A city built by a demigod? At least, that is how the Romans imagined the birth of Pompeii, as well as its neighbor Herculaneum, which they believed to be the work of Hercules. However, the reality is somewhat more mundane…
There is no trace of its earliest years, but historians estimate that the city was founded in the 7th century BCE by a community of Oscans, an Italic people who inhabited the southern part of the peninsula. Five villages are thought to have gathered on a hill formed by the accumulation of volcanic material from a long-ago eruption. This theory could be supported by the name itself—Pompeii, as pumpe means “five” in Oscan. Why did they settle in such a dangerous location? Perhaps because of its breathtaking landscape. Most likely also because it was a crucial stop on the region’s early trade routes.
A century later, the city came under Greek control as part of the broader colonization of the Tyrrhenian coast. This is evidenced by the presence of an Apollo sanctuary in the city, as well as a Doric temple dedicated to Athena, built on the rocky spur that strategically overlooked the sea. Most archaeologists also agree that, starting in 524 BCE, another great archaic civilization arrived: the Etruscans. This seafaring and artisan people founded the nearby city of Capua and may have subsequently dominated Pompeii.
Pompeii, a Strategic Mediterranean Port
In this highly coveted region, the dual influence of the Greeks and Etruscans was soon challenged by a wave of mountain dwellers from the Abruzzo and Calabria regions who suddenly descended upon the fertile lands of Campania. They were the Sabines, the Lucanians… but, according to contemporary accounts, the fiercest of these warriors were the Samnites. According to the ancient historian Timaeus of Tauromenium (350–250 BCE), despite receiving aid from an Athenian contingent, the Greek city of Naples fell to them in 432 BCE.
It was only eight years later that the Samnites finally took Pompeii, which, over the years, had become a strategic port thanks to its location in the curve of the Bay of Naples and at the mouth of the navigable Sarno River. They remained its rulers for more than three centuries, during which the city experienced its golden age. Thus, those who gave Pompeii its brilliance were not the urban and “civilized” Greeks or Etruscans but rather a people from the mountains—in other words, barbarians. Of course, with the significant influence of another expanding civilization: the Roman Republic.
After settling in Pompeii, the Samnites had a tumultuous relationship with the rising Roman Empire at the gates of Campania. Initially enemies during the First Samnite War (343–341 BCE), they later fought side by side against the Latins and Campanians in 340 BCE. After a peace agreement in the 330s BCE, they clashed again over control of Campania during the Second Samnite War (327–304 BCE). It was in this conflict that the Romans suffered one of the worst defeats in their history at the Battle of the Caudine Forks (321 BCE), in the mountainous region between Capua and Beneventum.
But in the end, the superior military strength of the Republic prevailed. After forming a final alliance with the Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls, the Samnites were definitively defeated in 290 BCE. However, Pompeii continued to enjoy relative independence due to its status as a socia, an “allied city.” This autonomy was reaffirmed after the Second Punic War (218–203 BCE), when Pompeii remained loyal to Rome while most other Campanian cities sided with Hannibal. This loyalty was not without reward: Pompeii’s participation in the Roman war effort and the profits from Rome’s victories helped the city grow wealthy.
Freed from the Carthaginian threat, Pompeii regained control of the Sarno River’s mouth. Later described by the geographer Strabo (60 BCE–20 CE) as a key economic axis to the inland territories, the river allowed local elites to capture a share of the profits from a booming Mediterranean trade, fueled by the opening of Eastern markets.
A Wealthy and Prosperous City in the 2nd Century BCE
Pompeii’s economic development accelerated. Taking advantage of the region’s extreme fertility, farmers intensified their production, particularly of wine and olive oil, as evidenced by the numerous farms that had adopted a productive system capable of managing multiple harvests per year. Thus, in the 2nd century BCE, Pompeii became a wealthy and prosperous city, a transformation reflected in its evolving architecture, naturally influenced by Rome.
It was during this period that the first domus—large Roman estates intended for the aristocracy—were built. The public districts, including the theater and forum, were extensively reconstructed, and the city established its political system. A magistrate, the meddix, enforced decrees issued by the local curia, an aedile managed public goods, and a quaestor oversaw the city’s finances. Around the Temple of Minerva, an immense gymnasium was also constructed, where Pompeian men trained before joining the Roman army and where the local nobility organized competitions and spectacles. Finally, a basilica of 1,500 square meters was erected, serving as both a courthouse and a business center.
A Social War Ends Pompeii’s Golden Age
However, Pompeii’s golden age came to an abrupt end. At the beginning of the 1st century BCE, the Campanian cities under Roman rule demanded Roman citizenship. The reason was clear: inhabitants of Italic cities faced disadvantages in justice, taxation, and land auctions. Their demand was rejected. In 91 BCE, after the assassination of the tribune Livius Drusus, who had proposed a law supporting their claim, a revolt broke out, marking the beginning of the Social War. This time, Rome was determined to end the conflict swiftly and sent its best troops to the region.
General Cornelius Sulla took command against the rebellious cities of southern Campania, reclaiming Herculaneum and Stabiae before turning his forces toward Pompeii. His military efforts concentrated on the northern walls of the city, as evidenced by still-visible impact marks and the presence of stone projectiles. Under siege, the Pompeians found themselves trapped. As a last resort, they called upon allied troops from Campania, but in vain. These reinforcements were defeated at Nola, where 18,000 Samnites perished in battle. Ultimately, Pompeii surrendered and fell entirely under Roman control in 89 BCE—this time, for good.
Nine years later, Pompeii became a Roman colony and was renamed Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum in honor of General Sulla, who settled his loyal veterans from the Eastern campaigns there, displacing the old Samnite families. The new settlers did not build an entirely new city over the existing structures but instead renovated the homes and adorned them with frescoes. Under the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Pompeii entered a period of peace and gradually faded from historical records—until it reemerged in 59 CE, following a violent brawl with the colonists of Nuceria in the amphitheater, an event chronicled by the historian Tacitus (58–120 CE):
As a result, many of the Nucerians were carried home to their township, their bodies maimed and wounded, where most mourned the death of a parent or a child.
Source: Poetry in Translation
A fresco found in a house depicts this tragic event, which led to a ten-year ban on gladiator games in the city. This was the last known episode of Pompeii’s illustrious history before the devastating earthquake of February 5, 62 CE, which destroyed much of the city’s public and private buildings. Many patrician families abandoned the region, now deemed too dangerous. This disaster foreshadowed the even greater catastrophe of the eruption in 79 CE—an event that would erase the city and its turbulent history from memory for centuries.
