In 338 BC, Macedonia was particularly powerful. It posed a serious threat to the Peloponnese’s stability after being reunified and under the command of a warlike king, Philip II, the father of Alexander the Great. Athens’ ambassador, Demosthenes, feared that the Macedonian king aimed to expand his kingdom. He managed to gather a coalition of Greek city-states under the protection of Athens. Indeed, Macedonian armies advanced towards Boeotia. On August 2, 338 BC, the Battle of Chaeronea erupted.
What Was the Background to the Battle of Chaeronea?
After the Third Sacred War, which pitted Athens against Macedonia, the two powers entered into the Peace of Philocrates in 346 BC. The Kingdom of Macedonia emerged as the major victor in this conflict, as the peace agreement facilitated the reunification of Macedonia, and Philip II retained his territorial conquests.
This newfound power posed a significant threat to Athens and the rest of the Peloponnese. Athens’ ambassador, Demosthenes, delivered the Philippics a speech announcing hostilities. The first Battle of Chaeronea, marking the consecration of Macedonian dominance over the Greek peninsula, took place on August 2, 338 BC, in Chaeronea.
Who Took Part in the Battle of Chaeronea?
The Battle of Chaeronea pitted the Kingdom of Macedonia against the majority of the Peloponnese, partly due to the efforts of Demosthenes. He successfully persuaded most major powers to align with Athens. These powers included Athens, Thebes, Corinth, Megara, the islands of Corcyra, Euboea, and Leucas.
Sparta remained neutral during the conflict. According to contemporary chroniclers, Macedonia had a contingent of 32,000 soldiers, while the Peloponnesian coalition’s army was estimated at around 35,000 soldiers.
How Did It Go?
Although sources on the course of the Battle of Chaeronea remain approximate or even nonexistent, historians and Hellenists from the second half of the 20th century agree on certain points. The armies of the Peloponnesian coalition allegedly held a position of strength at the foot of the Acropolis of Chaeronea, taking advantage of the environment to protect themselves from attacks on their flanks. The Cephissus River’s natural barrier shielded the right flank, while Mount Petrachos’ slopes protected the left flank.
The armies of the Kingdom of Macedonia were organized in an oblique line. The phalanxes, Macedonian soldiers specialized in charges aimed at destabilizing enemy defensive lines, were held in reserve. Philip II led the contingent of Hypaspists, heavy soldiers known for their highly resistant shields, and advanced towards the Theban right flank. In the initial engagement, he ordered a withdrawal.
The Thebans then chose to pursue Philip II’s troops, breaking the Greek defensive line themselves. Alexander seized the opportunity to charge with his cavalry, breaking the right flank and penetrating into the Greek left flank. Quickly, the Theban contingent was defeated and even encircled, making any retreat or counterattack impossible.
Who Won?
The Battle of Chaeronea marked the victory of the Macedonians over the coalition of the Greek peninsula. This triumph proved decisive for the fate of the Peloponnese. Theban prisoners were returned to the city in exchange for a substantial ransom, and a contingent of the Macedonian army took control of Thebes, Corinth, and Chalcis. These measures solidified the dominance of Philip II (the father of Alexander the Great) over nearly the entire country of Greece.
What Were the Consequences of the Battle?
Philip II, invigorated by his victory, implements a series of decisions that will have lasting consequences for the future of the Peloponnese. Firstly, he terminates the independence of the city-states; most of them thus become powers affiliated with the Kingdom of Macedonia, ensuring Macedonian hegemony over the Greek world.
Conversely, the significant Greek losses considerably weakened Athens and Thebes. The intentions of Philip II, and later those of his heir Alexander the Great, now focus on the unification of Greece and the conquest of the Persian Empire. In 337 BCE, the foundation of the Corinthian League, established by Philip II, established a common and enduring peace among the powers of the Peloponnese. This lull led to the deployment of a powerful army towards Thrace and Asia Minor.
Were There Other Battles of Chaeronea?
- Second Battle of Chaeronea (245 BCE): This conflict involved the Achaean League, led by Aratus of Sicyon, against the Macedonian armies occupying Corinth and Boeotia. The Achaean League emerged victorious in this battle, subsequently freeing Corinth from Macedonian occupation.
- Third Battle of Chaeronea (86 BCE): This engagement pitted the Roman Republic against the Kingdom of Pontus during the first Mithridatic War. Despite being significantly outnumbered, the Romans secured victory, attributed to the strategic prowess of Sylla against the Pontic general Archelaus. The exact number of forces involved is not precisely known, but it is estimated that the Roman side had around 16,000 soldiers, compared to 30,000 to 50,000 for the Kingdom of Pontus.
Sources:
- Buckler, John (1989). Philip II and the Sacred War.
- Buckley, Terry (1996). Aspects of Greek History, 750–323 BC: A Source-based Approach.