadly blood loss and infection. In order to keep the patient alive throughout this earliest operation, the surgeon must have carefully dissected the patient’s nerves, blood vessels, and other tissues.
In fact, there are no symptoms of serious infection in the amputation sites on the deceased man’s body, as this was common following an amputation before antibiotics were discovered. In order to avoid gangrene, the young boy would have needed special care and nursing from the Stone Age community since he was immobile. The wound was likely cleansed, dressed, and disinfected on a regular basis, maybe with the use of medicinal plants that were readily accessible in the area, to avoid infection and alleviate discomfort.
The child’s physique shows that he or she lived into early adulthood after the amputation but eventually healed from the injury. This says volumes about the quality of treatment and community support he had access to, especially considering the difficult topography of this karst area.
It’s the Oldest Surgery but It’s Hard to Consider It Primitive
Even though the discovery of this earliest surgery does not reveal whether cultures in this region generally possessed this level of medical knowledge or whether this operation represented an isolated case, the researchers believe that this was certainly the case. The discovery of this exceptionally old piece of evidence of intentional surgery in the tropical rainforest on the eastern edge of the Sunda landmass leaves much to be speculated about.
Our knowledge of this period in Homo sapiens’ history may also be limited by preconceptions regarding the ‘primitive’ nature of early medical and socio-cultural practices among non-sedentary populations in tropical Asia, but the researchers believe it is entirely possible that the people of the Stone Age rainforest of Borneo acquired and passed on the necessary knowledge and experience over the course of generations.
The research by Maloney and colleagues is significant because it provides a different viewpoint on early treatment and care. This study adds to the existing body of knowledge on the topic while also disproving the widely held belief that medical care was not an important factor in ancient societies.
This Article at a Glance
What is the oldest evidence of surgery?
The oldest evidence of surgery dates back to 31,000 years ago. Archaeologists on Borneo recently uncovered the remains of a young patient who had a healed amputation of his lower leg.
What did the Stone Age healer remove in the earliest successful surgery?
The Stone Age healer removed a child’s foot in the earliest known successful surgery. The left foot was not found throughout the excavation, and bone growth at the ends of the deceased man’s left tibia and fibula suggested that the damage had healed.
How did the Stone Age patient survive after the surgery?
The Stone Age patient must have lived for an additional six to nine years after the surgery. The fibula’s distal end was fully covered by new bone lamellae, indicating the bone grew again after the amputation. The wound was likely cleansed, dressed, and disinfected on a regular basis to avoid infection and alleviate discomfort, and the patient would have needed special care and nursing from the Stone Age community since he was immobile.
September 10, 2022