Author: Hrothsige Frithowulf

Sacred Animals of the Ancient Egyptian Religion
January 5, 2023
What Language Did Julius Caesar Speak?
What language did Julius Caesar speak? Julius Caesar (100–44 BC) was Roman, and the term “Italian” has only been used in the last few centuries. This is because the term is derived from “Italy.” And Italy did not exist at the time of Julius Caesar. According to the research done by archaeologists and philologists on the etymology of the word “Italia,” the term “Itala” was first used in the 5th century BC. So, did Caesar speak Greek or Latin?
The Language of Rome
The Etruscan, Greek, and Phoenician scripts all had a role in the development of the Latin language. Over the course of many centuries, the little communities that spoke Latin along the lower Tiber River borrowed heavily from the Greek language. And over time, Latin became one of the most common languages spoken in the whole Roman Empire.
During the Roman Empire (27 BC–476 AD), which was constantly expanding through conquests, Latin was practically used as an official language and was the language of the world, much like English today. However, in the time of Julius Caesar, which was the Roman Republic (509–27 BC), the better educated Roman citizens and the Roman nobility mostly preferred to speak Greek. Did Julius Caesar speak Greek too?
The Language Caesar Spoke
According to the Roman historian Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, Julius Caesar spoke Greek rather than Latin.
In his The Lives Of The Twelve Caesars, Roman historian Suetonius of the 1st century AD claimed that, just like the other Roman patricians of his day, Julius Caesar mostly spoke Greek rather than Latin. Caesar still spoke Greek even in his final moments: According to Suetonius, Caesar’s last words before his death were the Greek phrase “Kai su, teknon?” or “You too, child?” When your life is in danger, the last thing you want to do is try to communicate in a foreign language. Instead, you use the words you’re most comfortable with. Evidence suggests that Caesar studied Greek before Latin.
When Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC, he reportedly shouted in Greek, “Anerríphthō kýbos,” which meant “Let the die be cast!” This was recounted by the Greek historian Plutarch (c. 46–119 AD) in “The Life of Caesar.” Menander, a Greek comedic dramatist, originally wrote that statement. According to Plutarch, Caesar used the Greek version of the statement instead of the Latin “Alea iacta est.”
While crossing the Rubicon River, Caesar shouted in Greek “Ἀνερρίφθω κύβος” (Anerríphthō kýbos; “Let the die be cast!” (“Let the game be played”).
The late Roman Republic saw a proliferation of historical texts written in Greek. The sons of aristocratic Roman families, like Caesar’s main assassin Brutus, were regularly trained by Greek slaves and transferred to Athens for additional Greek schooling. Caesar’s surname is spelled as Kαίσαρ (Kaísar) in Greek, indicating its similarity to the Greek pronunciation.
At first, Rome was an Etruscan city. The Romans migrated to central Italy after the fall of Troy. The Latin language was created as a mishmash and borrowed heavily from a variety of other languages around the area, most notably Eastern Greek from antiquity. But other than that, they are two distinct languages, and the Romans, like Caesar, did not have to speak Greek instead of Latin in their daily lives. But they still spoke Greek.
Why Did the Romans, Like Caesar, Speak Greek Rather Than Latin?
This was because Greek was the “stylish” language in the world at the time of Caesar, and “made in Greece” was a trademark of the Roman era as well. This is similar to the Tsar’s court in Russia, when Russian nobility spoke French like French natives rather than Russian.
At the time of Caesar, there were already two different versions of Latin. The Classical Latin, which we still use today as the language of science, and the Vulgar Latin, the language of the people. Both had already differed regionally.
In time, Vulgar Latin evolved into numerous Romance languages. Poets and thinkers, and later the church, carried on the Classical Latin tradition. Marcus Cicero and Julius Caesar also played an important part in this with their Latin publications.
What Language Did Julius Caesar Write in?
All of Caesar’s main writings, such as the Commentarii de Bello Gallico (Commentaries on the Gallic War) and the Commentarii de Bello Civili (Commentaries on the Civil War) were written in Latin. Caesar understood Greek and presumably sometimes wrote in it, much like many educated Roman men of his period.
- Also Read: Gallic Wars: Julius Caesar’s Military Mastery
How Many Languages did Julius Caesar Speak?
Besides Latin and Greek, Caesar probably also knew Oscan, Gallaecian, Celtiberian, and maybe even Coptic. He had a reputation for being a cunning and savvy politician who used his command of the local tongue to his advantage.
Caesar’s experience in Egypt and his subsequent position as governor of Gallaecia and Celtiberia likely allowed him to acquire a working knowledge of those languages. During his many wars and travels around the globe, he may have picked up more languages as well. All things considered, Julius Caesar was a statesman who spoke many languages well. When it comes to understanding what language Julius Caesar spoke, this is pretty much all there is to it.
What Language did Julius Caesar and Cleopatra Speak?
Though she ruled Egypt as a Greek pharaoh, Cleopatra also spoke Egyptian because she was the first Ptolemaic monarch to learn the language. She was fluent in a number of languages, Latin being one among them.
During this time, it was considered a social advantage for Roman patricians to be able to converse in Greek. What language Julius Caesar and Cleopatra spoke would ultimately have come down to either Greek or Latin, with Greek being the more probable option.
The Latin that can be read in the Roman scriptures is different from the Latin that was spoken in everyday life. This is still the case today. Today, people still don’t talk to each other in the same language as it is written in a book. People mostly talk in shorter sentences, and the dialect is different.
This was the case with the spoken Latin language during Julius Caesar’s period. At the time, the Romans in Etruria (today’s Tuscany) already spoke a different Latin dialect than those living in Gallia or Africa.
Italian, French, Spanish, and other Romance languages all came from Latin, which was spoken in different ways in different parts of the world and kept splitting into new languages over time.
January 5, 2023
Trente Glorieuses: 30 Years of Economic Growth in France
Economist Jean Fourastié used the phrase “Trente Glorieuses” (the Glorious Thirty) to describe the prosperous years after the Liberation and continuing into the 1970s. France was in shambles by the time World War II ended. Cities had to be rebuilt and, as part of the Marshall Plan, the United States provided financial aid to help kickstart the country’s flagging economy. And these changes included heavy governmental intervention in the productive sector. This period was a veritable economic miracle for France. The period saw both a rise in GDP and a general improvement in living conditions in France.
The period from the Liberation to the 1970s was a period of prosperity referred to as the “Trente Glorieuses” by the economist Jean Fourastié. At the end of World War II, France was devastated, with many cities completely destroyed and in need of reconstruction. To revive the struggling economy, significant reforms were undertaken with massive state intervention in the productive sector, funded by American assistance through the Marshall Plan. This era is often referred to as an economic miracle, during which France experienced significant growth and an improvement in the standard of living.
France On Its Way to The Trente Glorieuses
After World War II, France emerged from the conflict in dire straits, with nearly 600,000 casualties. The country had suffered significant destruction, including a severely damaged railway network and a devastated economy. Due to a lack of financial reserves, France was in a weakened state.
Upon Liberation, the economic situation was disastrous, with entire cities in ruins, a significantly reduced railway network, destroyed bridges, and cut telephone lines. This catastrophe also affected the French production apparatus. For instance, coal production fell from 67 to 40 million tons. France had regressed by fifty years. This situation, understandably, led to a thriving black market and inflation.
To address this problem, one of the first major decisions after Liberation was to increase wages. The entire French population was encouraged to participate in the production effort. This was referred to as the “third battle of France,” where terms like “reconstruction soldiers” and “rolling up one’s sleeves” were used. The economic approach during the Liberation and the Fourth Republic was characterized by a certain level of economic dirigisme, or government control and planning.
In response to persistent inflation, the government couldn’t help but intervene to rebuild and reform the country. The U.S. Marshall Plan was instrumental in providing financial support for the reconstruction of Europe. This plan distributed nearly 13 billion dollars to 13 European countries. Despite being a victim of World War II, the USSR turned down American aid, which hinted at the coming Cold War.
Reforms Leading to Progress
At the end of the war, as part of the profound economic reform, two fundamental innovations benefiting the French population were introduced. The first was the creation of the Social Security system. While it built on existing foundations, this measure went beyond mere technical reorganization.
It aimed to establish real safeguards against risks and create a fairer society. Pierre Laroque initiated this reform, which addressed the principles of solidarity and human dignity. Workers were hence protected from work-related risks such as illness, unemployment, old age, and workplace accidents, in addition to family allowances. Furthermore, the February 22, 1945, ordinance allowed the creation of committees in companies with more than fifty employees to involve workers closely in the company’s affairs.
Both of these reforms aimed to strengthen social cohesion as the country needed to rebuild its economy. However, this economic overhaul required a different level of state intervention.
What Tools Were Needed for This Transformation?
The Renault factories, a hotbed of labor struggle in Seine-Maritime, have always employed many immigrants.
It quickly became evident that to jumpstart and rebuild the economy, several reforms and tools needed to be put in place. Thus, organizations responsible for monitoring economic developments were established. In 1945 and 1946, the National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies (INSEE) and the General Planning Commission (Commissariat général au Plan) were founded, initially to address shortages and later to reconstruct and modernize France.
Adolf Hitler and Louis Renault together. Source: Le Point.
Simultaneously, a wave of nationalizations provided the government with new means of intervention. One well-known example of nationalization was the Renault factory. This measure was taken due to Louis Renault’s collaboration with the Third Reich. After Liberation, the factories were placed under sequestration, and the state, after seizing all assets, dissolved the old company and created a National Renault Factories Agency under the authority of the Minister of Industrial Production.
The Renault car factory in Paris in 1945, shortly after Louis Renault died in prison and the company was nationalized. Source: The Times.
The state also nationalized energy production. Coal mines in France, EDF (Électricité de France), and GDF (Gaz de France) were established, and a significant portion of the banking system came under political control (Crédit Lyonnais, Société Générale).
Through this Fourth Republic, the economy was rejuvenated through state interventionism, laying the foundation for what Jean Fourastié would later call “the Trente Glorieuses.”
A Period of Economic Prosperity
France lost a lot of money due to the Great Depression of the early 20th century and the two world wars (World War I, World War II and Vichy France) that followed it. France had an extended period of exceptional development from 1945 until the 1970s.
Prosperity is measured by gross national product (GNP), but global GNP per capita went from around $2,110 in 1950 to around $4,090 in 1970 (the Maddison Method). During these “Trente Glorieuses,” the country saw rapid industrialization. The consumer goods and transportation industries reaped the most benefits. In contrast, growth was more sluggish in the core sectors of iron and steel, textiles, and basic chemicals. Increased energy mobilization was a byproduct of this expansion. As a result of its low price and high energy content, oil was quickly becoming the world’s primary growth fuel.
Another element of this economic vigor was the profound shift in the distribution of employment across the three sectors of activity. The primary sector required fewer workers, while the secondary sector experienced an increase in employment, albeit with limited benefits from the growth. In contrast, there was a significant expansion of the tertiary sector and “white-collar” jobs.
Towards a Consumer Society
The Trente Glorieuses marked France’s transition into a consumer society, mirroring the American way of life. Starting in the 1950s, the French population began acquiring consumer goods such as televisions, refrigerators, washing machines, and automobiles. Access to these consumer goods became increasingly convenient, especially through the emergence of supermarkets.
Consumption in the 1950s and 1960s was not just about meeting individual needs but also about asserting one’s social status. During this period of prosperity, daily life underwent profound changes. Families were transformed with the advent of household appliances. “Moulinex liberates women,” as the refrigerator made women “happy and fulfilled.” This family transformation allowed for more time dedicated to child-rearing, leisure activities, and, for women, the possibility of entering the workforce.
Households entered the modern world, resulting in changes in family budgets. More money was allocated to equipment, healthcare, and leisure.
The Reason for The Growth
First generation “ripple bonnet” Citroën 2CV built from 1949 to 1960. Source: Wikimedia
One of the primary reasons for this economic growth lies in the supply-demand equation. During these thirty years, there was an increase in demand and, consequently, an increase in supply. This evolution was also the result of production methods such as Taylorism, Fordism, and assembly line work, where skilled workers gradually gave way to specialized labor, saving time and money. These elements allowed for increased production at lower costs. Additionally, another explanation for this growth likely lies in the extended duration of education. For instance, in 1970, there were four times as many high school graduates as in 1946.
Economic growth occurred because there was an increase in demand. Consumption increased because there were more consumers. Moreover, purchasing power continued to rise. For example, in 1948, it took more than 2,600 hours of work to buy a Citroën 2CV, while in 1974, only 1,000 hours were needed.
Finally, it’s worth noting that this period was characterized by full employment, and a significant salary reform occurred: workers began receiving monthly salaries instead of weekly pay, allowing them to allocate more substantial sums for consumption.
Economic Prosperity That Didn’t Benefit Everyone
During this period, the term “third world,” referring to countries not benefiting from this growth, emerged. However, even within the driving countries of the Trente Glorieuses, there were movements of rejection. Precarity persisted in France, stemming from poorly-paid jobs. As a result, there were individuals left behind by the growth, and shantytowns existed until the early 1970s. A “fourth world” emerged during this era of prosperity.
Some individuals also questioned this growth. They objected to the idea of an economy-controlled way of life and rejected the “work, commute, sleep” routine. Left-wing movements emerged, offering an alternative to the consumer-oriented world. They proposed renouncing the modern world and returning to rural life, as seen on the Larzac plateau, for example.
The End of the Trente Glorieuses (Glorious Thirty)
The notion that growth came to an abrupt halt solely due to the first oil shock is unfounded. Signs of an economic downturn were present in the early 1970s, and the energy crises of 1975 and 1979 only exacerbated the situation.
However, compared to the economic and social climate of the late 1990s, the Trente Glorieuses era, with its somewhat mythical name, continues to be the time when our nation experienced the strongest growth. In thirty years, it outperformed the growth France had seen between 1830 and 1914.
References
Jean Fourastié : “The Thirty Glorious or the invisible Revolution from 1946 to 1975”, 1979 and “The great Hope of xx^e siècle”, 1949
Dominique Lejeune, La France des Trente Glorieuses, 1945-1974, Armand Colin, 2015, collection « Cursus », 192 p.
Denis Woronoff, Histoire de l’industrie en France, 1994.
Jean-Pierre Rioux, France of the Fourth Republic, Le Seuil, Tome 1, p. 120.
January 4, 2023
Was Julius Caesar Gay? The Truth on Caesar’s Sexuality
- Julius Caesar was rumored to have had a gay affair with King Nicomedes.
- Caesar had multiple marriages and love affairs with women.
- The accusation of Caesar’s homosexuality was likely politically motivated.
Was Julius Caesar gay? Julius Caesar was once said to have had a gay affair with King Nicomedes of Bithynia, which earned him the title “Queen of Bithynia.” On his triumphal processions, his own soldiers appeared to make the same claim. According to Roman historian Suetonius, Caesar was called “every woman’s man and every man’s woman,” which could simply be a common insult at the time.
The Sexual Background of Julius Caesar
Caesar was betrothed to Cossutia in childhood. The betrothal was broken when the possibility of an even better union arose. Caesar then married Cornelia (85 or 84 BC) and had his first daughter, Julia. Cornelia died in 69 or 68 BC. Caesar married Pompeia in 76 BC, from whom he divorced in 62 BC after the Bona Dea scandal. In 59 BC, Caesar married Calpurnia, who remained his wife until his death in 44 BC.
Caesar had numerous love affairs and relationships with women, and tradition suggests a strong sexual interest on his part in women. An example of a distinguished Roman woman who was his mistress was Servilia. Among non-Roman women, Cleopatra was a particularly well-known case, whose first son was almost certainly Caesar’s.
Was Julius Caesar Homosexual?
On this silver coin, we see King Nicomedes IV. (ArchaiOptix, CC BY-SA 4.0, cropped)
At Caesar’s triumphal procession over Gaul in Rome in 45 BC, his soldiers recited mock verses, as was the custom of the time (Suetonius Tranquillus, ““Divus Julius”, 49, 4; cf. Cassius Dio, “Book 43”, 20, 2). Among the verses were:
“Gallias Caesar subegit, Nicomedes Caesarem:
Ecce Caesar nunc triumphat qui subegit Gallias,
Nicomedes non triumphat qui subegit Caesarem.”
“Gauls had been enslaved by Caesar, but Caesar by Nicomedes.
Look! now Caesar rides in triumph, the one who mastered Gallic lands.
Nicomedes does not triumph, the one who mastered Caesar.”
Another of the mocking verses refers to the lustfulness of Caesar toward women:
“Urbani, servate uxores: moechum calvom adducimus.
Aurum in Gallia effutuisti, hic sumpsisti mutuum.”
“Citizens, hide your wives! We’ve brought home that bald adulterer!
Caesar, you fucked away in Gaul the money which you borrowed here!”
So, Julius Caesar was clearly not exclusively homosexual. What can be discussed is whether Caesar was bisexual.
Was Julius Caesar Bisexual?
Bisexuality was not considered abnormal in Ancient Roman times. However, homosexuality could receive a pejorative evaluation in the Roman society of the time under certain circumstances, especially in the following cases:
1. The role of the “passive” homosexual (role distribution in which someone is the penetrated): This was widely regarded as feminine, a sign of a lack of masculinity, and could lead to a derogatory designation as “woman.”
2. Allowing homosexual practices as venality (for monetary payment or other consideration).
Alleged homosexuality has been an accusation in disputes, with a rating of impudicitia (fornication, unchastity). With a political antagonism that had become enmity, there were few inhibitions about the accusations. Whether they were actually true or not did not concern the authors of the invective. It was enough if something could be read into the behavior.
Caesar’s Alleged Gay Affair with Nicomedes
Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema’s Catullus at Lesbia‘s. Image: Wikimedia.
Caesar has been said to have had a gay affair with Nicomedes IV Philopator, king of Bithynia.
Caesar began his military service as an officer with Marcus Minucius Thermus, propraetor and governor of the Roman province of Asia. The latter sent Caesar to King Nicomedes of Bithynia to support a military enterprise against the city of Mytilene on the island of Lesbos by sending a fleet detachment. Caesar, about 20 years old (80 or 79 BC), stayed for a while at the king’s court. He also returned once more to Bityhia to collect money owed to a freed client.
Apparently, rumors arose that Caesar had a gay affair with Nicomedes. Nicomedes was widely rumored to be gay since he had no children. However, the stay can also be explained in other ways, such as a liking for a pleasant court life or the use of the stay to establish a network of relationships (“foreign clientelae”).
In his “Catullus 29” and “Catullus 57,” poet Catullus reviles Mamurra (who served under Caesar as a military officer [praefectus fabrum]) and Caesar, portraying them as homosexuals on the one hand and lovers of girls on the other.
These are the ancient sources on Caesar’s stay in Bityhia and the accusations of a gay affair with Nicomedes:
- Suetonius, Divus Julius; 20: 2 (allusion in which someone in a Senate debate refers to Caesar as a woman [femina]);
- Cassius Dio, Book 43: 20–4;
- Sextus Aurelius Victor, De Viris Illustribus; 78, 1;
“Gaius Julius Caesar, veneratione rerum gestarum Divus dictus, contubernalis Thermo in Asiam profectus, cum saepe ad Nicomedem, regem Bithyniae, commearet, impudicitiae infamatus est.“
“Gaius Julius Caesar, called divine out of adoration/admiration of his deeds, who had set out for Asia as a tent companion for [Marcus Minucius] Thermus, because he often visited Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, acquired the bad reputation of fornication/unchastity.”
Whether a homosexual affair between Caesar and Nicomedes actually existed is very doubtful. Even if complete certainty is not attainable, Caesar’s denial under oath that he never had a gay relationship with Nicomedes (Cassius Dio, Book 43: 20, 2) carries weight.
Who First Accused Caesar of Being Gay?
Suetonius from the Nuremberg Chronicle. (Public Domain)
How the rumors regarding Julius Caesar’s homosexuality originated cannot be determined exactly, but there are some obvious factors. Such a sexual allegation was most likely made by Caesar’s political opponents in order to interpret a publicly known stay for diplomatic purposes in order to harm Caesar’s reputation.
Gaius Licinius Macer Calvus, Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella, Gaius Scribonius Curio (the father of the son of the same name who fought on Caesar’s side in the civil war), Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, a certain Octavius (perhaps Marcus Octavius), Gaius Memmius, and Marcus Tullius Cicero are among the people who called Caesar gay (Suetonius, Divus Julius 49).
Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella, a consul in 81 BC, was accused by Caesar in 77 or 76 of extorting money as governor of the Roman province of Macedonia and acquitted in a trial by a senatorial court. His accusation regarding Caesar’s homosexuality with Nicomedes is the earliest known example. Gaius Scribonius Curio belonged to the Optimates and was a political opponent of Caesar. His son of the same name represented the same line and later changed sides. Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus was consul with Caesar in 59 BC, and Gaius Memmius was Praetor in 58 BC. He had tried to have Caesar’s decrees declared invalid in his year of the consulship. Gaius Licinius Macer Calvus, like Catullus, was a poet with a temperament for vituperative poems.
The rumor, once created, could be used to make mocking remarks about Caesar. For instance, Marcus Tullius Cicero used this homosexuality rumor for quips.
According to Cassius Dio’s Book 42: 20, 4, the crude mocking verses about an affair between Nicomedes and Gaius Julius Caesar angered and embarrassed Julius Caesar, and he defended himself by denying the homosexual affair with Nicomedes under oath, but this only encouraged the mockery. This is in contrast to other mocking verses, which Caesar accepted calmly as proof of confidence since he would respect freedom of speech (Suetonius, Caesar, 49–52).
January 4, 2023
Napoleon’s Horse: The Legendary Marengo
One of Napoleon Bonaparte‘s favorite horses was called Marengo. This gray and white Arabian stallion would have been named after the June 1800 Battle of Marengo, in which Napoleon barely beat an Austrian army in Italy. Napoleon had seized this gray-white horse in Egypt in 1799 and brought it to France. However, very little information is available regarding the Marengo horse, and some historians question the horse’s existence or think it probably had a different name.
Marengo had the battle marks of having been ridden by Napoleon at many battles. The horse was injured when he was caught by the English, yet he made it through many years.
The Story of Napoleon’s Horse: Marengo
Napoleon’s horse Marengo, an Arabian stallion by Antoine-Jean Gros, 1803.
Marengo was born in 1794, captured at the Battle of Abukir during the Egyptian campaign of 1799 from the well-known El Naseri Stud by Napoleon’s men, and brought to France in the same year. The horse was of small size, approximately 4 feet 7 inches (1.40 meters) at the withers, with a light gray or iron gray coat.
It would have taken Marengo five hours at a gallop to cross the 80 miles (130 km) from Burgos to Valladolid, and he could have gone the 50 miles (80 km) from Vienna to Semmering without stopping for food.
However, contrary to popular belief, Napoleon did not actually ride Marengo during the Battle of Marengo. The horse was maintained at the stable so that he could use it whenever he wanted.
Along with more than 50 horses from Napoleon’s private stud farm, Marengo is also said to have made it out of Russia in 1812. Similarly, he did not appear to take part in the disastrous 1812 Russian campaign.
This stallion was probably stabled in Normandy at the time. The horse was restored to the Tuileries stables in 1815, after Napoleon returned to Paris from captivity on Elba in March.
Napoleon riding Marengo, painting by Ernest Meissonier, 1862. Image: Onedio.
Marengo was then supposedly present during the Battle of Waterloo in June. But you can also rule out the possibility of Napoleon ever riding a horse named Marengo in this battle. Because Napoleon’s only horse that day was a mare named Desirée, after his brief fiancée, Desirée Clary (1777–1860), who went on to become Queen of Sweden and Norway.
After Napoleon’s defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, this 22-year-old steed, which Napoleon allegedly rode during the battle, was captured at Napoleon’s Last HQ (Caillou Farm) on the evening of June 18, 1815.
While a British officer was caring for a horse in the imperial stables, he surmised from the equipment and the branded letter “N” on the horse’s skin that the horse belonged to the imperial riding stable. The horse was shot in the tail and suffered from the scars of five other battle wounds.
Napoleon on horseback at the Battle of Waterloo, June 18th, 1815. (Source: Washington Post. Colorized by Malevus)
He was brought to England by William Petre (11th Baron Petre), and after being purchased at auction by Lieutenant-Colonel of the Grenadiers John Julius Angerstein, Napoleon’s horse was transported to Angerstein’s horse farm on the Isle of Ely in Cambridgeshire.
Others maintain that Marengo was captured by the English after being wounded at Waterloo and lived another 6–7 years once his wounds healed.
Marengo was quite a gentle horse. After being exhibited by Captain Howard until the age of 27, it was sometimes used for breeding. Once the attempts to utilize the horse as a breeding stallion began to fail, Napoleon’s horse was retired and lived to the ripe old age of 38 before passing away in 1832 in Brandon, Suffolk, England.
All of Marengo’s offspring, no matter the color of their mothers, were gray. The goal was to get the horse ready for mounting. But that never materialized. Napoleon was exiled to Saint Helena at the time Marengo was captured, and the General remained there until his death in 1821.
Cultural Legacy of Marengo
Marengo – James Ward, 1824.
Napoleomania
This horse, falsely alleged to be the imperial “Marengo,” later proved to be a popular painting in England. Once the French emperor Napoleon was finally vanquished in 1821, a genuine “Napoleomania” swept the country.
Thanks to Napoleon’s horse, Marengo, the once-feared general became a beloved figure in the eyes of the people through various paintings. Due in large part to the Napoleonic hysteria of the 19th century, many contemporary people automatically thought of Marengo when hearing of the horse of the French emperor.
In 1824, the English artist James Ward (1769–1859) painted a big canvas (above) showing Marengo lounging on the sand. In this painting, the horse appears to be pining for its former master, who is currently living in exile far, far away, as it stares out into the distance towards the sinking sun.
An Ancient Funerary Ritual
Memento Marengo hanging over Napoleon’s tomb in the Dome Des Invalides. (Image: Anne-Sylvane Marre-Noël)
The Musée de l’Armée (The Army Museum) commissioned Pascal Convert to create a piece for the royal chapel Dôme des Invalides commemorating the bicentennial of Napoleon Bonaparte’s death for their “Napoléon? Encore!” contemporary art exhibition.
The artist used a 3D scan to build a composite copy of the Marengo skeleton called Memento Marengo, which served as a modern Memento mori by hanging over the grave of the Emperor. Reuniting Napoleon with his horse resembled an ancient funerary ritual in which combatants were buried with their mounts.
The horse’s position was reminiscent of Pegasus, the horse who accompanied the demigod Bellerophon on his flight and fall after he attempted to ascend Mount Olympus and received punishment from Zeus. Similarly, Napoleon formally surrendered on the English ship HMS Bellerophon on July 15, 1815.
There were conflicting reactions to the sculpture; some people found its morbid connotation upsetting, while others pointed out that the Dôme des Invalides is a necropolis, not an exhibition space. However, it was planned to be down on February 13, 2022, at the time of its installation.
In Movies
- The character “Mr. Memory” is featured in a scene from the 1959 British film The 39 Steps in which he is challenged to name Napoleon’s horse during a variety performance.
- The name “Marengo” appears on an unusual vehicle in the “Speed Racer” episode of Race for Revenge from 1967. But Speed Racer makes the connection between the name and the horse after the riddle is solved. However, the name Marengo was poorly translated from Japanese to English as Melange by the ‘uncultured’ Trans-Lux Corporation.
- “The world’s first epistolary equine love story,” Warhorses of Letters (2011) (broadcast on BBC Radio 4) features Stephen Fry as Marengo and Daniel Rigby as Copenhagen. It is a comic correspondence between the Duke of Wellington’s horse and Napoleon’s horse.
Did Marengo Really Exist?
The skeleton of Marengo as seen in London, 2011. Source: CC BY-SA 3.0 – Nick-D – Wikipedia
There is a skeleton that has been alleged to be the famed Marengo horse on exhibit at London’s National Army Museum in Chelsea. However, can we truly be certain that this is Marengo? What can be said with validity is that Napoleon rode at least 150 horses in his lifetime. His secretary, Agathon Jean-François Fain, remarked that it was an occasional spectacle to see Napoleon ride:
“He [Napoleon] rode recklessly and dangerously. He hunched forward in the saddle, holding the reins loose in his right hand while leaving his left arm free and moving his whole body to the horse’s rhythm.”
Agathon Jean-François Fain
The list of Napoleon’s horses is, at best, incomplete. Strangely, the name of the illustrious Marengo does not exist in the records of the imperial stables or any other French archives, despite his widespread fame. In her exhaustive study of “Marengo: The Myth of Napoleon’s Horse,” Australian author Jill Hamilton suggests that “Ali,” not “Marengo,” must be the official name of the horse.
Marengo in the Museum
Derek Bell, a conservator, cleaning up the bones of Napoleon’s horse, Marengo. (Image: Credit: Phil Yeomans/BNPS)
The National Army Museum in London is where modern audiences may marvel at the skeleton of Marengo. Marengo’s hide was lost over time, and only the bones were left. However, the skeleton also lacks at least two hooves.
General Angerstein is reported to have been given one of the animal’s hind hooves, while each of his front hooves has been turned into a snuffbox or ashtray and displayed separately: one at Saint James’s Palace in London and the other at the Household Cavalry Museum after being discovered on the farm where Marengo died.
Marengo’s skeleton was cleaned up and repaired in 2017. National Army Museum staff felt this was necessary because the animal had been displayed in an unprofessional manner since the 19th century.
Napoleon’s Last Horse: Vizir
The Vizir before its restoration in the Paris, Army Museum. Source: CC BY-SA 3.0 – Sesamevoila – Wikipedia
Vizir (‘Advisor’), Napoleon’s last horse, has been preserved in a stuffed state for posterity. It was in 1805 that the Sultan of Ottoman (Turkey), Selim III, presented the French emperor with this white Arabian thoroughbred as a gift. For a period of 10 years, Napoleon had the animal at his side; he rode it in Prussia at the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt (1806), the Battle of Eylau (1807), and the Battle of Wagram (1809).
After Napoleon’s death, Vizir was sent to St. Helena and groomed there. The horse is currently on display in Paris’ Army Museum. On its left thigh, you can make out a crowned “N.”
But there are concerns about this horse as well. Few people are convinced that this is the same horse that Napoleon rode in those famous wars. The French Army Museum is fairly confident that this horse is Vizir; nonetheless, a notice in the exhibit reads “Si c’est bien lui” (If it is him).
Other Horses Rode by Napoleon
Bonaparte’s passage of the Great St. Bernard, painted by Jacques-Louis David (1748–1825) in 1801. The horse in the picture is “Marengo.”
- Intendant – On Elba, Napoleon lavished extra care on his favorite display horse, a cream gene-colored Anglo-Norman, also known as “Coco”.
- Marie – According to legend, Napoleon replaced Marengo with this mare when he was injured at Waterloo.
- Roitelet – His ancestry most likely included both the English and the French. He dismounted Napoleon in the middle of a troop parade. He was not utilized by Napoleon again until Marengo was allegedly wounded in the Russian campaign. Roitelet was injured but later transferred to Elba.
- Tauris – Alexander I of Russia generously provided this white mare as a gift. Napoleon appreciated its attractiveness and brought it with him to the Russian campaign. They both returned to Elba together.
- Vizir – Another one of Napoleon Bonaparte’s war horses was named Vizir.
- Wagram – A gray Arabian horse known for its beauty.
List of horses of Napoleon
The list of horses of Napoleon in alphabetical order:
Aboukir
Aly, iron gray, 1812
Arabella
Artaxercés
Austerlitz
Babylonien
Baladière, mouse gray, 1811
Belle
Bouffon
Calvados
Cantal, mottled gray
César, dirty gray, 1808
Cid
Cléopâtre, ash gray, 1806
Coceyre
Conquérant
Cordoue
Cyrus
Diomède, pale gray, 1808
Distingué
Duc
Edile
Effendi
Emule
Endurant
Estime
Étrangère
Euphrate
Extrême
Famillier
Folâtre
Frère
Georgien
Gesner
Gracieux
Gracieux, dapple-gray, 1815
Grisou, spotted-gray, 1814
Guza
Hahim
Harbet
Hector
Helavert
Héricle
Iéna
Jaspé, vinous gray, 1812
Judith
Louvette
Lydienne
Lyre
Major
Marengo
Naïade
Nankin
Naturaliste
Naufragé
Nausicaa
Navigateur
Navire
Nickel, a thoroughbred Arabian with a metallic gray coat, donated by the Tsar of Russia in 1805
Ninon
Ramier, mottled gray, 1807
Robuste, starling gray, 1815
Roitelet
Russe
Sagonte
Sahara
Sélim, dirty gray, 1812
Styrie
Suez, ash gray, 1815
Sultan
Tauris
Timide
Triomphant
Vizir, almost white peach blossom, with all hairs, slightly trout chestnut
Wagram, gray
References
The Myth of Napoleon’s Horse Jill, Duchess of Hamilton.
Marengo’s makeover | National Army Museum.
Napoleon’s last horse given makeover by taxidermists (2016, July 3). Napoleon Bonaparte’s Last Horse to Be Restored for Second Time – ABC News.
January 3, 2023
Surus: The Story of Hannibal’s Favorite Elephant
Surus was the elephant that Hannibal personally rode through the crossing of the Alps and during the events after it. It was his favorite animal. The tale of Hannibal’s successful attempt to lead his elephants across the Alps has endured through the ages. During the Carthaginian general’s lifetime, and maybe at his suggestion, Greek historians created a picture of a god-like hero who, with the aid of the gods, led his elephants through ambushes placed by mountain dwellers and across freezing deserts. The elephants are elevated to the status of stars of Hannibal’s expedition thanks to the contributions of medieval romances, the romantic 19th century era, and films of the 20th century. One animal in particular stood out from the rest and it was Surus. It was the strongest of the bunch and the only one to make it through Hannibal’s whole expedition and help Hannibal make it through the Arno marshes while the general was blind in one eye and Surus only had one tusk.
What was the name of Hannibal’s personal elephant?
Surus was known as Hannibal’s most courageous elephant. Hannibal had a deep affection for Surus during and after his campaign in the Alps, until the animal’s death.
Was Surus a Syrian elephant?
Historians are of the opinion that Surus was an Indian elephant whose ancestors were captured by Alexander the Great’s Seleucid successors in the East. It’s still up for debate whether Surus was brought in from India or if it was native to Syria.
Trivia: Surus in video games
In “Assassin’s Creed Origins” an animal named Surus can be found and fought during the Dead or Alive mission. In-game, Surus can be found in a ring of combat in the game’s southwestern Green Mountains.
Who was Surus?
Hannibal crosses the river with an elephant, probably Surus.
The Carthaginian elephants often panicked the horses with their weird look and foreign scent, but they were also foiled by being hit behind their tails. The Carthaginian warriors battled from towers on the backs of the elephants which were probably a lesser forest subspecies of the African elephant.
Surus, which also translates as “Syrian”, was likely an Indian elephant who was regularly ridden by Hannibal himself and was considered the toughest in combat despite having one tusk, and yet he was the only elephant to survive the campaign. Cato, while listing the names of many elephants in his Annals, had to include Surus since he was the elephant who especially fought hardest throughout the Punic Wars. And by the same token, he was missing a tooth.
The ancient Roman poet Ennius used a pun when he said, “one Syrian to carry a stake, nevertheless he could defend.” It was probably a pun on the Latin word for “stake,” “sūrus“, or “sudus” which refers to the long wooden poles that legionaries used to set up barricades while camping. Surus was armed with its own “stake” in the fight against the Carthaginians—its one tusk. Alternately, “Stake” might have been a Roman shortening of Surus’ name. The Roman playwright Plautus said in 191 BC that only the name “Surus” could strike terror into an enemy’s heart; such was the public’s infatuation with the beast.
Surus was also employed to help clear a route through the mountains for the army, and it was taught to carry supplies and equipment as well.
Hannibal’s affection for Surus
Hannibal crossing the Rhone with war elephants. Source: Wikimedia.
When Hannibal led his army into battle on the Arno’s marshy plain, an unbreakable relationship between Surus and his master Hannibal was created. As Livy describes, the four-day march through the water was arduous. The first troops to enter the water, preceded by the guides, faced a perilous journey across the river’s changing bottom and steep-sided holes. They were almost swallowed up by the mud in which they sank. Among the slain mules might be found the bodies of the Gallic auxiliary soldiers, who were initially less hardened and dejected.
By the end, Hannibal was being “carried by the only surviving elephant,” Surus. Hannibal developed ophthalmia shortly after crossing the Alps and eventually lost his one eye. But it was thanks to Surus that Hannibal was able to make it over these awful wetlands. By this time, Surus had only one tusk but he was still bold and proud.
It’s likely that Surus passed away the day before the Battle of Lake Trasimeno on June 21, 217 BC. Even after he finally triumphed, Hannibal was still in sorrow over the death of Surus, his favorite elephant. In a desperate attempt to fill Surus’ place, Hannibal later imported a herd of Spanish elephants, although he evidently did not bond with them as well as he did with Surus.
In August 216, the elephants were sent into the Battle of Cannae on August 2, 216 BC, in southern Italy, where they were slaughtered by Roman soldiers, who assaulted them with blazing firebrands and set fire to the wooden towers housing the archers. The European employment of elephants as auxiliary troops came to an end with Hannibal’s loss in North Africa at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC. The elephants were cumbersome and slow to move; they also wore out rapidly, and most importantly, they did tremendous damage to their own ranks in the conflict of the battle. Their demise predicted the fall of Carthage in 146 BC.
What species was Surus?
A coin from the Carthaginian era was discovered near Valls, Spain, and it shows Hannibal with an African elephant. Surus was not an African elephant though.
The Syrian or Western Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus asurus) was a subspecies of the Asian elephant that was formerly widespread in the ancient Middle East but later became extinct. They were often put to use in combat and transportation. As a result of excessive poaching for their ivory, elephants became extinct about the year 100 BC, much later than the demise of Surus.
During the Punic Wars (264-146 BC), various Carthaginian generals, including Hannibal Barca, used elephants in battle against the Romans. The majority of Hannibal’s 37 elephants were the extinct North African kind. Compared to their Syrian counterparts, they were noticeably smaller.
Surus, an Asian elephant with a single tusk, was reportedly the largest and most impressive of Hannibal’s elephants. After making it across the Alps (218 BC), it was also the last of its kind to do it. African elephants are seen on a Carthaginian coin from Hannibal’s reign.
Historians, however, are of the opinion that Surus was an Indian elephant whose ancestors were captured by Alexander the Great’s Seleucid successors in the East. It’s still up for debate whether Surus was brought in from India or if it was native to Syria.
Hannibal’s crossing of the Alps led to the story of Surus
Hannibal’s crossing of the Alps. Source: Penfield.edu.
Conflicts between Carthage and Rome, known as the Punic Wars, took place between 264 and 146 B.C. Hamilcar Barca, the patriarch of a prominent Carthaginian family, led his people to victory in southern Spain after the Romans had driven them from Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. His son Hannibal took over the Carthaginian army in Hispania in 221 BC, a few years after his father’s death. He was only 26, yet he vowed an unending enmity against Rome. Since his brother-in-law Hasdrubal the Fair was in charge of Spain, in the spring of 218 he set out for Italy with between 75,000 and 100,000 troops and 37 elephants (according to Polybius’s account, the first detailed account of the war that we have).
The Carthaginians had used elephants as part of their military for some time now. They were not the pioneer war elephants either. India’s early and widespread adoption of them is notable. When the Greek king of Epirus, Pyrrhus, came to Italy and subsequently Sicily with his elephants in the first part of the 2nd century, the Romans and the Carthaginians were forced to deal with them. The top officials of Carthage recognized the value of these creatures and made sure their empire had access to them. This was a simple task, since the elephants were abounding in the south of modern-day Tunisia and elsewhere in the Maghreb, where forest cover was still substantial. Unlike their African bush elephant counterparts, who might grow to be 13 feet (4 meters) tall and weigh up to 5 tons, these elephants seldom grew to be taller than 10 feet (3 meters).
Hannibal had high hopes for the elephants because of how easy they were to tame. They could carry bags, clear the way of obstacles like boulders and trees, and even go into fights to help out like war tanks. Most importantly, they would shock and frighten unsuspecting civilians and enemy soldiers alike. The Carthaginian army left in the spring of 218 AD, crossed the Pyrenees Mountain range, marched over the plain of Languedoc, and by August had reached the River Rhône. In order to get away from the Roman soldiers who had landed in the delta, they had to swim the river and then climb the Alps. These were the challenges that the elephants would have had trouble surmounting if they had been better equipped.
Engineers under Hannibal’s command built massive rafts, which they secured to the bank by burying them in dirt and grass. The elephants were fooled by their looks (and maybe drawn there by the females that the mahouts, the elephant riders, put there initially). When the moorings were broken and the rafts were hauled into the water by pulling boats, the situation became much more dire. Fearful elephants grouped together, and some were swept away by the current. However, by using their trunks as snorkels and walking along the river bank, the remaining elephants were able to reach dry ground. It was a terrifying passage.
The Alps provided a unique path for the elephants and the Carthaginian army, maybe through the Maurienne and the Mont Cenis Pass (we still do not have any certainty on the route taken). It took Hannibal’s army 15 days to traverse the mountain because they were harassed by hostile people and had to contend with cold, wind, and snow. The descent was more challenging than the climb since it was “narrow, steep, and covered with snow,” as described by Polybius.
If one missed the true path, one would fall into terrible precipices. Fearful and hopeless, the whole army gave up and surrendered when they reached a spot where it was impossible for the elephants or the horses to advance due to the sinking ground. What occurred was, without a doubt, a one-of-a-kind occurrence: “The new snow which had fallen on the top of the old snow remaining since the previous winter, was itself yielding,” wrote Polybius.
“When they had trodden through it and set foot on the congealed snow beneath it, they no longer sunk in it, but slid along it with both feet, as happens to those who walk on ground with a coat of mud on it.”
Surus was the only surviving elephant
Hannibal arrives in Italy, after successfully crossing the Alps. Source: AlternateHistory.com
While sinking, the elephants dug themselves into tunnels that now imprisoned them. Here, somewhere around 19 of the elephants perished despite the best efforts of Gallic troops who had joined the Carthaginians and who had encircled the elephants with all their care after getting over their first dread of the massive animals. The Syrian, or Surus, which also means “butterfly” in Punic, refers to the most hardy and resilient animal among the Carthaginian elephants of Hannibal. Because, despite all, Surus was the only surviving elephant of the expedition.
Surus’ huge ears, when wide apart, presumably brought to mind the wings of the lovely insect. It has been speculated, but not proven, that this elephant called Surus, unlike the others, originated in Syria or India, and was transported to Egypt’s Memphis before being sold or purchased by Hannibal at Carthage.
The Carthaginian commander Hannibal, accompanied by a somewhat diminished force, landed in Italy and started making his way south toward Rome. Near the Ticino and Trebia, two streams of the Po, he met the Roman troops and emerged triumphant. Hannibal ordered his elephants to charge on the banks of the Trebia, but the Romans, who were no longer frightened of elephants, had adapted to the point that they could hurl javelins and arrows at the animals, chop off their hocks with axes, and lop off their trunks with scythes. There were at least five elephants lost. During the harsh winter in Liguria, the other elephants succumbed to the elements and lack of food. In the spring of 217, when the Carthaginians invaded Etruria, only the elephant Surus was left alive among Hannibal’s elephants.
January 3, 2023
Cleanliness and Hygiene in Ancient Roman Women
One half of ancient Rome’s population was made up of women; however, our understanding of their lives was limited. While we can learn a lot about ancient societies through statues and wall paintings, we have to rely on writings by men to learn about the practices of personal cleanliness and cosmetics of ancient women. In this article, we’ll explore the experiences of Roman women at the outset of the Roman Empire, when they were beginning to be recognized as individuals apart from their husbands.
- See Also: Women in Ancient Rome and Their Place in Roman Society
The Bathing and Showering of Ancient Roman Women
Olive flask and strigil, tools used for bathing in Ancient Rome. Source: CC-BY-2.5, Wikipedia
How near I was to warn you, no rankness of the wild goat under your armpits, no legs bristling with harsh hair!
According to the poetry of Ovid.
At the close of the Roman Republic, Roman males and females began placing a premium on physical beauty. The Romans thought that the body was flawed and incomplete by nature, so it had to be taught and trained to move away from its animal roots.
According to Seneca, the standard practice in the countryside was to shower daily, but only after getting dirty at labor (arms and legs), and to wait a week or nine days before showering again (market days). In the past, home hygiene only concerned the personal care of women and the youngest members of the household.
Only the wealthy residents of the city could afford private baths; everyone else had to rely on public baths. Since Hadrian’s reign and in response to a scandal, an imperial edict has mandated separate hours (morning for women, afternoon for men), with the exception of specific businesses (Pompeii) that were open at both times. On the other hand, a lady who was worried about what other people would say decided to stay away from the pool because of the presence of men and women. The wealthiest ladies indulged in milk baths (of sweet almond for Cleopatra, of ass for Poppea). Wrinkles might be reduced by using a variety of remedies, including donkey’s milk, crushed white vine, diluted pigeon droppings in vinegar, or oily fluid extracted from sheep’s wool.
The Romans did not have soap, so they washed with a sponge and degreasing ingredients and then used a strigil to remove dirt.
1. Foam: Saltpeter
2. Sapo: A foaming paste made of goat fat and beech ash (invented by the Gauls)
3. Lomentum: Made from bean flour and plucked snail shells
4. Pumex: Pumice stone
Due to the abrasive nature of these cleansers, it was necessary to apply ointments or moisturizing lotions containing scented oils all over the body after each wash to restore the skin’s softness and suppleness.
These lotions were made by combining cereal drink froth with lanolin taken from sheep’s wool and then scenting them to cover up the noxious odor. Some common ingredients in homemade beauty masks were wheat flour, donkey milk, boiled sturgeon glue, sulfur, orcanet, silver foam, water, and eggs. To avoid irritation and redness, these plasters could not be left on for more than a few hours. An anti-inflammatory remedy that included frankincense gum, myrrh, and nitre, diluted in honey and seasoned with fennel and dried roses, was effective in most situations. Cucumber juice, calf dung mixed with gum, and oil could all help diminish freckles.
Pliny the Elder’s book Natural History (Naturalis Historia) contained a plethora of recipes. While many of these items were claimed to be moisturizers, they actually produced lesions ranging from mild to severe and always required more maintenance or concealer. Ointments made with oil were the safest option. The Romans also used alum stone as a deodorant.
- See Also: Complete List of Women of Ancient Rome
Dentiscalpium, a mid-14th century object from excavations in numbers 7 and 9 of Carrer de la Font (the Jewish quarter of Tàrrega), can be found in the Museum Comarcal de l’Urgell – Tàrrega. Source: Gencat.
Dentifricum (Dentifrice) was a powder made from soda (also known as “nitrum” or “saltpeter”) that was used for oral hygiene. Some people even tried using horse ashes, pumice powder, or urine. For a minty-fresh mouth, one could chew on a lozenge made from myrtle or mastic that had been soaked in a mixture of old wine, ivy berries, cassia, and myrrh. Pliny the Elder advised using stag horn ash as friction or mouthwash to relieve tooth pain. Many had said that stag horn powder that had not been burned was more potent.
The Greeks employed a feather (Martial) or a “dentiscalpium,” which could be fashioned of metal, bone, or wood and resembled a toothpick but was completed with a hook. Some were designed to be used as toothpicks or earpicks.
Rings, toothpicks, tweezers, a tiny nail-pick knife, a lice scraper, and a variety of makeup spatulas were all examples of items that could be found in a toiletry kit.
Hair removal in Ancient Roman women
A famous “bikini girls” mosaic, depicting women exercising, running, or receiving the palm of victory and a crown for winning an athletic competition, was discovered during an archaeological dig at an ancient Roman villa near Piazza Armerina in Sicily. (Credit: W. Commons, M. Disdero, CC-BY-2.5.
Women used a depilatory cream made of rosin (pitch) dissolved in oil, which was occasionally combined with resin, wax, and a caustic ingredient to remove hair from their underarms and legs. Some women used a mixture of equal weights of black elderberry seed from Armenia and silver lye as an alternative. Others favored a wax made from pine resin. Bronze tweezers, ranging in size from 5 to 11 cm and resembling our own in design, provided a simpler alternative for ladies. Augustus, who would burn his legs with walnut shells heated to white to make his hair come back softer, was just one example of a man who waxed both his body and face.
Makeup was only an option for Roman women after they had spent hours perfecting their appearance. But a woman should never show a man, especially her partner, how she cleans herself.
The makeup of Ancient Roman women
Mistress and three maids. (Credit: W. Commons, ArchaiOptix, CC-BY-4.0)
When applying cosmetics, a Roman woman would use a highly polished bronze or precious metal mirror, which was occasionally silvered for a more accurate reflection. Roman women, to the chagrin of men like Seneca, resembled prostitutes (or lupa) due to their excessive use of cosmetics. Makeup was often applied after skincare routines had been completed. They used vivid, clashing hues.
A flawless complexion was all the rage. A woman’s worth was diminished if her face was excessively red, as this indicated that she was very active. On the other hand, paleness was a sign of female emotional distress and had to be avoided at all costs. White ceruse (lead carbonate) was used as a foundation, and it was sometimes combined with honey or another fatty ingredient to create a “youthful whiteness.” (Ceruse came from Rhodes and was very toxic; it had been banned in France since 1915.) Saltpeter foam, Selina earth (yellow ochre), wine lees, or fucus were used to add color to the white (red algae).
To further emphasize the narrowness of the forehead, the eyebrows were drawn up and made longer (another beauty criterion). Using a brush, antimony, often known as “smoke black,” was placed on the outer corner of the eye to accentuate the lash line. Then, either green (from malachite), blue (from azurite, copper carbonate), or red (from the hematite) was applied to the upper eyelid (a dye made from Cydnus saffron). A dab of crimson blush was applied with a brush, and a beauty spot was placed on each cheek to finish off the makeup.
Crushed hematite (iron oxide) crystals were used to add a touch of sparkle to the face for special events. Small, cylindrical bone pyxes or glass bottles housed the powders and creams, and a spatula or spoon made of bone, metal, or glass was used to remove the contents. To prepare the concoctions, they utilized little glass bowls.
All of this attention to the body was done according to the family’s resources, but even the humblest people would take care of themselves and apply makeup, using various materials (such as poppy flowers instead of saffron for the red) to appear beautiful under a lovely sky. Many of these items caused skin problems and may have even caused malignancies.”
References
Beryl Rawson, “The Roman Family,” in The Family in Ancient Rome: New Perspectives (Cornell University Press, 1986), p. 18.
Catherine Salles, La Vie des Romains au temps des Césars, éd. Larousse, coll. L’Histoire au quotidien, 2004
Kelly Olson, “The Appearance of the Young Roman Girl,” in Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture (The University of Toronto Press, 2008), p. 143.
Pliny the Elder, The Natural History.
Janine Assa, The Great Roman Ladies, New York, 1960
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What Did Attila the Hun Look Like?
What did Attila the Hun look like? It is believed that the Greek and Latin accounts written by the Huns’ opponents about the appearance of Attila the Hun are usually prejudiced. But they are the only ones that provide a comprehensive description of Attila the Hun’s look. Because only a few texts recorded by Attila’s contemporaries have made it to our time. Priscus was the only individual who was known to have documented Attila the Hun’s physical characteristics.
Priscus on Attila the Hun’s Look
The embassy to Attila by Priscus.
Attila the Hun’s physical characteristics were only documented by Priscus in his book, “At the Court of Attila“. As part of an embassy dispatched by the Eastern Roman Empire to Attila’s court in the 5th century AD, the Greek historian and rhetorician Priscus was there too. The diplomat Priscus describes Attila as having a simple and clean look, down to the latchets of “his Scythian shoes” and the unadorned bridle on his horse.
Multiple sources agree that the Scythians were culturally and linguistically similar to the Turkic steppe tribes from whom they originated. This gives us a better idea of how Attila the Hun probably looked like a Turkic or Central Asian person of the period.
In contrast to the lavish supper provided on silver plates to the other guests, Priscus said that Attila ate just meat on a wooden (rather than silver) trencher and was temperate in his habits.
Jordanes on Attila’s Look
Not exactly “small eyes,” but an Attila wax sculpture in a museum in Hungary. Wikimedia Commons.
Jordanes gives us the most prominent description of what Attila looked like in his book named The Origins and Deeds of the Goths, also known as “Getica“.
There are some crucial details on Attila’s appearance in Jordanes’ book: He was “short in stature,” had a “broad chest,” a “large head,” “small eyes,” a beard “thin and sprinkled with gray,” “a flat nose,” and “a swarthy complexion.” Jordanes added that Attila the Hun had a “proud spirit” and was “haughty in his walk,” “rolling his eyes hither and thither.”
Jordanes also mentions that Attila’s dress was so simple and clean that his sword, latchets, and bridle were not adorned with gold or gems.
Procopius on Attila
A painting of Attila riding a pale horse, by French Romantic artist Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863). Image: Wikimedia.
Procopius (c. 500–565) and Jordanes, two historians who lived in the sixth century, relied heavily on Priscus for the look of Attila.
The Byzantine historian Procopius (c. 500–565) described Attila the Hun in his book History of the Wars. Procopius describes Attila as a merciless conqueror who inspired terror in the hearts of his subjects. He says that Attila looked ferocious and intimidating, with a stern and harsh face. In addition to his incredible power, Procopius praises Attila’s ferocity and ruthlessness. Procopius paints a dark picture of Attila, focusing on the ruthless and cruel aspects of his character because he was biased.
Why Did Europeans Make Attila Look Like a European Ruler?
The painters often portrayed historical characters in ways that mirrored the prejudices and assumptions of their own culture. It’s conceivable that painters in Europe chose to portray Attila as a European king because they found such representation to be more comfortable or culturally meaningful. In this way, the European painters tried to adopt Attila the Hun into their own culture, rather than the Turkic or Central Asian culture.
The extent to which Attila and the Huns interacted with and impacted European cultures and civilizations may also have contributed to these portrayals. The way historical people are pictured in art doesn’t always match how they looked in real life or how they behaved at the time. As a powerful and successful leader, Attila was not an exception.
The Ethnicity of Attila and the Language He Spoke
The Huns, a nomadic group from Central Asia who eventually became Attila’s forebears, started conquering sections of Europe in the 2nd century AD. Where Attila was born and raised, to the north of the Danube, was where they made their home.
The Turkic language family, which includes Turkish and other languages spoken in Central and Eastern Europe, is thought to be what the Huns spoke based on the evidence. The Altaic and Mongolic language families, as well as others, are connected to the Turkic language family, which has its roots in Central Asia.
Overall, Attila spoke a Turkic language, which was spoken throughout Central and Eastern Europe in the 4th and 5th centuries AD by the Huns and other nomadic peoples.
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