To understand the history of tobacco, we need to go back several years. “Tabaco” in Spanish in the 16th century refers to both the plant, the cigar made from its leaves, and the pipe used by the Arawak Indians to smoke a mixture of several herbs including tobacco. Its cultivation originated in America about 600 years ago: the Indians considered tobacco a precious plant, used for medicinal purposes and in purification rituals.
In October 1492, dried tobacco leaves were offered to the crews of the caravels landing on the island of San Salvador; this was the first documented contact between Europeans and tobacco. Christopher Columbus mentions that the Indians burned tobacco (called “petun”) with pieces of charcoal and inhaled the fragrant smoke. Others smoked peace pipes, chewed, or inhaled a kind of powder made from dried leaves.
History of Tobacco: its arrival in Europe
Initially a simple ornamental plant in Spain, tobacco was cultivated and used as a medicinal plant in the 1520s in Portugal. It was introduced to France in 1556 by the explorer-geographer André Thevet, who, (returning from a stay in Brazil to establish a French colony in the Bay of Rio) developed its cultivation in his native town of Angoulême. It was then called “Angoulême herb” or “petun herb”. In 1560, the French ambassador to Portugal, Jean Nicot, sent tobacco powder to Catherine de’ Medici to treat the terrible migraines of her son Francis II. Tobacco became the “queen’s herb” and its sale in powder form was reserved for apothecaries
By the end of the 16th century, tobacco was known worldwide; in 1572, one of the first treatises on tobacco as a medicinal plant, “L’instruction sur l’herbe petun,” by physician Jacques Gohory, was published. In honor of Jean Nicot, tobacco was named “nicotiana,” a proposal adopted by botanist Jacques Daléchamps in his book “Histoire générale des plantes” in 1586; this terminology would be taken up by botanist Carl Von Linné in the 18th century, in the form “Nicotiana tabacum.”.
The Success of Tobacco
Its cultivation was introduced in 1580 in Turkey and Russia; around 1590, tobacco arrived in India and Japan. From the 1620s, tobacco cultivation took root in the territory of the Kingdom of France. Its rapid success was due to the fact that the plant yielded much more per unit of agricultural land than wheat, flax, or hemp, and that its cultivation was suitable for the workforce of a small family farm. The first trials of introducing the plant took place near Strasbourg, and tobacco cultivation spread to southern Alsace from the end of the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648).
Tobacco would become the pioneering resource of the new colonies in the West Indies; its cultivation attracted indentured servants to the French islands of Martinique, Guadeloupe, and Saint-Domingue. It was the engine of the West Indies’ settlement by the white population until the last third of the 17th century, when sugar cane cultivation (and its large plantations using slaves from Africa) came to replace tobacco. The state sought to promote tobacco cultivation on the kingdom’s territory and make it a source of tax revenue, first through taxes and then by establishing a monopoly on manufacturing and distribution.
Colbert established a “privilege of manufacture and sale” in 1674; the first “tobacco manufactories” were founded in Morlaix, Dieppe, and Paris. Production became a royal monopoly in 1680: French tobacco cultivation was the most developed in Europe, with plantations in Brittany, Normandy, Aquitaine, Flanders, Franche-Comté, and Alsace. The management of taxes on tobacco consumption was leased to financiers (called farmers) through a lease that guaranteed the state a fixed global sum in advance; this was the Tobacco Farm included in the General Farm in 1726.
Smuggling and Competition
Tobacco smuggling developed on the French Atlantic coasts, particularly on the island of Noirmoutier. The search for quick profits by large-scale trade dictated a low purchase price for West Indian planters, especially when the more profitable sugar cane cultivation tended to replace tobacco from the colonies. It was indeed the strategy of selling and buying prices that profoundly modified global tobacco production at the end of the 17th century. Moreover, the new monopoly imposed by Colbert in 1680 encouraged traders to settle in Amsterdam and Liverpool to buy tobacco from the French West Indies and then blonde tobacco from Virginia, which was cheaper and increasingly popular with consumers.
It should be noted that American planters in Virginia imported African slaves through the Senegal Company (French), created in 1673. It replaced the West India Company founded in 1664 by Colbert (and suppressed in 1674); this was focused on tobacco development and perceived by planters as a hindrance to the growth of sugar cane in the West Indies. In thirty years, French imports went from 20% to 70% of domestic tobacco consumption. Virginia alone accounted for 60% of French imports, and by the mid-18th century, the American colony became the world’s leading tobacco producer.
Cultivation was prohibited from 1719 in the Kingdom of France (during the Regency and the implementation of Law’s System), except in Flanders, Artois, Hainaut, Franche-Comté, and Alsace, and imports were reserved exclusively for the East India Company. By the end of the 18th century, the production of manufactories supplied by colonial tobacco reached 7,000 tons per year. The lifting of the prohibition was effective by the decree of March 20, 1791, which established the freedom to cultivate, manufacture, and sell tobacco in France.
In 1805, sixteen departments cultivated 8,000 hectares with a production of 9,000 tons; in 1808, forty-six departments produced 22,000 tons of tobacco. The decree of December 29, 1810, re-established a state monopoly for the purchase, manufacture, and sale of tobacco. In 1821, the Dictionary of Medical Sciences cited tobacco among the plants “whose qualities, dangerous because of their too great activity and their action in some way corrosive on tissues, should make its use very rare.”
On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther (1483-1546) posted his 95 theses on the door of the church in Wittenberg, denouncing the sale of indulgences in the Catholic Church. The German theologian’s theses were printed as early as 1518 by his students and spread throughout Germany and then Europe.
In a work titled Appeal to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, published in April 1520, Luther directly attacked the papacy using brutal terms that shifted the theological debate into a written confrontation. From 1521 until 1546, Luther’s polemical writings provoked vehement responses from his adversaries, whether Catholic or Protestant.
Print: A Weapon in the Service of the Religious Cause
The role of the printing press became decisive: it is estimated that one-third of German literature between 1522 and 1545 came from Luther’s pen. During his lifetime, there were 4,000 editions and reprints of his works. In the form of pamphlets, his writings used controversy and caricature to impact people from all social backgrounds.
Printed texts were often reinforced by aggressive satirical drawings, such as those by painter and engraver Lucas Cranach the Elder, particularly targeting the papacy.
Like Martin Luther, French theologian John Calvin (1509-1564), exiled in Geneva in 1541, developed his theses in scholarly treatises while using pamphlets to respond to his critics. In 1544, the Faculty of Theology at the Sorbonne published a catalog of banned books, including those of Calvin; the Geneva reformer responded with a Warning on Censorship… in which he delivered a merciless satire of the Sorbonne teachers’ morals.
The Use of Images
Even before the Reformation began, there was a tradition of anti-clerical imagery deeply rooted in the Germanic world. Luther’s supporters extensively used caricature to support his fight against Rome. The reformer was aware of the impact of images on illiterate populations and recommended illustrations in books. Woodcuts allowed the dissemination of inexpensive small vignettes, while more costly copper engravings enabled the reproduction of caricatured portraits. It can be said that the success of Luther’s pamphlets owed much to the engravings that accompanied the publications. They brought opposition to the papacy into broad circles of the population, even among non-readers.
The image was not only used to denounce or caricature the opponent: as early as 1521, engravings of Luther were disseminated, presenting him as the champion of Christian liberty. Protestant imagery spread in Geneva as early as the 1540s was equally imaginative. Over the century, propaganda images became more tied to current events, with each side striving to shape information in a way that favored them.
The Alliance of Printers with Protestantism
Luther considered the invention of the printing press as “the greatest gift of God.” The widespread diffusion of Protestantism is closely linked to the early alliance with the printing industry. Martin Luther’s theses would not have had such an impact without the presses in the cities of Nuremberg and Basel. Between 1518 and 1525, it is estimated that three million pamphlets circulated in Germany, which had a population of thirteen million at the time.
The wave of publications resumed in 1548 when Charles V sought to impose the Augsburg Interim, a text intended to restore Catholic worship in all Protestant territories while awaiting the decisions of the Council of Trent, which began in 1545. This period saw the printing of pamphlets and poems hostile to the emperor in northern Germany. This literature did not remain confined to the German-speaking world, as part of the production was translated into Latin to target an international audience. A workshop in Basel specialized in publishing for Italy, France, and Spain.
The Reformation found support outside Germany among booksellers who had converted to evangelical ideas: they decided to translate Luther’s writings into vernacular languages and disguise them in seemingly innocuous booklets. As the Reformation progressed, it established new centers for printed propaganda. For French-speaking countries, the city of Neuchâtel took on the task of distributing to France: it was there in 1535 that the first Reformed Bible in French, called the Waldensian Bible—financed by peasants from Provence and Dauphiné who were part of the Waldensian movement that joined Protestantism in 1532—was published. It remained the foundational book of the Reformation in France until the 17th century.
After 1541, Geneva became the center for the dissemination of Reformed propaganda, attracting prominent French booksellers like Jean Crespin and later Robert Estienne, a former royal printer for Francis I. A significant number of French printers served the Reformation: entire workshops, masters, and workers converted. Many had to leave the kingdom, often seeking refuge in Geneva.
The Catholic Counter-Reformation and the Book
Catholics also used books for religious propaganda purposes: the Jesuits understood the importance of publishing books, making the University of Ingolstadt the center of the Catholic reconquest of southern Germany. The city of Antwerp exemplifies the shift in power that occurred at the end of the 16th century: after working for Protestantism until the 1540s, the city’s printing presses became the spearhead of the Counter-Reformation, disseminating texts throughout northern Europe and England.
By 1600, the majority of published works were Catholic; the spiritual reconquest of southern Germany was reflected in a flood of texts from the Jesuits, printed in Ingolstadt. In fact, each side, Catholic and Protestant, clarified its doctrinal positions, and the process of confessionalization was practically completed by the early 17th century.
Most of the “witches” persecuted in Europe from the 15th century onwards were in fact midwives and healers, heirs to a long tradition of secular medical practice that was more pragmatic than theoretical.
But to tell the story of these experts (before they were totally evicted), researchers face several obstacles: information is scarce and disparate, fragmented into many very different sources; biographical sources, for example, but also economic, judicial, and administrative sources. Sometimes only first names or surnames remain, such as those of women inscribed in the Ars Medicina of Florence (a medical treatise), or that of the apothecary nun Giovanna Ginori, recorded in the tax registers of the pharmacy where she worked during the 1560s.
Nevertheless, this research allows us to better understand how women were gradually excluded from medicine, its practice and studies, by an institutional and hierarchical system totally dominated by men.
Schola Medica Salernitana
We must first mention the most famous medical school active at the beginning of the Middle Ages, that of Salerno, the Scola Salernitana. It counted among its ranks several women physicians: Trota (or Trotula), a pioneer in gynecology and surgery, Costanza Calenda, Abella di Castellomata, Francesca di Romano, Toppi Salernitana, Rebecca Guarna and Mercuriade, who are fairly well known, as well as those called the mulieres salernitanae.
Unlike the women doctors of the School, the mulieres worked at a more empirical level. Their remedies were examined by the School’s doctors, who decided whether or not to accept them, as evidenced by Giovanni Plateario‘s manual Practica Brevis and Bernard de Gordon‘s writings. In Salerno, Christian, Jewish and Muslim scholars crossed paths; different cultures coexisted, making the School an exceptional place, a breeding ground for scientific encounters and influences.
Women Accused of Practicing Illegally
However, from 1220 onwards, the situation became complicated because no one could practice medicine without being a graduate of the University of Paris or without having obtained the agreement of the doctors and the chancellor of the University, under pain of excommunication. Let us cite the example of Jacoba Felicie de Alemannia. According to a document produced by the University of Paris in 1322, she treated her patients without “really” knowing medicine, that is, without having received university education, and was liable to excommunication; consequently, she had to pay a fine.
The records of the dispute describe the course of a medical examination given by this woman: we learn that she visually analyzed urine, took pulses, palpated the patient’s limbs, and that she treated men. This is one of the rare testimonies that mentions the fact that women also treated men.
The trial of the young doctor took place during a time when those who were not university graduates were being denounced and condemned. Before her, Clarice of Rouen had been excommunicated for practicing medicine for the same reason – treating men – while other women skilled in medicine were again condemned in 1322: Jeanne the lay sister of Saint-Médicis, Marguerite of Ypres, and the Jewish woman Belota.
In 1330, the rabbis of Paris were also accused of illegally practicing the art of medicine, as well as some other “healers” who passed themselves off as experts without being so (according to the authorities): they were taxed as impostors, even if they were competent. In 1325, Pope John XXII, opportunely solicited by the professors of the University of Paris after the Clarice affair, addressed Bishop Stephen of Paris, ordering him to forbid those ignorant of medicine and midwives from practicing medicine in Paris and the surrounding area, insisting that these women practiced sorcery.
The Formalization of Studies
The progressive prohibition of the practice of medicine for the female gender took place parallel to the formalization of the canon of studies, the beginning of meticulous control by teaching hierarchies and corporations, increasingly marginalizing women doctors.
However, they continued to exist and practice — among the Italians, we know of the Florentines Monna Neccia, mentioned in a tax register, the Estimo of 1359, Monna Iacopa, who treated plague victims in 1374, the ten women registered with the corporation of doctors in Florence — the Arte dei Medici e degli Speziali — between 1320 and 1444, or the Siennese Agnese and Mita, paid by the City for their services in 1390, for example.
However, practicing medicine became very risky for them, with suspicions of witchcraft becoming increasingly heavy.
Unfortunately, official sources lack data on women doctors, as they practiced in a society where only men accessed the highest positions.
Nevertheless, the historical framework that can be reconstructed shows the existence not only of women who were experts and practiced the art of medicine, but also of women doctors who studied, often unofficially — most were educated by their father, brother or husband.
Women Doctors in Literary Sources
Non-institutional sources, such as literary texts, are very precious. For example, Boccaccio mentions a woman doctor in the Decameron. The narrator, Dioneo, speaks of a certain Giletta di Nerbona, an intelligent woman doctor who managed to marry the man she loved — Beltramo da Rossiglione — as a reward for having cured the King of France of a chest fistula. Boccaccio has Giletta, who perceives well the sovereign’s lack of confidence in her, as a woman and young woman, say:
I remind you that I am not a doctor thanks to my science, but with the help of God and thanks to the science of Master Gerardo Nerbonese, who was my father and a famous doctor in his lifetime.
Boccaccio thus presents us with a woman expert in medicine in a simple and natural way: perhaps this is a sign that he was referring to situations more common and known to his readership than is generally believed. What Giletta says reflects a reality of the time for women who practiced medicine: what she knows, she learned from her father.
There is particularly a lot of data concerning Jewish women doctors, active particularly in southern Italy and Sicily, who learned the medical art in their families.
The University of Paris played a very important role in the historical process of standardization and institutionalization of the medical profession. In her article “Women and Health Practices in the Register of Pleadings of the Parliament of Paris, 1364-1427,” Geneviève Dumas clearly showed the importance of Parisian judicial sources from the 14th and 15th centuries, because they contain the memory of women who were condemned for illegally practicing medicine or surgery. Dumas published two trials: the one conducted against Perette la Pétone, a surgeon, and against Jeanne Pouquelin, a barber (barbers were also authorized to perform certain surgical acts).
As the teaching of medicine at the University of Paris became the only valid training in Europe and the School of Salerno lost influence, women were gradually excluded from these professions.
The progressive disappearance of women doctors is to be related to ecclesiastical prohibitions, but also to the gradual professionalization of medicine and the creation of increasingly strict institutions such as Universities, Arts and Guilds, founded and controlled by men.
In Europe, it would take until the mid-19th century for the first graduated women doctors to be able to practice, not without facing sharp criticism.
What does science owe to Marian Diamond, the woman who dissected Einstein’s brain?
It is one of the most important archaeological discoveries in recent decades. Discovered at the site of Qumran, in Mandatory Palestine (present-day West Bank), the Dead Sea Scrolls, or Qumran Caves Scrolls, are of paramount importance, due to their content, in the field of Bible study, Judaism, and Christianity. Fascinating, intriguing, the subject of legends and heated debates among historians about their origins or interpretation, the Dead Sea Scrolls are among those masterpieces that allow us to piece together the puzzle of a part of human history. To whom do we owe the Dead Sea Scrolls? How were they discovered? What do they talk about? There are so many questions surrounding the famous Dead Sea Scrolls.
Who Wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls?
A view of part of the Temple Scroll that was found in Qumran Cave 11. Image: Israel Museum, Public Domain
This is a delicate question that many historians attempt to answer. In practice, many agree to attribute the origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls to a Jewish community, the Essenes. Settled northwest of the shores of the Dead Sea, this community allegedly took care to hide the manuscripts in caves near their territory, shortly before the arrival of the Romans and the fall of Jerusalem in the year 70. Although it is now a consensus among historians, this thesis on the origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls is still contradicted today. It remains the subject of numerous debates.
In fact, there is currently no evidence to support it. There is, however, no discussion about the composition of the manuscripts. Researchers have discovered a total of 100,000 manuscript fragments, resulting in just under 900 manuscripts.
biblical texts from the Hebrew Bible;
apocryphal books such as the Book of Enoch;
texts belonging to the Jewish community in the Qumran territory, such as the Manual of Discipline
Hebrew is the primary language of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Some are in Greek. Among the historians who devote part of their time to studying the Dead Sea Scrolls, many claim that some of these manuscripts were written on site and that another part was brought there. They date from about 250 BC for the oldest up to about 70 AD.
In the spring of 1947, a young Bedouin named Muhammed edh-Dhib Hassan was wandering around the Qumran site in search of his lost goat. As he found himself at the entrance of a difficult-to-access cave, he decided to enter it. Inside the cave, he discovered clay jars containing old documents carefully wrapped in linen cloths. Unaware that these were historical documents, the young Bedouin decided to bring them to an antique dealer in Bethlehem.
Informed of this discovery, the director of the French Biblical and Archaeological School of Jerusalem, Father Roland de Vaux, began searching for other manuscripts in 1951. Over a decade, from 1947 to 1956, several caves at the Qumran site on the shores of the Dead Sea were explored. In total, twelve of these caves contained manuscripts.
Note that most people commonly accept the “official” version of the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls as the truth. Historians occasionally question the elements of this version, comparing it to a beautiful legend or an oriental tale. Some doubt the accidental nature of the discovery of the first cave (it could actually have been an attempt to hide contraband goods).
The exact date of the discovery (spring 1947) is also sometimes subject to debate.
What Is the Content of the Dead Sea Scrolls?
Qumran cave 4, where ninety per cent of the scrolls were found. Image: Effi Schweizer, Public Domain
The Dead Sea Scrolls comprise a collection of nearly 900 texts providing valuable information on the roots of major religions, the history of the Jewish people, and more. The Dead Sea Scrolls allow for a more in-depth study of the Hebrew Bible with numerous theological teachings.
Among the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Great Isaiah Scroll is one of the most well-known (and best-preserved). Discovered in 1947 in Cave No. 1 of Qumran, the document contains all 66 chapters of the Book of Isaiah. Made from 17 sheets of parchment, it extends 7.34 meters long with the text distributed across 54 columns. Today preserved in the Israel Museum, the Great Isaiah Scroll has a giant reproduction within the same museum. Many present it as one of the oldest texts of the Tanakh.
Several decades after their discovery, the Dead Sea Scrolls continue to regularly reveal secrets. Advances in technology and the work of numerous specialists allow for the deciphering of manuscripts that had not been interpreted until now. Although considered quite slim, the chances of discovering new manuscripts continue to fuel on-site research. In 2017, for example, archaeologists discovered a new scroll in another cave, the twelfth one.
Why Are the Dead Sea Scrolls So Important?
A view of the Dead Sea from a cave at Qumran in which some of the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered. Image: Eric Matson, Public Domain
Before the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the oldest biblical manuscripts dated back to the Middle Ages. From a chronological perspective, the Dead Sea Scrolls are therefore the oldest biblical manuscripts ever discovered to date. In other words, the Dead Sea Scrolls constitute the first manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible, also called the “Old Testament” by Christians. They were mostly pre-Christian and hidden less than 20 km from Jerusalem, the cradle of major monotheistic religions. In the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Jewish community of the Essenes, to whom the origin of these texts is attributed, mentions the existence of a messiah at the very time when Jesus is said to have lived.
For some historians, the Dead Sea Scrolls help highlight the Jewish origins of Christianity through the search for the historical Jesus. The writings, long sheltered in these caves, could help situate the originality of Jesus as a person, as well as his thoughts. They provide insights into the lifestyle and functioning of the Essene Jewish community. Like other elements surrounding these manuscripts, the reading and interpretation of the Dead Sea Scrolls are subjects of intense debate among historians and theologians.
After their discovery, the Dead Sea Scrolls were scattered all over the world. Different institutions, mainly museums, now possess a more or less significant part of them. The majority of the Dead Sea Scrolls are now in the Shrine of the Book in Jerusalem, within the Israel Museum. This is also where a copy of the Great Isaiah Scroll can be found. Other fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls are preserved in Amman, Jordan. There is also a black market trade related to the Dead Sea Scrolls, driven by collectors interested in purchasing a piece of history. In Western museums, it is not uncommon to see collections of Dead Sea Scrolls presented that actually contain fakes. The Museum of the Bible in Washington experienced this bitter lesson in 2020. This environment surrounding the authenticity of the Dead Sea Scrolls is one of the elements contributing to the notoriety of these documents.
This is one of the greatest health scandals France has experienced in its history. The contaminated blood affair, which affects several countries but particularly France, contains all the elements to be a major event in our country’s history. Indeed, political and financial scandals are added to the health scandal (the transfusion of blood contaminated with the AIDS virus). This is a mixture whose impact is still felt today.
Here is a summary of the contaminated blood affair. Transmitted diseases, the role of journalists and politicians, figures, convictions, number of victims, consequences for society: discover how the contaminated blood affair has changed the French medical, political, and legal landscape.
How did the contaminated blood scandal break out in France?
The contaminated blood scandal officially broke out in 1991 through the initiative of a journalist, Anne-Marie Casteret, who unveiled a disastrous health practice. However, the scandal actually began much earlier. The world quickly raised suspicions about blood transmission of the disease after discovering the first cases of AIDS in the early 1980s. As early as 1983, several health professionals recommended heating blood at high temperatures before transfusing it to hemophiliacs. This required treatment capabilities that were insufficient in France at the time. Between 1984 and 1985, the National Blood Transfusion Center ignored these recommendations and continued distributing contaminated blood products to hemophiliacs. While some pointed out negligence in explaining this situation, others quickly mentioned the related financial stakes.
Which diseases did contaminated transfusions transmit?
While AIDS is better understood today, this wasn’t the case during the contaminated blood transfusions.
People often underestimated the disease’s danger and failed to fully identify at-risk populations and modes of transmission. However, it didn’t take long to discover the mode of AIDS transmission and realize that the virus posed a significant danger to blood transfusions. Hemophiliacs often associate the contaminated blood scandal with AIDS transmission, but these transfusions also spread other diseases like hepatitis.
Who revealed the contaminated blood scandal?
Journalist Anne-Marie Casteret deserves credit for uncovering the contaminated blood scandal. On April 25, 1991, the French journalist, who was trained as a doctor, revealed a confidential report of a meeting held a few years earlier at the National Blood Transfusion Center (CNTS) in the weekly magazine “l’Evénement du Jeudi.” The public then became aware of this affair and discovered the main aspects of the medical scandal. Very quickly, several journalists began investigating. The health scandal was followed by a financial scandal, then a political scandal. The main political leaders of the time were attacked for their contradictory decisions and called upon to explain themselves.
Who was the Minister of Health during the contaminated blood scandal?
The contaminated blood scandal primarily targets Laurent Fabius, who held positions as Minister of Budget under François Mitterrand from 1981 to 1983, Minister of Industry and Research from 1983 to 1984, and Prime Minister from 1984 to 1986. His name is often associated with Edmond Hervé, Minister of Health from 1983 to 1985, and Georgina Dufoix. This affair also implicated the French politician, who served as Minister of Social Affairs and National Solidarity from 1984 to 1986. Georgina Dufoix declared in November 1991, just a few months after the scandal’s revelation, that she felt deeply responsible but not guilty, a statement that became famous as “responsible but not guilty.”
What are the figures for the contaminated blood scandal?
Hemophiliacs, who needed blood transfusions in the early 1980s, were the main victims. During the same period, the number of hospitalized patients also increased. In total, several thousand people received potentially contaminated blood transfusions. In its confidential report, the CNTS acknowledged that one in two people who received a blood transfusion was infected, or nearly 2,000 people, including children. More than 1,000 HIV-positive and sick people, 66 widows, and 77 orphans had already received initial compensation when the scandal broke in 1991.
Victims’ associations gradually emerged to demand truth, justice, and compensation. By the end of 1991, 4,000 people were able to prove they had received a contaminated transfusion, and those who were HIV-positive received compensation. The disease affected more than 4,400 hemophiliacs in 1999. 2,000 of them had developed the disease. 40% had died.
Who was convicted in the contaminated blood trial?
In 1992, a long judicial procedure began against those responsible for the contaminated blood affair, supported by victims’ associations. During the first trial in criminal court in 1992, the administration and the CNTS (National Blood Transfusion Center) were sanctioned. A year later, the verdict was confirmed on appeal, and the state’s fault was recognized. Michel Garretta, former director of the CNTS, and Jean-Pierre Allain, former head of the CNTS research department, were sentenced to four years in prison, including two years of non-suspended sentences. In 1994, the Cassation Court intervened in the procedure.
The Court of Justice of the Republic opened the trial of former political leaders implicated in the contaminated blood scandal in 1999, trying them for “involuntary manslaughter.” The Court of Justice of the Republic acquitted Laurent Fabius, just as it did Georgina Dufoix. The Republic Court of Justice found only Edmond Hervé guilty of involuntary manslaughter, but exempted him from punishment.
Were the victims of the contaminated blood compensated?
Hemophiliacs and hospitalized patients who received contaminated blood transfusions received compensation thanks to the work of victims’ associations. The estimated total compensation for victims and their families in 1996 was 17 billion francs. The state itself financed a significant portion of these 17 billion francs, while insurers contributed another part.
What consequences did the contaminated blood scandal have?
The contaminated blood scandal had significant consequences due to its scale and severity.
Political level: The state failed in its protective role and as a guarantor of public health. A sense of distrust towards the state developed in public opinion. The responsibility of political decision-makers was also questioned.
Medical level: The contaminated blood scandal created a rift in the medical world between doctors and their leaders capable of concealing information. Here too, mistrust developed between different links in the medical chain, including between patients and healthcare professionals. Many doctors, for example, found themselves confronted with patients infected by blood transfusions that they themselves had prescribed.
Legal level: In the aftermath of the health scandal, a constitutional crisis occurred. It led to the creation of the Court of Justice of the Republic.
The Rif War between 1921 and 1926 was a succession of armed conflicts. It pitted the Spanish and then French colonial powers against the Riffian Republic, led by Abdelkrim el-Khattabi. The Rif War was known to be particularly violent, marking the history of anti-colonialism and the construction of Morocco as a nation. This conflict, considered a transition between World War I and World War II, resulted in tens of thousands of casualties, both on the Spanish and French sides, as well as on the side of the Rif Republic, a coalition of Berber tribes.
What Are the Causes of the Rif War?
We must trace the origins of the Rif War back to the 19th century, when the French and Spanish conquered the territory. On March 30, 1912, the Treaty of Fez established the French protectorate over Moroccan territory. France and Spain concluded the Madrid Convention in November of the same year. The Madrid Convention established three Spanish zones of influence: Tangier and the Rif, Ifni, and the Tarfaya region.
While France and Spain exploited their territories, the Riffian tribes carried out demonstrations of force and tried to preserve their culture. Isolated conflicts arose, evolving into confrontations and ultimately into guerrilla warfare. The war started in the Rif region of the Spanish protectorate’s northern zone. This territory corresponds to the Mediterranean border, in the northern part of the country.
How Did the Rif War Unfold?
The Rif War took place from 1921 to 1926, with Spanish participation from 1921 to 1925 and French participation from 1925 to 1926, in the Rif region of Morocco. In 1921, Mohamed Abdelkrim el-Khattabi (known as Abd el-Krim) wanted to unify the Riffian tribes to organize the Rif liberation army and emancipate themselves from Spain and France. The Battle of Annual marks the beginning of the Rif War; it took place during the summer of that same year. On the Spanish side, Manuel Fernandez Silvestre had 60,000 soldiers. He was preparing to face the Beni Ouriaghel tribe and its allies.
After suffering a defeat and losing 12,000 men, the Spanish general committed suicide.
Abd el-Krim founded the Republic of the Rif. Abd el-Krim established the Rif Republic’s government and outlawed tribal conflicts. In total, 20,000 to 30,000 men joined the military formations. In 1924, Spanish troops had to withdraw along the coast. In 1925, Abd el-Krim launched a surprise attack on the French zone.
As the French and British feared for their colonial project, they intervened alongside Spain. The Rhine Army sent troops, tanks, planes, and heavy artillery. In September 1925, the Spanish landing at Al Hoceima took place, the first amphibious air-naval operation in history. They pushed back the Riffian tribes and defeated Abd el-Krim. His surrender took place on May 30, 1926.
Why Did the French and British Intervene?
The French and British decided to fight alongside Spain in 1925. Marshal Lyautey had first provoked the hostility of local tribes by peacefully occupying the Rif Valley. He refused to negotiate an agreement with the Riffians, believing that only the Sultan of Morocco was sovereign.
Abd el-Krim feels betrayed, and Lyautey, acting on behalf of the Sultan, wants to preserve the French colonial empire’s integrity. Abd el-Krim launches an offensive on April 13, 1925. French posts are surrounded one after another. Paris strongly questions Lyautey’s strategy, while Riffian troops fail during an offensive near Fez in the spring of 1925.
Who Are the Protagonists of the Rif War?
Units of the Army of Africa initially led the French troops. Metropolitan reinforcements then arrived on site: in August and September 1925, more than 150,000 French soldiers were distributed among the various sectors of the Rif. Among the best-known generals were Pruneau (western sector), Marty (central sector), and Boichut (eastern sector). Marshal Lyautey, who resided in Rabat, resigned in September 1925; he was replaced by Marshal Pétain at the head of French troops. General Primo de Rivera commanded the Spanish troops. What about the Riffian tribes? Their leader was Abdelkrim el-Khattabi, known for his fight against the colonizers of Morocco. In 1919, he had begun to unite the Rif tribes in an independent republic. The whole point was to overcome enmities and create a powerful tribe capable of repelling French and Moroccan colonial troops.
Were Chemical Weapons Used During the Rif War?
On the Spanish side, Hidalgo de Cisneros, an aviation general, dropped a 100-kg mustard gas bomb from his Farman F60 Goliath during the summer of 1924. This chemical weapon had been manufactured in Madrid by Hugo Stoltzenberg, a German chemist. This dropping took place a year before the signing of the Geneva Protocol, which aims to prohibit the use of “asphyxiating, poisonous, or similar gases and bacteriological means.” The Spanish army had kept these bombings hidden. However, several witnesses mentioned using these toxic gases in their autobiographies. In 1990, two German journalists and investigators managed to prove the veracity of the chemical attacks using scientific methods. The objective was to target heavily populated territories to cause maximum damage. The Treaty of Versailles in 1919 had forbidden Stoltzenberg from producing mustard gas.
How Many Deaths Were There During the Rif War?
More than 27,000 casualties were recorded among Spanish troops (dead and wounded) and more than 18,500 among French troops (2,500 soldiers died in combat, 7,500 died of disease, and 8,500 were wounded). As for the Riffians, more than 10,000 men perished on the battlefield. The number of casualties is also high among Riffian civilians due to the use of chemical weapons. Estimates place the Rif War’s death toll between 45,000 and 70,000.
What Are the Consequences of the Rif War?
French troops supported Spanish troops to preserve the Moroccan protectorate and subject local tribes to the authority of Moulay Youssef. The latter reigned over Morocco from 1912 to 1927 as Sultan. The Rif War marked the end of the Republic of the Rif and the exile of Abdelkrim el-Khattabi. The former leader of the Riffian tribes complained about the use of mustard gas to the League of Nations. Another consequence of the Rif War was the emergence of aviation.
Among the many reinforcements arriving from the mainland were French military pilots, who managed to play a key role in operations, particularly reconnaissance. They supported the army until the Riffian tribes were defeated. The Battle of Ouergha, a confrontation that took place between April and July 1925, marked the end of Marshal Lyautey’s sovereignty over Morocco. While the French army had sufficient means to win, it lost this battle. Marshal Pétain replaced Hubert Lyautey.
The latter led a victorious campaign in the Rif region. Francisco Franco was another general who emerged during the Rif War. The Spanish military and statemen showed leadership and tactical qualities during the war. He trained the newly created units of the Spanish Foreign Legion. France and Spain dissolved the Republic of the Rif, but the Moroccan protectorate persisted until 1956.
The Chipko movement began in the early 1970s in Uttarakhand, India, as a people’s movement for the protection of forests. The word “Chipko” means “embrace” or “stick to” in Hindi, referring to the characteristic of tree-huggers who would hug trees and not let them be cut down. The environmental impact of this movement and the involvement of Indian rural communities, especially women, are salient features.
The genesis of the Chipko movement can be traced back to the 18th century, when a group led by Amrita Devi tried to stop the cutting of khejri trees in one village in the state of Rajasthan. The modern version of the Chipko movement started in Uttarakhand state, specifically, the Garhwal Himalayas area, during the early 1970s.
Key events and development
1964: Chandi Prasad Bhatt founded the Dasholi Gram Swarajya Sangh (DGSS) in Gopeshwar, with local development and resource use as its focus.
March 26, 1974: In this area, known as Mandal village in the Chamoli district, a group of village women emerged and hugged trees to avoid having them cut down.
1975-76 The agitation later spread to other parts of the region, including Reni and Gopeshwar.
1977: The movement raised a national concern as reports abounded about women embracing trees to save them from being felled.
1980: The government of India declared a 15-year ban on the commercial felling of trees in the Uttarakhand Himalayas—a massive victory for the movement.
Human Faces
Sunderlal Bahuguna: He was among the key activists in the Chipko movement. Also noted are his hunger fasts and padayatras for the cause of preserving forests.
Chandi Prasad Bhatt: Founder of the Dasholi Gram Swarajya Sangh, which went on to play a major role in the Chipko movement.
Gaura Devi: Led the women of Reni village in 1974 to protect their forest from logging contractors.
Other activists associated with the Chipko movement and having played an important role are Dhoom Singh Negi, Bachni Devi, and Sudesha Devi.
Techniques and Tactics
Tree Hugging: The primary strategy required villagers to hug trees with their bodies, mainly carried out by women who hindered the cutting down of a tree.
Non-violent Protest: The movement was based on the principles of non-violent resistance that were propagated.
Folk Songs and Slogans: There were also locally developed folk songs and slogans utilized as a medium to popularize the message of the activists and keep the people motivated.
Education and Awareness: Workshops and meetings of the leaders of this movement were conducted to educate villagers on the importance of forests.
Reforestation: In the process, there were also campaigns of replenishing trees in areas that had already been degraded.
Impact and Significance
Environmental Conservation: The movement was a step ahead in bringing about policy change that resulted in the outlawing of tree felling in the Himalayan regions.
Women’s Involvement: One of the Chipko movement’s characteristics is that women played a dominant role, demonstrating women’s participation in environmental conservation and community leadership.
Sustainable Development: emphasized sustainable use of forest resources and the rights of local communities.
Social Influence: The Chipko movement created global awareness about environmental concerns.
Recognition: In 1987, the Chipko movement was also bestowed with the Right Livelihood Award, popularly referred to as the “Alternative Nobel Prize.
Limited Vision: Critics accused the ethos that prevailed in the movement—of tree-hugging—of having too narrow a vision on broad issues.
Human Disagreements: There were sporadic disagreements between leaders regarding the direction of the movement and tactics.
Government Intervention: A section of activists also saw government recognition and support as an aspect that diluted the movement. Legacy and Current Status Although the active phase of the Chipko movement is over, its influence continues in other environmental and social movements in India and worldwide. The principles of the Chipko movement often find their references in new efforts against deforestation and for the rights of forest-dwelling communities.
Conclusion
Chipko stands as an example of local environmental activism, sometimes translating into a potent force for conservation effected by the community and more so by women. This model—the way it integrated environmental conservation with social justice and sustainable development—has persisted in influencing activists and policy matters.
After the purchase of Louisiana from France, the conquest of the West began in the early 19th century under Thomas Jefferson’s presidency. Following the Lewis and Clark expedition of 1804, it aimed to colonize the territories beyond the Mississippi River. This historical period in the United States also marks the beginning of the Indian Wars and the deportation of native peoples, starting in the 1830s after the adoption of the Indian Removal Act. The conquest of the West is also known for its numerous migratory movements, notably the gold rush and the race for land. The latter is the subject of a specific law: the Homestead Acts. Gradually, American settlers established themselves in the western states. The conquest of the West ended around 1890, by which time the United States had become a major industrial power on a global scale.
When and How Did the West’s Conquest Begin?
The conquest of the West occurred during a period of profound transformation for the United States. In addition to land purchases in Louisiana in 1803, the Lewis and Clark expedition of 1804 was one of the first notable explorations of the territories west of the Mississippi. Long before the gold rush of 1848, many explorers and adventurers ventured into the fur trade in these wild regions. Between 1846 and 1848, the United States acquired California and Oregon on the west coast. The American government then justified the colonization process with the concept of “manifest destiny,” the divine will to “civilize” the western territories.
Which Territories Are Considered the American West?
The American West is a general term that has evolved over the years according to historical events, conflicts, and political decisions. Notable acquisitions include Louisiana in 1803, Texas’ independence in 1845, and the war with Mexico in 1846. All states west of the Mississippi River are considered part of the American West, including the West Coast territories and the Louisiana territory ceded by France. These include California, and Oregon, the territories of Washington, New Mexico, and Utah.
Who Were the Protagonists of the Conquest of the West?
Throughout the 19th century, the conquest of the West involved many protagonists. The United States gradually colonized the territories of Native American peoples and various European immigrants. This westward expansion also involved certain religious groups seeking to escape persecution, such as the Mormons. During the gold rush, migratory flows were significant, including those from Asia. Many Chinese attempted the journey to seek fortune, participating in commercial activities dedicated to pioneers and gold prospectors. Slaves also likely participated in this event, as slavery was definitively abolished in the United States in 1865 after the Civil War (1861-1865).
How Did Native Americans Experience the Conquest of the West?
The conquest of the West led to numerous conflicts between Native Americans and the United States. The appropriation of territories, buffalo hunting, and massacres of local populations heightened tensions. This period saw numerous confrontations, including the Seminole Wars, Black Hawk War, Navajo War, and Apache Wars. Many Native Americans tried to resist the conquest of their territories, such as Black Hawk, Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, and Geronimo. From the 1820s, the federal government addressed the “Indian question,” including creating the Bureau of Indian Affairs. In 1837, the implementation of the Indian Removal Act led to the deportation of Native Americans to “reservations,” often worthless lands where these semi-nomadic peoples were forced to stay confined. Under President Andrew Jackson, this forced migration became known as the “Trail of Tears,” causing thousands of deaths.
How Did Settlers Live in the American West?
At the end of the 18th century, there were barely more than 100,000 Americans in the western states. By 1840, various migrations contributed to a population explosion, with nearly 7 million inhabitants. The development of the railroad and the establishment of the Pony Express (the postal service of the time) enabled many families to settle. Immigrant populations retained their European roots, particularly in education, religion, and lifestyle. Economic activities flourished, notably cattle ranching. This period also saw the emergence of new criminality. Notable bandits of the time include the Dalton brothers, Jesse James, Butch Cassidy, and Sam Bass.
How Were Lands Distributed During the Conquest of the West?
To avoid conflicts in land distribution, Abraham Lincoln’s government implemented the Homestead Act. Effective May 20, 1862, it allowed any person or family to claim ownership of a plot of up to 160 acres. They had to justify occupying the land for at least five years. While the conquest of the West recalls the gold rush, it also evokes the “land runs” organized by some states to colonize certain territories more quickly. These were real races, where the first to arrive claimed a ready-to-allocate plot.
What Were the Roles of Cowboys During the Conquest of the West?
Cowboys worked on ranches or cattle farms. Frequently, he was a farm boy or an agricultural laborer assigned to subordinate tasks. His main role was to ensure the supply of beef to meet an exponential demand. The collective imagination often associates the cowboy with a symbol of independence and freedom. However, the reality involved a precarious, often dangerous, daily life with low pay.
When and How Did the West End Conquest Take Place?
The conquest of the West ended around 1890 when authorities no longer distinguished borders within the United States. In 1896, pioneers and adventurers turned to the Klondike, opening the episode of the Alaska gold rush. Buffalo Bill, a bison hunter, created the “Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show” in 1882, continuing to fascinate audiences with cowboy history. Some historians suggest the end of the conquest of the West was rather in the 1910s, with conflicts between Americans and Mexicans.
What Films, Series, or Books Address the Conquest of the West?
In popular culture, countless stories depict the conquest of the West. In cinema and television, the Western genre is very popular. Notable series include “Little House on the Prairie,” “The Wild Wild West,” “Deadwood,” and “Hell on Wheels.” On the big screen, there are numerous iconic Western films such as “How the West Was Won” (1962), “Far Horizons,” “Once Upon a Time in the West,” and “Dances with Wolves.” In literature, notable works include “The Hanging Tree,” “3:10 to Yuma,” and “Little Big Man.”
Key Dates in the Conquest of the West
May 14, 1804: The Departure of the Lewis and Clark Expedition
In 1804, President Thomas Jefferson ordered the Lewis and Clark Expedition with a total budget of $2,500. The mission aimed to explore the territories west of the Mississippi River.
1817: The Seminole War Against the Americans
The Seminole Indians took up arms when Andrew Jackson invaded Florida with his army. This expedition was purportedly in retaliation for the thefts committed by the Seminoles on Georgia plantations and the assistance they provided to runaway slaves. The Seminoles could not compete. In 1819, a Spanish territory, Florida, was transferred to the United States. Early in the 1830s, the Seminoles signed a treaty to relocate west of the Mississippi. However, some revolted, leading to another war.
May 28, 1830: The Indian Removal Act
Under President Andrew Jackson, the United States enacted a law ordering the deportation of all Indian populations east of the Mississippi. Among these were the Cherokees and Seminoles, who categorically refused to part with their lands. However, the new law left them no choice. The following years, the American army gathered tens of thousands of Indians to lead them beyond the river.
October 1838: The Cherokees on the Trail of Tears
The United States forced thousands of Cherokees to abandon their territory east of the Mississippi and relocate to northeastern Oklahoma. On December 29, 1835, a minority of them signed the Treaty of New Echota with the United States, ceding these gold-rich lands to the country for $5 million. When the treaty expired, the American army evacuated the territory. A long and exhausting journey awaited them, and over 4,000 died en route from cold, fatigue, or disease.
December 29, 1845: The Mexican-American War Begins
Sam Houston, President of the Republic of Texas, requested to join the United States. The annexation was thus voted on by the American Congress in December 1845, and Texas became the twenty-eighth state. The United States also wanted to annex Mexican California, which displeased Mexico. Having lost Texas, Mexico declared war on the United States, beginning the Mexican-American War, which ended in 1848.
January 5, 1846: Annexation of Oregon by the United States
On January 5, 1846, the United States Congress voted to stop sharing the lands in the Oregon region with the United Kingdom. The Convention established between the two countries in 1818 had set the border at the 49th parallel from the Lake of the Woods to the Rockies. Thanks to this vote, the United States annexed Oregon. The Oregon Treaty slightly modified the boundary.
February 26, 1846: Birth of Buffalo Bill
Buffalo Bill, born William Frederick Cody, was a legendary figure in the West’s conquest. He fought in the Indian Wars and was also a bison hunter. In 1882, he led a theater troupe and organized shows dedicated to the Wild West. He died on January 10, 1917, at the age of 70.
January 24, 1848: Mexico Cedes California
The signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo marked the end of the Mexican-American War (1846–1848) between Mexicans and Americans. The Mexicans, defeated, had to cede Texas, California, and New Mexico. The United States acquired half of Mexico’s territory.
January 24, 1848: Start of the Gold Rush and the Conquest of the West
The discovery of a gold nugget in a Coloma sawmill triggered the “gold rush.” The rumor of gold at Sutter’s Mill spread quickly, and thousands of American settlers and European newcomers headed to California to become gold miners. Simultaneously, the conquest of the western territories of the United States began, leading to numerous conflicts and wars over the years.
February 2, 1848: Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
On February 2, 1848, the Mexican-American War came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Mexico ceded California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Wyoming to the United States. The United States paid $15 million for these territories. Mexico also had to recognize the annexation of the Republic of Texas by the United States and cede lands east of the Rio Grande.
May 29, 1848: Wisconsin Becomes the Thirtieth American State
The Frenchman Jean Nicolet discovered the territory of Wisconsin. On these lands, he founded the colony of Green Bay. Many Europeans from Germany, Scandinavia, and Switzerland then settled in the region. In 1763, Wisconsin became the United Kingdom’s property. After the American Revolution, the United States took possession of the territory managed by the British until 1812. In 1848, Congress accepted Wisconsin’s entry into the Union.
December 1857: Start of the War Between Native Americans and Settlers in Minnesota
Minnesota became the 32nd state of the American Union in February. During the procedures, the 6,500 Santee and Lakota Sioux, nearly a third of the total population, lost the vast majority of their territory to live on a strip of land in the southwest of the state. Tension escalated, and various incidents sparked a war between Native Americans and settlers, which ended in 1862 after a long series of trials.
April 3, 1860: Creation of the Pony Express
William H. Russell, Alexander Majors, and William B. Waddell founded the Pony Express rapid mail delivery service in the 19th century. It relied on the performance of isolated riders instead of stagecoaches, connecting the Atlantic coast of the United States to the Pacific coast (St. Joseph, Missouri, to Sacramento, California) in ten days instead of 26. Due to a lack of profitability, this service ceased ten months after its creation.
December 20, 1860: South Carolina Secedes
Against the abolition of slavery, South Carolina withdrew from the Union and opposed Abraham Lincoln’s government. Along with Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas, they formed the secessionist movement.
February 8, 1861: Formation of the Confederate States of America
The secessionist movement led to the creation of the Confederate States. This involved the promulgation of a new constitution and the appointment of a president: Jefferson Davis. This opposition with the Northern States marked the beginning of the Civil War.
September 18, 1862: The Sioux Lay Down Their Arms
General Sibley defeated the Santee Sioux at Wood Lake. Since summer, the Minnesota Santee Sioux have launched a relentless war against the Americans. Under the command of Chief Little Crow, they perpetrated numerous massacres of soldiers and civilians. In total, several hundred of them, including women and children, perished under Sioux weapons.
November 29, 1864: Sand Creek Massacre
The Colorado Territory militia attacked a village inhabited by the Cheyennes and Arapahos east of the Rockies during the Indian Wars. Over two days, Colonel John Chivington’s forces killed nearly 270 Indians, including men, women, and children. This episode sparked controversy, leading to questions about the policy of exterminating Native Americans.
April 9, 1865: Defeat of the Southerners at Appomattox
After General Robert E. Lee’s defeat at Appomattox, the Southern troops gradually ceased hostilities in May. This marked the restoration of the Union and the abolition of slavery.
March 1, 1867: Nebraska Joins the American Union
After siding with the Northern camp during the Civil War (1861-5), Nebraska became the 37th state to join the Union. Native American tribes such as the Sioux, Cheyennes, and Pawnees originally populated this wild region in the central United States. The Spanish and then the French successively colonized it, exploring and delineating its first borders before ceding it, along with French Louisiana, to the Americans in 1803. Nebraska became a territory in 1854.
November 27, 1868: Custer and the Washita River
American Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer, leading the 7th Cavalry with 800 men, attacked Black Kettle’s Cheyenne camp of 51 tipis in the Battle of the Washita River (Oklahoma Plains). They killed 123 Indian warriors and civilians, including their chief and his wife. The initial assault concluded in less than 20 minutes, but the fighting persisted for several hours. The exact role of Custer and the actual course of events—was it a massacre?—remain subjects of controversy and discussion among historians and specialists.
November 29, 1872: Start of the Modoc Indian War
Under pressure from settlers, the American army intervened in the Modoc camp. The influx of emigrants to the fertile lands of Oregon and California (late 1840s) prompted the administration to expel the Modoc Indians and regroup them on the neighboring Klamath reservation, which they refused. After seven months of fierce resistance, the “Modoc War” ended with the hanging of its leaders, including their chief Kienptoos, Captain Jack, and the rest of the tribe being “directed” to Oklahoma reserves.
June 27, 1874: Beginnings of the “Red River War”
The second Battle of the Adobe Walls (Texas) marked a new phase in the Indian wars. According to legend, after being attacked by 300 Indian warriors, including Comanches, Kiowas, Cheyennes, and Arapahos, led by Quanah Parker, twenty-eight hunters took refuge in a trading post run by James C. Hanrahan. The American army subsequently intervened, sending five regiments against the rebellious tribes. The American army drove these out of the Southern Plains to the Oklahoma reserves, thereby ending Indian resistance.
June 25, 1876: The Little Bighorn Massacre
The Cheyenne, Sioux, and Arapaho killed a detachment of the 7th Cavalry, led by Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer, during the Battle of Little Bighorn (Montana). Against 3,500 Indian warriors led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, the general and his 275 soldiers couldn’t hold out for long.
October 1877: Chief Joseph Surrenders
After leading his Nez Perce tribe on a 2,000-kilometer escape route through the Rocky Mountains, Chief Joseph surrendered to the American army in Montana. While his attempt to avoid internment on the Idaho reservation initially succeeded, he eventually fell into the hands of the cavalry of General Nelson Miles. General Nelson Miles imprisoned him in Fort Leavenworth for eight months before transferring him to the Indian Territory.
October 6, 1879: Anglo-American “Pacific War”
The War of the Pacific pitted Chile against Peru and Bolivia. The cause: the Bolivian nitrate tax imposed on the Chilean company “Compañía de Salitres y Ferrocarril de Antofagasta” in Antofagasta (formerly a part of Bolivia). Bolivia’s breach of the free-trade treaty led Chile to occupy the city in February 1879, prompting Bolivia to declare war in March, followed by Peru, honoring its military alliance. The Chileans emerged victorious in 1884, annexing Atacama, Antofagasta, and part of Peru (Tarapacá and Arica).
May 2, 1885: The “Red River War” Ends
Ending on June 6, 1877, the so-called “Red River War” was a series of military campaigns by the United States Army against the Southern Plains Indians (Comanche, Kiowa, Southern Cheyenne, and Arapaho) in Texas. General Philip Sheridan dispatched five regiments against the rebellious tribes, ultimately subduing them to the Oklahoma reserves.
April 22, 1889: Land Rush in Oklahoma
On April 22, 1889, the American government officially opened Oklahoma Territory to settlers through the Land Rush. About 50,000 settlers (“Boomers”) participated, competing to claim the best lands.
December 29, 1890: Wounded Knee Massacre
The last confrontation of the Indian Wars took place in Wounded Knee (South Dakota). The American army attacked a Sioux camp, resulting in the deaths of 153 Indians, including women and children. This massacre marked the definitive end of the Indian resistance and symbolized the conquest of the West.
July 7, 1898: Annexation of Hawaii
In the late 19th century, the Kingdom of Hawaii found itself increasingly under American influence due to the economic importance of its sugar plantations. In 1893, a group of American settlers and businessmen orchestrated a coup against Queen Lili’uokalani, leading to the establishment of a provisional government. Following the coup, the United States initially hesitated to annex Hawaii, but with the outbreak of the Spanish-American War in 1898, the strategic value of the islands became clear. On July 7, 1898, the United States officially annexed Hawaii through the Newlands Resolution, and it became a U.S. territory in 1900. This event marked a significant expansion of American influence in the Pacific.
These events outline the relentless expansion of the United States across the continent, often at the expense of Native American populations, through wars, treaties, and migrations. Violence, displacement, and significant changes in the American landscape and society marked the conquest of the West.
The Berlin Blockade and Airlift (1948–1949), one of the first major crises of the Cold War, set the stage for the long geopolitical struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union. This pivotal event reinforced the division of Europe and demonstrated the Western Allies’ determination and ability to counter Soviet expansionism.
Post-War Europe and Escalating Tensions
The United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and France divided Germany into four occupation zones at the end of World War II. Berlin, situated deep within the Soviet zone, also saw its division into four sectors. Despite wartime cooperation between the Allied powers, deep ideological differences soon emerged and competing visions for post-war Europe emerged.
The ideological clash between capitalism and communism, along with mutual suspicions, fueled the emerging Cold War. While the United States sought to rebuild Europe along democratic and capitalist lines through initiatives such as the Marshall Plan, the Soviet Union sought to expand its influence by establishing communist regimes in Eastern Europe. Berlin became a theater of conflict and the symbolic heart of a divided Germany.
The Berlin Blockade: Soviet Strategy and Western Response
Stalin’s Blockade
In June 1948, Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin launched the Berlin Blockade, cutting off all land and water routes between West Berlin and West Germany. With this blockade, Stalin aimed to force the Western Allies to withdraw from Berlin or negotiate on Soviet terms, which would give the Soviet Union control of the city.
The Western Allies’ Dilemma
Faced with the blockade, the Western Allies’ options were limited. Direct military intervention risked triggering a new war, while withdrawal from Berlin would weaken their position in Europe and give the Soviets a major propaganda victory. Instead, the Allies developed a bold plan to airlift the city.
Berlin Airlift: A Logistical Victory
Operation Vittles
The Berlin Airlift, called “Operation Vittles” by the Americans and “Operation Plainfare” by the British, began in June 1948. It aimed to provide food, fuel, and other essentials to two million West Berliners entirely by air. This unique logistical operation required meticulous planning and coordination.
For the next 15 months, Allied cargo planes worked around the clock, moving up to 8,000 tons of supplies daily. The operation faced many challenges, including bad weather, mechanical breakdowns, and the constant threat of Soviet intervention. But the airlift’s success demonstrated Allied determination and ingenuity.
Impact: Political and Humanitarian Consequences
Symbol of Stability
The Berlin Airlift became a powerful symbol of the Western Allies’ determination to counter Soviet aggression without direct military confrontation. It sent the message that the Allies would not abandon Berlin, and therefore would not abandon their commitment to prevent communism in Europe.
The airlift also revealed the human dimension of the Cold War. The constant effort to feed and support the people of Berlin placed West Berlin at the forefront of the ideological battle and won many hearts.
The End of the Blockade and Aftermath
Lifting the Blockade
Realizing the futility of the blockade and the propaganda defeat it represented, Stalin lifted it on May 12, 1949. The Western Allies continued air resupply until September to ensure that West Berlin had sufficient stocks.
The Creation of NATO and the Formation of the German States
The Berlin Blockade and Airlift accelerated the division of Germany into two states: The Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany). It also triggered the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a military alliance against Soviet expansionism.
Conclusion
The Berlin Blockade and Airlift were two of the events that ignited the Cold War, setting the stage for a long struggle between the superpowers. The crisis demonstrated the ideological divide in Europe and the determination of the Western Allies to defend democracy and freedom. Beyond providing a lifeline to the people of Berlin, the airlift emphasized the importance of unity and resilience and proved that victory was possible in the face of adversity.
