Category: History

Djer, Hor Djer (Hr Dr, literal meaning “Hor the Grasper” or “Protector” or “Strong”, early 3rd millennium BCE) was the third pharaoh of the First Dynasty of Ancient Egypt. According to recent research, he may have ruled for about 47 years, from 2999 to 2952 BCE. Djer’s long reign was marked by innovations. The double depiction of Djer on a clay seal, seated on a throne, wearing either the Upper or Lower Egyptian crowns, indicates his authority over the whole of Egypt.

Name

In modern Egyptology, the name “Djer” is used to refer to this pharaoh, which is actually just one of his names, known as a Horus name. According to the Soviet historian Yu. Ya. Perepelkin, the Egyptian word “djer” (Egyptian transliteration: Dr) can best be translated into “grasp,”  although the researcher acknowledges that “grasp” still may not accurately convey the Egyptian meaning.

Printing of a cylindrical seal containing the Sereque from Djer and Pharaoh wearing the crowns of the High and Lower Egypt.

Initially, in his post-war work on the Early Kingdom, Yu. Ya. Perepelkin provisionally translated Djer’s name as “Binder,”  commenting as follows: “The meaning and exact pronunciation of the name of Horus, who inherited the Fighter Horus, are genuinely unknown. The transmission of ‘Hor Binder’ by me is purely conditional for convenience. The only, moreover, rather shaky support for it can be: the rare writing, by which the sheaf, denoting the actual name, is placed in the paws of the falcon Horus—just like with the predecessor, Horus the Fighter, a shield with a mace is handed to the falcon.” Later, while working on his “History of Ancient Egypt,” published in 2000, Yu. Ya. Perepelkin began to render Djer’s name as “Horus Restrainer,” but then leaned towards the latter rendition, “Horus Grasper.”

According to the German Egyptologist Wolfgang Helck, the name of the third king of the First Dynasty is represented as “Protector.” However, the hieroglyph “Bundles of Reeds” is unlikely to correspond to the correct description. It is more likely a kind of “Apron, chest protector, loincloth.” Perhaps this sign is based on the “Buto glyphs,” with which kings wrote their names.

Chronology

In modern Egyptology, many questions of the chronology of Ancient Egypt are subject to debate; for example, most dates of pharaohs’ reigns are relative, with the rule of thumb being that the older the reign, the less precise the date. This is particularly relevant for the representatives of the Early Kingdom – the dynasties of this period were considered mythical for some time. Over time, evidence of the existence of early pharaohs was found, and in our days, the level of inaccuracies and errors in determining the time of their reigns has been decreasing.

Some datings of Djer’s reign according to various researchers (dates given in BCE):

• 3100–3055 (45 years) – according to N. Grimal;
• 2980/2960 (?) – according to R. Krauss;
• 2999/2949–2952/2902 (47 years) – according to J. von Beckerath, “Chronology of the Pharaohs of Egypt”;
• 2939–2892 (47 years) – according to J. Malek;
• 2870–2823+25 (47 years) – generalized chronology edited by E. Hornung, R. Krauss, and D. Warburton, “Chronology of Ancient Egypt” (the most recent work on Egyptian chronology).

Monuments of Djer’s reign

The Abydos list names the second pharaoh after Meni as Teti (I); according to the Turin Royal List, this pharaoh was called Iteti; according to Manetho, it was Atotis.

The priest Manetho, who wrote the history of Egypt in the 3rd century BCE, preserved only in excerpts from later ancient authors, attributes 57 years to Atotis’ rule. However, the study of the chronicle of the Old Kingdom, the so-called Palermo Stone, also broken into pieces, most of which are lost, suggests that Djer’s reign lasted 41 years and several months. The name of King Djer is not preserved in this chronicle, and these years are attributed to him based on general conclusions.

The years from the 1st to the 10th are described in the second row of the main part of this chronicle, kept in the museum of the city of Palermo (hence the name), while another 9 years concerning the middle of his reign are preserved on a fragment kept in the Cairo Museum (Cairo fragment). The chronicle tells about celebrations in honor of various gods of Egypt, dedicatory offerings to ancient Egyptian gods, the height of the Nile during floods, and similar facts, not significantly enriching knowledge of the history of that period.

On the Cairo fragment of the Palermo Stone, alongside the “Horus name” Djer, there is another name, possibly an early form of the later “golden name”: Ni-nebu (meaning “golden”). However, this name of Djer is accepted very conditionally, as it is necessary to take into account that the “golden name” officially entered the titulature of the Egyptian pharaoh only during Djoser’s reign (III Dynasty).

The same Cairo fragment also mentions a possible “personal name” of the ruler, which is read as Iteti and enclosed in a cartouche. Here we also encounter an anachronism, as the writing of the pharaoh’s name enclosed in a cartouche was introduced only starting with the pharaoh Nebka (end of the III Dynasty).

• Year 1 – Service to Horus; Birth of Anubis
• Year 2 – Circumambulation of the Two Lands; Festival of Desher
• Year 3 – Service to Horus; Birth of Thoth
• Year 4 – Planning (of the building) “Friend of the Gods”; Festival of Sokar
• Year 5 – Service to Horus; Subduing (of the land) Setet
• Year 6 – Rising of the king of Upper Egypt; Birth of Ha
• Year 7 – Service to Horus; Birth of Neith
• Year 8 – (building) “Friend of the Gods”; Festival of Desher
• Year 9 – Service to Horus; Birth of Anubis

Among the documents related to the reign of King Djer, the most important are two labels: one made of ivory and originating from Abydos, and the other made of wood and originating from Saqqara. Such labels were evidently attached to certain objects and dated to a specific year of the king’s reign, notable for particular events considered significant for that period.

Unfortunately, contemporary knowledge of archaic hieroglyphs is so limited that a reliable translation of these invaluable texts is currently beyond reach. It is only possible to decipher individual words and word groups, which yields highly questionable interpretations. Of the two labels mentioned, the one from Abydos seems to record the king’s visit to Buto and Sais, the sacred cities of Lower Egypt. The Saqqara label evidently recalls some important event, most likely a religious festival during which human sacrifices were made.

The mother of Djer is possibly to be identified as a lady named Kenet-Hapi. However, her name is only attested on the famous Cairo Stone and not confirmed by other sources. The wife of Hor-Djer was possibly a lady named Kher-Neith, a name systematically found on monuments to Hor-Djer.

Military Campaigns

It is probable that Djer was a successful conqueror. He continued the wars in Nubia started by his predecessors, and his troops penetrated further south, reaching the second cataract of the Nile. Near Wadi Halfa in Gebel Sheikh Suliman, on the western bank of the Nile, a rock inscription (now in the National Museum of Khartoum) displays the “Horus name” (serkh) of King Djer, with a human figure in the pose of a captive before the name. Although the hands of this figure should theoretically have been tied behind them, they continue to hold a bow, a symbol of Nubia. Another captive is depicted tied by the neck to an Egyptian boat, which likely brought the pharaoh’s army. Below the boat lie the bodies of slain enemy warriors. Whether this primitive monument represents merely a punitive expedition of King Djer or a generalized process of conquest of these territories cannot be determined. In any case, objects made by Egyptian craftsmen and belonging to this period were indeed found in Lower Nubia.

It is highly likely that King Djer conducted military operations on his western border, as an alabaster palette with a roughly drawn inscription from his tomb in Saqqara shows the king in the typical pose of a victorious pharaoh, slaying a Libyan captive. The eastern border did not go unnoticed either. One of the years of Djer’s reign is marked in the Cairo fragment of the Palermo Stone as “the year of the defeat of the northeast (Setechiu).” In later sources, this term referred to all of Asia adjacent to Egypt, and it is now difficult to determine precisely where the expedition was sent during Djer’s reign.

However, sources from the En Besor area, a locality in southern Israel, indicate that there were indeed some trade and cultural connections between Ancient Egypt of the First Dynasty and southern Palestine. Moreover, fragments of pottery of Syro-Palestinian origin were found in the tomb of Djer, which further proves the possibility of such distant trade connections at that time.

Perhaps it was precisely there that the expedition of Pharaoh Hor-Djer was directed. Some Egyptologists, however, doubt that Egypt could organize such distant expeditions in the early stages and tend to believe that at that time, by the land of Setechiu, the Sinai Peninsula was meant. Precious turquoise objects, traditionally mined in Sinai, were found both in the tomb of Djer and in the tomb of his daughter Merneith. Copper tools and vessels, discovered in large quantities in the tomb of one of Djer’s contemporaries, also testify to this king’s campaign on the copper-rich Sinai Peninsula.

The Flourishing of Egypt

The strengthening of Egypt as a unified state continued throughout Djer’s reign, and there are no records of internal discord. On the contrary, there appears to have been a significant step towards strengthening Egypt economically and increasing its prosperity.

During the reign of Pharaoh Djer, the art of Ancient Egypt further developed. Some Egyptologists even speak of the greatest breakthrough in the development of art during Djer’s reign. This is indicated by the increased production of art objects and crafts, outstanding examples of which can be found among the jewelry from the southern royal tomb at Abydos, in the large collection of copper vessels, tools, and weapons from the northern tomb of the same king in Saqqara; among the unquestionable masterpieces is a magnificent knife, albeit made of flint, with a golden handle. The copper tools and vessels found in the king’s tomb are a vivid example of the development of blacksmithing during his reign.

Moreover, the reign of Pharaoh Djer dates the first known three-dimensional royal statue to this day: a headless statue from the temple of the goddess Satis in Elephantine. It depicts a figure seated on a throne, most likely representing Hor-Djer.

Tomb in Abydos

Like his predecessor Hor-Aha, Djer ordered the construction of two tombs for himself—one in the south and another in the north—which were intended to symbolize the full extent of the pharaoh’s power over both Upper and Lower Egypt.

The southern burial site of King Djer in Abydos (the Umm el-Qa’ab necropolis) is much larger than the nearby tomb of Hor-Aha. It consists of a large rectangular pit lined with bricks, with irregularly shaped storerooms on three sides. The burial chamber itself, or crypt, was apparently built of wood, and the entire tomb was originally covered with wooden beams and planks. Elements of the luxurious brazier are still preserved to this day. Nothing remains of the above-ground structure. The dimensions of the monument, including the restored above-ground structure, are 21.5 × 20 m. Next to Djer’s burial, 338 additional burials were found (containing the remains of servants sacrificed upon the completion of the king’s burial; most of the sacrifices were women, leading Egyptologists to believe that his harem was buried with the king), and nearby, there are another 269 tombs of his courtiers and dignitaries. Some of these burials feature small fragmentary inscriptions on rough stone stelae, but they are difficult to decipher. Mostly, they contain the names of the pharaoh’s entourage.

Fragments of a large royal stele were also discovered in the tomb, but the most remarkable find was the jewelry: four precious bracelets made of gold, turquoise, amethyst, and lapis lazuli on the bones of a human hand, which, for completely unknown reasons, were left behind by looters. These adornments are now housed in the Cairo Museum, while the remains of the mummy have remained unstudied and lost.

Djer’s tomb is also noteworthy for being revered in later times as the tomb of Osiris. Pilgrimages were made here from all over the country, lasting until Greek times.

Tomb in Saqqara

The northern tomb, conventionally attributed to Djer in Saqqara, is much larger than the Abydos monument of the same king and nearly the same size as Hor-Aha’s northern tomb. Nevertheless, it is much more carefully executed and exhibits features of further architectural development; this is especially true of the burial chamber and storage rooms, the number of which reaches seven, carved at a considerable depth from the ground surface. No secondary burials or stone enclosures (perimeter walls) were found around the tomb, but it is possible that they were destroyed during the construction of later tombs. The overall dimensions of the tomb are 41.30 × 15.15 m. Three boxes filled with copper items were found inside: 121 knives, 7 saws, 32 awls, 262 needles, 16 punches, 79 chisels, 102 adzes, 15 hoes, and other items.

Recent excavations in Saqqara led to the discovery of a large tomb belonging to Queen Kher-Neith, who, judging by the written evidence found in the tomb, can be reasonably considered Djer’s wife. Another tomb, similar in design and proportions, was discovered in Saqqara, and judging by the seals on the vessels found inside, it can be assumed that it also dates back to the reign of King Djer.

Atotis according to Manetho

Apparently, Djer, in his work, calls Manetho Atotis and says that he is the son and successor of Menes. Atotis, according to legend, built the citadel of Memphis and wrote a treatise on anatomy, as he was a physician. Monuments, of course, say nothing about a physician named Djer, but there are indirect but significant indications that medicine as a science was known in ancient times and that manuscripts even from the time of the earliest dynasties dealt with the treatment of known diseases and indicated known remedies.

For example, there is a manuscript that states that during the reign of Teti, a means was found to grow hair on the head. But even more important is the evidence of the Great Berlin Papyrus in the museum, which shows that medical art as a science dates back to the First Dynasty of Thinis. The manuscript contains a number of remedies for the “evil wound” (possibly leprosy) and other diseases.

Although the manuscript has rather childishly naive concepts of the internal structure of the human body, it nevertheless speaks of the importance of numerous and diverse “tubes,” as it calls them, apparently referring not only to respiratory and digestive pathways but also arteries and veins. The manuscript was written during the reign of Ramses II, but in one part it contains a whole excerpt borrowed, as the manuscript’s editor says, from a treatise written during the reign of the fifth king of the First Dynasty, Sepati.

The “Khepresh” is an ancient Egyptian exclusively royal head covering, one of the important regal insignia by which a king’s person was distinguished from others in depictions. Due to its color and presumed significance, it is generally referred to as the “blue crown” in Egyptology, although it is uncertain whether it was actually part of the regalia as the white, red, and combined crowns were. Some scholars believe that the Khepresh crown is derived from a military helmet, and because it appears in scenes depicting the king during military activities, it was previously referred to as a “war crown.

History

Like other Egyptian royal crowns, the Khepresh crown is not archaeologically documented and is known only indirectly from depictions of kings; therefore, it is uncertain what material it was made of. Scholars speculate that it could have been made of reinforced fabric or, rather, leather (in this case, possibly ostrich leather) with metal rings attached to such a base. It is always accompanied by the uraeus, and two ribbons sometimes flow from the back.

According to Egyptologists, stela 20799, created during the Second Intermediate Period, is one of the earliest mentions of the Khepresh crown. Amenhotep I was one of the first pharaohs depicted wearing the blue crown. Pharaohs of the XVIII — XIX dynasties wore this crown as their main headgear. After the Kushite dynasty, such a crown was no longer depicted.

Since the XVIII dynasty, the Khepresh crown has primarily been a distinctive sign of the pharaohs. In the Greco-Roman period, it was often depicted as the headgear of pharaohs. Additionally, from the beginning of the Ptolemaic dynasty, the Khepresh crown was increasingly used in iconographic depictions of divine children, such as Harpocrates.

Origin

The first evidence of the use of the blue crown is considered to be a mention on a stele from the Second Intermediate Period; however, the first ruler for whom its use is securely documented is Amenhotep I, the second king of the 18th Dynasty. It was more commonly seen during the reign of Hatshepsut and regularly during the reigns of Amenhotep III and especially Akhenaten.

Based on the frequency of its depiction, it remained popular with other kings throughout the subsequent period of the New Kingdom. It completely ceased to be used during the reign of the 25th Dynasty. The reasons are not clear; perhaps it is related to an unknown significance that could have been attributed to the headgear and its possible inconsistency with the non-Egyptian (Nubian) origin of the dynasty, or perhaps Nubian rulers decided to emphasize in their political program those aspects of royal power that were expressed by different crowns.

Use

In the following period of the 26th Dynasty, the blue crown was widely used for two propaganda reasons: firstly, because members of the previous foreign conquering dynasty expelled from Egypt by Psamtik I did not wear it, so “its use in this period probably identified with the emphasis on the Egyptian origin” of the new dynasty, and secondly, because in a general sense, “it could largely be associated with the claim to legitimacy of rule.”

War Crown Khepresh

Pharaohs of the New Kingdom were often depicted with the Khepresh crown, riding chariots during animal hunts or military battles. The blue crown was also worn during various ceremonies. Khepresh is commonly referred to as the “war crown,” however, modern historians refrain from such a definition.

To this day, not a single specimen of the blue crown has been preserved, so it is unknown how and from what materials such headgear was made. There are assumptions that they were made of fabric or leather dyed blue, which was covered with small yellow discs resembling the sun on the outside. Like many other crowns, the uraeus was attached to the front.

Mythological Context

In the studies of Egyptologists, the Khepresh crown was long interpreted as a “war crown.” However, recent research shows that its use was more diverse and not limited to military actions. Although it was often depicted in graphic narratives of victory over Egypt’s enemies, other crowns were also depicted in this context. Moreover, the pharaoh was very often depicted in the blue crown when portrayed as a child, especially in those scenes where he was breastfed by a goddess.

The Khepresh crown likely symbolized renewal and fertility (see the name, hieroglyph ḫpr and the deity Khepri) and also denoted the legitimate heir, whose claims to the throne were legitimate. Pharaohs and divine children shared a connection to the Khepresh crown in that only the pharaoh and his corresponding divine child were crowned with the blue crown, a sign of dominion over Egypt; for the pharaoh, it symbolized earthly rule; for the divine child, it symbolized divine rule.

The aphorism, from the Greek: ἀφορισμός / aphorismós (“delimitation”), from the verb ἀφορίζειν / aphorízein (“to define, to delimit”), is a statement expressed in a few words—and by extension, a sentence—that summarizes a principle or seeks to characterize a word or a situation from a singular perspective. In some respects, it may appear as a figure of speech when its use aims for rhetorical effects.

Definition

Linguistic Definition

The aphorism is a self-sufficient statement. It can be read, understood, and interpreted without recourse to another text. An aphorism is a thought that permits and incites other thoughts, which clears a path to new perceptions and conceptions. Even if its formulation seems to take on a definitive appearance, it does not claim to say everything or to say everything about a thing.

The aphorism, although resembling other declamatory forms such as the proverb or the maxim, should not be confused with them. Indeed, the aphorism is based on antithetical propositions, unlike the maxim that stages the paradox.

The aphorism aims for the peremptory (the aphorism adopts assertion), presenting itself as an authoritative and closed statement (Maurice Blanchot calls it limited), employing all the gnomic processes: depersonalizations (infinitives, indefinite pronouns, third person notably), especially the present tense of general truth characteristic of the proverb and giving the statement a general scope.

Stylistic Definition

The author remains somewhat detached from his intellectual production, not hesitating to contradict himself, not producing the truth or his truth, but seeking it. One of the most famous examples of an aphorism author from this point of view is Lichtenberg. It is also possible to think of a part of Nietzsche’s work as that of Gustave Thibon, strongly inspired by the latter in his approach. In this regard, Nietzsche sees it as an attempt to understand oneself, which Montaigne also emphasized; the German philosopher expressed it thus in his journals:

“I was seeking my heaviest burden, / It is myself that I found.”

The author is also struck by the aesthetic scope of aphorisms, which “strike by their tendency towards poetry.” In other words, the aphorism is supposed to convey with conciseness extensive and varied knowledge.

Not every quotation taken out of context is necessarily an aphorism. An aphorism is already a fragment of writing before being reused or quoted. That said, a quotation sometimes becomes an aphorism or a proverb through the erasure of the context (source and author).

If the aphorism, adage, saying, or maxim all state a general principle, they are distinguished in this: the adage and the saying claim to state proven truths and laws and have a more anonymous character; the maxim has a moral connotation. They thus have a sententious character. Conversely, an aphorism is a trait of the mind that presents a more descriptive, spiritual, or even paradoxical character.

The suggestive power of aphorisms is also linked to their conciseness, unlike proverbs and maxims: the aphorisms of Hippocrates, such as the famous “Ars longa, vita brevis” (“Art is long, life is short”), or those of Buddha and Lao Tzu, are among the most representative.

Sometimes the aphorism takes on pompous traits and the term is then used as a synonym for “banal sentences,” taken in a pejorative sense.

According to Dominique Noguez, “the aphorism:

has a particular structure,
is like a difficult magic trick to pull off,
is like a puzzle piece, but
bears bad company poorly,
seeks universality more than originality,
conciseness more than simplicity,
is often bitter, and
is unloved.”

Concerned Genres

Aphorisms are primarily a rhetorical and argumentative genre. That’s why it has been the preferred mode of expression for moralists like Jean de La Bruyère, whose “Les Caractères” are punctuated, alongside long portraits and ethopoeias, with short sentences. Nietzsche, in the treatise “Human, All Too Human,” argues that the aphorism must be decoded by the reader, as if it contained a subliminal or hidden message; he speaks of the necessity of having “a slow reading” or what he calls “a rumination.

But it is the French moralists, especially La Rochefoucauld and Vauvenargues — referred to as “aphorists” — who consecrate the aphorism and even make it a literary genre. The first of these authors, in his “Sentences et maximes de morale” (1634), argues that it is an exercise in introspection intended to analyze self-love.

Poetry also utilizes the suggestive resources of aphorisms. Some texts and argumentative essays thereby acquire a poetic significance: those of Emil Cioran, for example, or even Nietzsche, seem to focus solely on the images created by aphorisms at the expense of reasoning. Cioran defines it as the “axiom of twilight” because it allows one to delve into the depths of existence. La Rochefoucauld already saw it as a literary means of denouncing self-love. René Char forms short poems where each line is an aphorism. One can also mention haikus, which are the structured and Japanese counterpart of aphorisms.

The poet Marc Alyn gathers aphorisms in his “Carnet d’éclairs”: “Before the storm, bring in the wheat of speech”; or: “Speech kills the things it designates, but this murder makes them exist.

The novel also formulates aphorisms. Honoré de Balzac, in his “Physiologie du mariage,” includes a section called Aphorisms where he offers young people definitions of the “honorable woman.”

The Oulipo and the “machine for making aphorisms” by Marcel Benabou sought to sequence and automate the formation of aphorisms: it was a matter of combining a limited number of terms to create paradoxical aphorisms quasi-infinitely from a reduced number of predefined syntactic structures.

History of the Notion

The Greek physician Hippocrates formulates what can be designated as the first collection of aphorisms in the eponymous work “Aphorisms” through maxims that still exist today, such as “To the greatest evils the greatest remedies.” The term is used for the first time in the form of “aforisme” (pronounced “aforîme”) in Henri de Mondeville’s “Chirurgies” in 1314.

Rabelais, during the Renaissance, employs the modern term for the first time in the “Cinquième Livre”: “For then he held a map of the world and briefly explained it to them with small aphorisms, and they became clear and learned in a short time, and spoke elegantly of prodigious things by good memory, for the hundredth part of which knowing would not suffice the life of man.”

The Le Robert dictionary defines aphorism as: “a concise formula or prescription summarizing a theory, a series of observations, or containing a precept.”

Examples

General Aphorisms

• “It is not necessary to hope in order to undertake, nor to succeed in order to persevere.” (Charles the Bold, later echoed by William of Orange)
• “Everything must change for everything to remain the same.” (Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa)
• “It’s not the children on the back seat who cause accidents, but accidents on the back seat that cause children.” (Pierre Dac)
• “Knowledge without conscience is only the ruin of the soul.” (Rabelais)
• “The absent are always wrong to return.” (Jules Renard)
• “The sun shines for everyone.” (Paul Éluard)
• “Money does not bring happiness to the poor.” (Coluche)
• “Life! What a wonderful absurdity.” (Daniel Desbiens)
• “There is no wealth but men.” (Jean Bodin)
• “We love a woman for what she is not; we leave her for what she is.” (Serge Gainsbourg)
• “Too much trust breeds distrust.” (Gaëtan Faucer)
• “To kill time is only self-defense.” (Marc Brillat-Savarin)

Moral Aphorisms

• “All the virtues of men are lost in self-interest as rivers are lost in the sea.” (La Rochefoucauld)
• “Everything has been said, and one comes too late, since there have been men for seven thousand years, and they have been thinking.” (La Bruyère)
• “True eloquence consists in saying everything that is necessary, and only saying what is necessary.” (La Rochefoucauld)
• “What does not kill me makes me stronger.” (Nietzsche)
• “I sought great men, and I found only men imitating their ideal.” (Nietzsche)
• “Generosity is not measured by what one gives, but rather by what one expects in return.” (Leonid Soukhoroukov)
• “The other is not only different from you, but also differently than you imagined.” (Ferenc Rákóczy)
• “To accomplish great things, we must live as though we were never to die.” (Vauvenargues)
• “War, a massacre of people who do not know each other, for the profit of people who know each other but do not massacre each other.” (Paul Valéry)

Poetic Aphorisms

• “The poet depends on the world like the flower on its stem. He spends his life seeking balance, distributing his weight, and it is from this juggling exercise that images are born, these movable bridges thrown over the abyss.” (Ferenc Rákóczy)
• “On the holy mountain where the azure settles, Love creates a body that fire binds in gold.” (Emmanuel d’Hooghvorst)
• “There is no more fabulous vessel than the bed of a sleeping child.” (Marc Brillat-Savarin)

Legal Aphorisms

• “Taxes are the price we pay for a civilized society.” (Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.)

Famous Aphorism Authors

• Sacha Guitry
• Paul Gordeaux
• Rabelais
• Serge Gainsbourg
• Jean-Paul Sartre
• Friedrich Nietzsche, especially in “Beyond Good and Evil”
• Montaigne in the “Essays”
• François de La Rochefoucauld in his “Reflections or Moral Maxims”
• François Rollin in “Rollinettes”
• La Bruyère in “The Characters”
• Louis Ferdinand Céline, in “Journey to the End of the Night”
• Emil Cioran
• Joseph Joubert
• Vauvenargues
• Sébastien-Roch Nicolas de Chamfort
• Antoine Rivarol
• Marc-Edouard Nabe
• G. K. Chesterton
• Georg Christoph Lichtenberg
• Paul Valéry
• Oscar Wilde
• Louis Scutenaire
• Achille Chavée
• Henri Michaux
• Malcolm de Chazal
• Lao-Tseu
• Arthur Schopenhauer, Aphorisms on the Wisdom of Life
• Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, illustrious French gastronome who formulated 20 aphorisms focused on the art of gastronomy
• George Sand, “Women are raised like saints and treated like fillies.”
• Johann Heinrich Füssli, in “Aphorisms, Mainly Related to Fine Arts”
• Ludwig Wittgenstein, in “Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus”
• Sylvain Tesson
• Ylipe
• Elias Canetti
• Xavier Forneret, from “Untitled” to “Brushwood of Thought”
• Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.
• Ambrose Bierce, in his “Devil’s Dictionary”
• F. W. J. von Schelling, Aphorisms for Introduction to the Philosophy of Nature and Aphorisms on the Philosophy of Nature

The Seven Sages of Greece (in Ancient Greek οἱ ἑπτά σοφοί, around 620-550 BCE) are the title given by Greek tradition to a group consisting of politicians, lawmakers, and pre-Socratic philosophers of ancient Greece. They are referred to as the sylloge (Ancient Greek: συλλογή, assembly, gathering) of the Seven Sages. The composition of this group may have varied over the centuries and traditions.

This tradition was adopted, albeit in a different form, by the Christian tradition in the early days of Christianity. Moreover, it also lives on through a whole series of iconographic representations in sculpture and mosaic. Their number is found in the Seven Wonders of the World, the Seven against Thebes, or the Saptarishis (the “seven sages (rishi)”) in India.

Origin

The Seven Sages are mentioned explicitly for the first time by Plato. In his dialogue “Protagoras” (343a), he lists them as follows:

• Thales of Miletus
• Pittacus of Mytilene
• Bias of Priene
• Solon of Athens
• Cleobulus of Lindos
• Mysus of Chenae (or Chen)
• Chilon of Sparta

It is debated whether the idea of such a list of seven originates from Plato himself or if he relied on a popular tradition from the sixth or early fifth centuries. The individual names also appear in older sources, most notably in Herodotus, but they do not appear as a group there.

Prominent among them were Thales, a natural philosopher and mathematician, and Solon, a lawmaker. All lists mention Thales, Solon, Bias, and Pittacus, and most also include Cleobulus and Chilon. Mysus was a vague figure for posterity and hailed from an unknown village. Presumably for this reason, he was replaced in a list, first appearing with Demetrius of Phalerum, a student of Aristotle, by Periander of Corinth.

According to another hypothesis, which was already present in antiquity, Plato replaced Periander, who was already present in the original version but politically unpopular due to his tyrannical rule, with Mysus. Demetrius’ list, consisting of Thales, Pittacus, Bias, Solon, Cleobulus, Chilon, and Periander, had the widest circulation in antiquity and is still common today.

In addition, there were other lists circulating that included different names instead of Mysus or Periander, and sometimes instead of Chilon and Cleobulus. Occasionally, the following personalities were also counted among the Seven Sages:

• Epimenides
• Anacharsis
• Leophantus
• Aristodemus
• Pherecydes of Syros
• Pythagoras of Samos
• Anaxagoras
• Acusilaus of Argos
• Lasus of Hermione
• Orpheus
• Epicharmus
• Peisistratus
• Linus
• Pamphilus

Occasionally, further names were also mentioned.

Generalities

The composition of the Sages’ sylloge varied. It is found in different texts, which, however, present a common element: their legendary nature, but also with a semi-historical substrate. The characters included in the sylloge generally come from either the Aegean islands and coastal cities of Asia Minor or from mainland Greece.

There are other series of sages, such as the Apkallu, learned artisans in Mesopotamian and Akkadian literature. In Sanskrit literature, texts mention seven rishis, who are at once seers, poets, mystics, priests, and, literally, stars (the Pleiades).

The tradition of the Sages

Interest in the lives and words of the sages dates back to the archaic period, as evidenced by both the legend of the Seven Sages and the transmission of their sayings. Indeed, during the 5th century BCE (or perhaps already in the 6th century BCE), philosophers and historians transmitted the idea that seven sages lived at the court of Croesus (d. 546 BCE) or that they gathered at the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi to offer him their sayings, or even with this or that tyrant.

This group of individuals would have in common being masters of practical wisdom, for some men of science and for most men of state. The list would have been definitively completed in the 4th century BCE in Athens. According to Jean Stobaeus, a doxographer of the 5th or 6th century BCE, it was Demetrius of Phalerum who fixed the list of the Seven Sages, thus making it a kind of canon by publishing a collection of their sayings.

Plato provides the oldest list of the Seven Sages that has come down to us, but others are found, and the lists as well as the attributions of the sayings vary. In any case, according to Demetrius of Phalerum, the tradition would be much older. The Seven Sages were known for their practical wisdom and memorable sayings and maxims. According to Dicaearchus, a student of Aristotle, the Seven Sages are neither philosophers nor wise men, but good lawmakers and insightful men.

It is probably at Delphi that their reputation for wisdom was established: several of their maxims were engraved on the site in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, at a time when, instead of the knowledge reserved for the god, the skillful use of the present moment was preferred.

Lists and Maxims of the Sages

According to Diogenes Laërtius, in his Life of Thales:

“There is no agreement on their number. Leander, instead of Cleobulus and Myson of Chenae, includes Leophantes, son of Gorsias, or Lebedius of Ephesus and Epimenides of Crete. Plato, in the Protagoras, substitutes Myson for Periander. The historian Ephorus of Cyme replaces Myson with Anacharsis, and others add Pythagoras.

According to Dicaearchus, there are four on whom everyone agrees: Thales, Bias of Priene, Pittacus of Mytilene, and Solon. The same author names six others, from which he chooses three: Aristodemus, Pamphile, the Spartan Chilon, Cleobulus, Anacharsis, and Periander. Others add Acusilaus, Caba, or Scala, an Argive.

Hermippus, in his book on the sages, says there were seventeen and that each person chose seven according to their preferences. These are Solon, Thales, Pittacus, Bias, Chilon, Cleobulus, Periander, Anacharsis, Acusilaus, Epimenides, Leophantes, Pherecydes, Aristodemus, Pythagoras, Lasus, son of Charmantides or Sisambrinus, or, according to Aristoxenus, of Chabrines, Hermon, and Anaxagoras.

Hippobotus (Catalogue of Philosophers) lists them as follows: Orpheus, Linus, Solon, Periander, Anacharsis, Cleobulus, Myson, Thales, Bias, Pittacus, Epicharmus, and Pythagoras.”

Only fragments of Solon’s work have reached us. For the other names on the shortlist given by Plato, we only have maxims and sayings (apophthegms – from Ancient Greek ἀπόφθεγμα / apophthegma) attributed to them. These apophthegms most often take the form (in Greek) of two-word injunctions, or barely more in the series transmitted by Dicaearchus.

Summary Table

In bold, the four names appear on all the lists that have reached us. This list corresponds to that given by Plato, except for Corinthian Periander, replaced by Myson of Chenae in Plato’s list. This is also the one taken up by Paul Faure.

Often, to these seven names, those of Epimenides of Crete, Pherecydes of Syros, and Aesop are added. As for Book I of Lives, Doctrines, and Sayings of Famous Philosophers by Diogenes Laërtius, entitled “The Seven Sages,” it deals with eleven characters: Thales, Solon, Chilon, Pittacus, Bias, Cleobulus, Periander, Anacharsis, Myson, Epimenides, and Pherecydes.

Other maxims

Let us mention other maxims attributed to the Seven Sages: “Control your anger,” “Reflect on the end of life.” Moreover, in the baths of the Seven Sages, in Ostia, they are represented in a painting accompanied by scatological aphorisms attributed to them, undoubtedly to mock them.

Maxims and Sayings of the Seven Sages

In addition to their political contributions to their hometowns, the fame of the wise men was particularly enhanced by the maxims and aphorisms attributed to them. Orators quoted them in politics and in court. Plato himself praised the concise and skillfully formulated sayings, the gnomic wisdom, as outstanding fruits of the wisdom of the seven men.

According to the prologue of “Ludus Septem Sapientum” (The Play of the Seven Sages) by the Roman poet Ausonius, a Ludius (a “lively person”) appears, who enumerates the well-known sayings of the Seven Sages.

Among other things, the following sayings were often quoted both in private and in public:

Thales

• Ἐγγύα πάρα δ’ ἄτα. “Surety brings ruin.”
• Do not adorn yourself outwardly, but be beautiful in your deeds.
• What you do good for your parents, expect the same from your children in your old age.
• Do not be lazy, even if you have money.
• Better to be envied than pitied.

Solon

• Μηδὲν ἄγαν. “Nothing in excess.”
• Do not sit in judgment, lest you become an enemy to the condemned.
• Avoid pleasure that brings forth pain.
  
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• Do not have more rights than your parents.
• Learn to obey, and you will know how to rule.

Chilon

• Γνῶθι σεαυτόν. “Know thyself.”
• Go slowly to your friend’s festivities, quickly to their distress.
• Do not let your tongue outrun your mind.
• Do not gesture while speaking; it seems as if you are insane.
• Reconcile in injustice, resist in insolence.

Pittacus

• Γίγνωσκε καιρόν. “Know the right time.”
• Do not speak of your plans; if they fail, you will be laughed at.
• Do not do to others what you find hateful.
• Do not speak ill of your friend or good of your enemy, for that would be illogical.
• The land is reliable, the sea is not.

Bias

• Οἱ πλεῖστοι κακοί. “Most men are bad.”
• Look in the mirror: if you look handsome, you must also do good deeds; if ugly, you must compensate for nature’s deficiency by being noble.
• Proceed slowly to work, but persevere in what you have begun.
• Win through persuasion, not through force.
• Attribute the good you have to the gods, not to yourself.

Cleobulus

• Μέτρον ἄριστον. “Moderation is best.”
• Listen much and speak little.
• Consider the opponent of the people as an enemy.
• Marry from an equal rank; from a higher rank, you gain masters, not relatives.
• In prosperity, do not be proud; in adversity, do not be lowly.
  
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Periander

• Μελέτη τὸ πᾶν. “Consider everything.”
• Everything is practice.
• Pleasures are fleeting, virtues immortal.
• Scold in such a way that you can quickly become friends again.
• Adhere to old laws, but to fresh food.

Plutarch’s Feast of the Seven Wise Men

The wisdom of the Seven Sages played a role in philosophical discussions about the best state. Plutarch addresses this in his dialogue “The Feast of the Seven Wise Men”:

When asked about the best state, the Seven Sages responded differently:

• Solon: “The state in which a criminal is accused and punished by all, those whom he has harmed and those whom he has not.”
• Bias: “Where all fear the law as if it were a tyrant.”
• Thales: “One that has neither too many rich nor too many poor.”
• Anacharsis: “Where everything else is valued equally, but virtue is preferred and vice is penalized.”
• Cleobulus: “Where the citizens fear reproach more than the law.”
• Pittacus: “Where it is not possible for the wicked to rule, nor for the good not to rule.”
• Chilon: “The one that listens most to laws and least to orators.”

When asked about the best household, six of the Seven Sages responded:

• Solon: “Where acquiring money does not involve injustice, guarding it does not involve mistrust, and spending it does not lead to regret.”
• Bias: “Where the master behaves as if he were outside because of the laws.”
• Thales: “Where the master can have the most leisure.”
• Cleobulus: “Where the master has more loved ones than those who fear him.”
• Pittacus: “That desires nothing superfluous and lacks nothing necessary.”
• Chilon: “That most resembles a state ruled by a king.”

Reception

The conviction that optimal governance requires the advice of wise individuals has persisted to this day. The designation “The (Seven) Wise Men” is used for advisory bodies of various kinds, such as the annual report of the “Council of Economic Advisers” in Germany. Similarly, in a Swiss project for Expo.02, “The Seven Wise Men” consisted of a group of seven scientists, artists, and representatives of political bodies tasked with researching the thoughts, feelings, and actions of Swiss citizens.

Legacy

In the 17th century, Madeleine and Georges de Scudéry staged the Seven Sages in their epic novel Artamène or the Grand Cyrus (1649-1653), notably in the episode of the Banquet of the Seven Sages.

The sources of Greek thought comprise a combination of political, social, economic, and cultural factors present during the archaic period of Greek history, leading to the transformation of religion, beliefs of wisdom and morality, and practical-technical knowledge into science and philosophy.

Novelty of Ancient Greek Thought

Jean-Pierre Vernant points out a complex of three characteristics defining the novelty of Greek thought compared to Eastern thought:

• Establishment of thought providing an independent explanation of the world, separate from mythology and religion – explaining the existence of the cosmos and the course of natural phenomena independently of theological-poetic concepts, as found, for example, in the works of Hesiod.
• Introduction of the idea of a prevailing autonomous order in the world – the cosmic order is not theocratic but is based on the principle of immanent law (nomos), imposing the same character on all natural phenomena (kratos).
• Geometrical character of thought – geography, astronomy, and cosmology describe the world within a defined space and constructed upon relationships occurring solely among its elements (reciprocal, reversible, and symmetrical).

The concept of the sources of Greek thought is significant not only for the history of ancient philosophy but also for the historical methodology of science, philosophy of culture, and cultural anthropology, which examine the relations between myth and logos, primitive thinking and rational thinking, and various philosophical currents, especially Hegelianism, Martin Heidegger’s philosophy, in which categories of origination and rootedness arising from the interpretation of the beginning of Greek philosophy became the principal philosophical categories, for the thought of German physicist-philosophers like Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker or Werner Heisenberg, and also for Marxist historiography, which sees (partly due to Lenin’s recognition of the “Democritean trend of philosophy”) in the origins of Greek philosophy a break with religion and primal materialism.

Origin of Ancient Greek Thought

The original character of Greek thought

For centuries, the origin of philosophical thought in Greece was a subject of dispute – there was debate about whether it originated from the East or if it was an original product of Greek culture. The belief in the eastern origin of philosophy arose already in antiquity. Diogenes Laertius (3rd century CE) in the prologue to the “Lives and Opinions of Famous Philosophers” presents this argument along with its criticism:

“Some say that philosophy originated among the barbarians. As proof of this, they adduce the Chaldeans, the Magi, the Gymnosophists of India, the druids among the Celts and Galatians, and the Sramanas among the Bactrians. Mochus, they say, was a Phoenician; Zamolxis, a Thracian; Atlas, a Libyan.”

 However, those who assert this do not realize that they are ascribing to the barbarians what belongs in reality to the Greeks, nor do they see that they are declaring that philosophy has its beginnings among the non-Greeks. Musaeus was an Athenian, and Linus was a Theban. Philosophy therefore dates from the Greeks and is not, as they maintain, a matter of barbarian origin.

[Diogenes Laertius, I 1-4]

Until the 19th century, the prevailing theory was that philosophy originated from a lost and esoteric knowledge of Egyptians and Babylonians and from the Holy Scripture, especially from the activities attributed to the author of the Pentateuch, Moses. This view changed only with a deeper understanding of the civilizations of the Near East through archaeological discoveries and the deciphering of hieroglyphic and cuneiform scripts. Currently, while acknowledging that knowledge of the East was a necessary condition for the emergence of philosophy in Greece, the most widespread view is that neither philosophy nor science understood as theoretical knowledge existed in the civilizations of the Near East. This view, entrenched in the 18th and 19th centuries, was later subject to criticism. Initially, Western philosophy began to be contrasted with Eastern philosophies, and in recent decades terms such as Egyptian philosophy, Mayan philosophy, or African philosophy have also been used, which reflects a departure from Eurocentrism but also an expansion of the meaning of the term “philosophy.”

The culture of Eastern peoples is much older than that of the Greeks, yet it is difficult to find in it propositions about the world and humanity that do not have a mythological and religious character. Therefore, in research on the sources of Greek philosophy, Aristotle’s thesis about the transition from mythos to logos is popular. The peoples of the Near East had art and practical skills approaching science (especially geometry in Egypt and astronomy in Mesopotamia), developed religious systems, and enacted legislation. In all these areas of life, Greek culture is closely dependent on them. However, the transition from mythos to logos does not have a quantitative but rather a qualitative character of a leap (“Greek miracle”). In the philosophy of history, the thesis is advanced that it was precisely this enormous change, the emergence of philosophy in Greece, that determined the distinctiveness of Greco-Roman civilization from the civilizations of the Near East and became the cause of the divergence of their developmental paths.

Theses on the foreign origin of Greek thought

Since ancient times, the thesis of the eastern origin of Greek philosophy has been widely accepted. In the 19th century, it was particularly popular among historians of Romanticism, in line with the general characteristics of this cultural movement, which rejected many values produced by classical culture in favor of folk, oriental, or specifically understood medieval cultures, as well as among orientalists. This happened despite the fact that the thesis of the foreign origin of Greek philosophy was alien to the dominant Hegelian historiography of that period. Hegel regarded Indian philosophy coolly, considering it identical to Indian religion. Today, despite significant progress in the study of Far Eastern philosophies, the independence of Greek philosophy from religion is also recognized as one of the most important factors that enabled its emergence.

According to Hegel, in Indian philosophy, philosophical concepts exist, but Spirit in the civilizations of the Far East has not yet taken the form of thought, and philosophy present there is only of a symbolic character; it also lacks the characteristic theoretical character found in Greek thought, but only has a practical-ethical element with a religious background, such as enlightenment and liberation. It was only in the second half of the 19th century that a thorough analysis of the development of Greek thought was conducted, presenting an extensive corpus of arguments against the eastern origin of philosophy. Particularly significant here are the historical analyses of Eduard Zeller in “Die Philosophie der Griechen in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung” (1919), which systematized a vast source material, and John Burnet’s “Early Greek Philosophy” (1930).

The key significance of rejecting the thesis of the eastern origin of Greek philosophy is that it appeared late in antiquity, was mainly promoted by people from the East, and was largely within philosophical currents of an esoteric nature, seeking to give themselves the splendor of antiquity, such as Neopythagoreanism and Neoplatonism. The intentions of the creators of these mystical philosophical currents can be described as “local patriotism.” In the Hellenistic period, unlike in the Archaic period, Greeks regarded Eastern peoples as barbarians, leading to cultural friction. At the same time, Eastern peoples conquered by the Greeks quickly adopted Greek culture, combined with their own religious-theological concepts, creating syntheses of an esoteric nature.

It should also be noted that in Greek culture, philosophy was considered the highest form of knowledge; therefore, if religiously oriented thought of late antiquity wanted to reject Homeric Greek religion and turn to Eastern cults, such as the cult of Isis and Mithras, it had to simultaneously acknowledge that the highest form of knowledge, philosophy, ex origine, was contained in these cults.

Egyptian priests in the Ptolemaic state were known for maintaining that all Greek knowledge stemmed from ancient Egyptian wisdom; they motivated this claim (now considered hypothetical) with the journeys of Plato, Pythagoras, or Thales to Egypt, from where they were said to have brought knowledge and philosophy to Greece. The idea of the origin of philosophy from Moses and the Old Testament prophets was also strongly rooted among heavily Hellenized Alexandrian Jews, who also produced their own mystical philosophy, the most distinguished representative of which is Philo of Alexandria. With the development of the religious character of culture in the last centuries of antiquity and the penetration of Eastern cults into all regions of the Roman Empire, such theses became widely known and accepted among Greeks and Romans, especially among Neoplatonists, who proclaimed that philosophy comes from divine inspiration.

Romantic researchers believed that they could prove the thesis of the eastern origin of Greek philosophy simply by accepting the statements about it made by ancient philosophers as credible without subjecting them to source criticism. Especially German researchers of that period tried to create syntheses of Eastern and Western thought and sought strict, orderly, and systematic analogies in them. An example of this is the work of August Gladisch, “Religion and philosophy in their world-historical development and relation to each other according to the documents” (1852), in which Gladisch, based on internal convergences, distinguished five philosophical systems that combine genetically and thematically Western and Eastern trends: the Pythagorean-Chinese system, the Eleatic-Indian system, the Heraclitean-Persian system, the Empedoclean-Egyptian system, and the Anaxagorean-Jewish system. The current state of knowledge about this period necessitates rejecting these theses.

Neither philosopher nor historian of the classical period mentions the origin of philosophy from the East—not even Plato, who discusses topics related to the East, or Herodotus, who traces Orphism back to Egypt, well acquainted with and treating the East with understanding, express such an opinion. Plato emphasized the speculative and theoretical orientation of Greek thought, distinguishing it from the practically-oriented Egyptian knowledge. Aristotle diminished the significance of Egyptian achievements, attributing to them only the invention of mathematics.

Other arguments against the origin of Greek philosophy from the East include the fact that the idea of ​​the eastern origin of philosophy found recognition in the Greco-Roman world in the late period of ancient philosophy, when revelation gained greater importance than reason; that late Greek philosophy took on a mystical-religious character, which could find real similarities between its doctrines and Eastern religions, although these similarities do not speak to their relationship to original Greek philosophy, but rather to changes occurring within it; and that Egyptians and Jews saw similarities between Greek philosophy and their religion based on interpretations that were obviously arbitrary, interpretations of an allegorical nature. Another argument against the origin of philosophy in the Middle East is that no philosophical writings or a distinct system of teaching and transmitting philosophy different from existing writings and systems of teaching religion, cosmogony, and theology emerged there, nor was there any term that could be recognized as equivalent to the term “philosophy.”.

Vernant admits that in his research he did not adequately present the issue of the influence of Eastern mathematics on the emergence of Greek science, but he claims that the process of the development of mathematical thought in Greece can be presented as a component of his conception of its emergence as a change in the social function of speech. However, there are contemporary concepts that try to derive Greek civilization from outside Greece based precisely on the foreign origin of mathematics. The Dutch mathematician Bartel Leendert van der Waerden, in his work “Geometry and Algebra in Ancient Civilizations,” claims that the foreign origin of mathematics can be understood as a “triple discovery.”.

Its first element is the research of Abraham Seidenberg concerning the construction of altars in Indian texts from the V–II century BC and the presence of mathematics and Pythagorean triangles in them, from which Seidenberg deduces the thesis of the common origin of Greek, Babylonian, and Indian mathematics. The second consists of comparative studies of Chinese arithmetic texts and Babylonian texts; they turned out to be so similar that hypotheses about their common source were put forward. The third consists of the research of Alexander Thoma and Archibald Stevenson Thoma on megalithic constructions in England and Scotland and the functions that mathematics and Pythagorean triangles fulfilled in them. Based on these three sources, van der Waerden concludes that mathematical knowledge originated in Neolithic Central Europe, from where it only later spread to Western Europe and Asia.

Religion and Mythology in the Origins of Philosophy

Homer and Hesiod

The works of Homer and Hesiod played a tremendous role in Greek culture, including the emergence of philosophy.

In Homer’s works, gods directly intervene in events occurring in nature, in the human world, and in the psyche. There is also the concept of impersonal necessity standing above the gods. Homer also attempts to present the relationships between the gods and their functions in a systematic way, which is the beginning of understanding cosmology as order.

Hesiod, in his “Theogony,” described the creation of heaven and earth and the stages of the development of reality as a change in the generations of gods. The tendency to explain natural and human reality as a certain order comprehensible to reason is even more pronounced than in Homer.

Philosophers continued these attempts to grasp the world as a whole, ordered according to some governing principle (Arché), but in a fundamentally different way, detached from mythology and religiosity.

Religion

Formerly, the materialism of early Greek philosophy was strongly emphasized; currently, much greater emphasis is placed on the fluid transition from mythology to philosophy, as well as the present theological and ethical factors in both early and mature Greek philosophy. According to Kazimierz Leśniak, who sees pre-Socratic philosophy as materialistic, “Greek philosophy emerged when it was realized that beneath the apparent chaos of phenomena must lie order, and that this order is the work of self-originating forces, not associated with any deity.”  Vernant also recognized the break with the mythological explanation of the world as the fundamental cause of Greek philosophy, while emphasizing the fluidity of this transition, which Leśniak also emphasizes.

Ionian philosophy can be obscure; this obscurity stems not only from its metaphorical or gnomic form and the scant amount of preserved fragments but also from the fact that the transition from the resistant-to-rational-analysis, symbolic categories of mythological speculation to rational philosophy is fluid in it. According to Leśniak, it is not possible to delineate the line between what is mystical, irrational, and anthropomorphic and what is scientific and philosophical among the Ionians. Irrational and mythological elements also appeared in later Greek philosophy; however, they are easier to separate from the proper part of their views in Plato and Aristotle. Furthermore, later Greek philosophers were clearly aware of the distinction between mythology and philosophy; they were aware of it so clearly that they could even use myths consciously and intentionally, especially Plato.

It is not always possible to indicate what exactly in Ionian philosophy is rational and what is mythological. A widespread, though difficult to prove, view is the connection between the animistic origin of hylozoism and the view of Ionian philosophers that the entire reality is animate. This view may have originated in animism, but it could just as well be based on inferences from simple empirical observations. The difficulty of separating the rational element from the mythological one also stems from changes in scientific views and the ambiguity of the term “rationality” itself.

Orphism

Orphism was a mystery religion focused on deepened and more authentic spirituality. It was popular among those Greeks for whom superficial ritualism of official religion was not enough. Part of the religion was secret teachings transmitted to adherents, according to which a divine principle, an immortal daemon, inhabits humans. He fell into the material world due to guilt and became trapped there. With the death of the body, the daemon does not die but is reborn. Orphism allowed for purification, breaking the cycle of reincarnation, and releasing the daemon into the afterlife. Many Orphic teachings about the soul and its journey, the non-material perfect sphere of reality, and forms of initiation into secret knowledge would be adopted by later philosophers.

The Beginnings of Philosophizing

Activity of Greek sages and lawmakers

One of the main sources of Greek philosophy, especially Greek ethics, is the wisdom conveyed in the form of practical life rules. During the archaic period, the Greeks collected many such rules, mostly in the form of aphorisms, proverbs, and gnomes – they were important for the daily life and morality of the Greeks even after the emergence of philosophical ethics. These rules arose in response to the turmoil caused by rapid changes in Greek society in the 7th and 6th centuries BC. They were expressed by sages, individuals with particularly high respect in local communities, who had a significant influence on their lives. Greek sages were often lawmakers, social reformers, and tyrants. Due to their great importance for the life of the poleis in the archaic epoch of the 7th and 6th centuries BC, this period is sometimes called the “era of the seven sages”.

Ionian philosophy of nature

The main feature of the Ionian philosophy of nature was its attempt to formulate a theory of the world in a simple and concrete way—to answer questions about its origin, structure, and mode of operation. This characteristic was associated with the practical attitude emphasized by many authors of Ionian philosophers. This practical attitude does not negate the revolution represented by the establishment of the rudiments of theoretical knowledge by Ionian philosophers; on the contrary, theoretical knowledge arose precisely from the need for better satisfaction of practice.

Writes about Ionian philosophers: “They were not hermits immersed in inquiries into detached issues or observers of nature but active, practical people, whose philosophy had this novelty in that when they began to contemplate the mechanism of reality, they did so in the light of everyday experiences, not entirely disregarding ancient myths. They owed their independence from mythological explanations more to the fact that the relatively simple political structure of their growing states did not force them to rule by superstition, as was the case in previously existing states.” Farrington confirms Vernant’s view on the great importance of changes in political relations towards the Mycenaean era and the diversity of Greek political relations towards Asian relations as a reason for the independence of Greek thought from mythological explanations. Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes did not differ in political life from the sages; they actively participated in their lives, carried out reforms, and directed colonization, law, and economy.

Origin of the term “philosophy”

The term “philosophy” probably did not appear in the Greek world before the 5th century BC; hence, defining the philosophical self-awareness of early natural philosophers is difficult. Pierre Hadot even uses the term “philosophy before philosophy” in relation to the first philosophers of Greece. The first certain, yet quite incidental, uses of the word “philosophy” date back to the 5th century BC, and it was only Plato who philosophically defined the concept of philosophy.

Hadot denies the old anecdotal tradition according to which the word “philosophy” was known to Pythagoras and Heraclitus. There is a legend passed down by Heraclides of Pontus, Diogenes Laertius, Cicero, and Iamblichus that Pythagoras was the creator of this term. Diogenes Laertius writes:

The term “philosophy” was first used by Pythagoras, and he was also the first to call himself a philosopher, namely in Sybaris, in conversation with Leon, the ruler of Sybaris or Croton. Then, as stated by Heraclides of Pontus in his work On the Dead, Pythagoras said that no man is wise; only God is wise. Before, philosophy was called wisdom, and a person practicing philosophy and already perfecting it was called a sage, whereas a philosopher was one who loved wisdom. Sages [or philosophers] were also called sophists, not only them but also poets; for example, when Cratinus praises Homer and Hesiod in Archilochus, he also speaks of them as sophists.

The issue of the presence of the adjective philosophos, the verb philosophize, and the noun philosophy in Pythagoras and Heraclitus remains disputed. The fragment of Heraclitus in which the word “philosopher” appears is considered inauthentic, and the fragment concerning this word in Pythagoras is considered a mistaken, anachronistic interpretation, as a result of which Plato’s position was attributed to this philosopher.

Ancient Egypt’s economy was based on a system of storage and redistribution of goods under the supervision of local administration. The administration, accountable to the ruler, managed the economy, overseeing the collection and storage of goods produced across the country, acquiring foreign products, and distributing them according to the state’s needs. Over time, temples also developed significant infrastructure for storage and redistribution, but these institutions were always linked to the palace, forming an integral part of it and thus maintaining control over the flow of goods in the hands of central authority.

Overview

During the Late Period, due to the increased influence of both the Persian Empire and the Empire of Alexander the Great, within which Egypt was also situated, the role of trade exchange grew. With the expanded trade contacts of the Egyptian state, the use of currency also increased.

Under Persian rule, Egypt became more integrated with the contemporary world, continuing the socio-economic changes initiated during the Ramesside period, leading to greater interactions with Mediterranean basin countries.

During the Ptolemaic period, a network of trade routes was developed. One of the major successes of this period was the reconstruction of the route connecting the Nile to the ports on the Red Sea, made possible by the efforts of Ptolemy II.

Since agriculture was the basis of the economy at the time, the level of the Nile was one of the key factors influencing the economic cycle of ancient Egypt. The annual inundation levels of the Nile varied, influenced by longer climatic cycles, periodically affecting agricultural production. Therefore, administrative centers, belonging to both the ruler and the temples, played an important role in securing the state during dry periods. It was not a monolithic system but a comprehensive network of autonomous administrative units responsible for revenue collection, wage distribution, and the storage and distribution of crops.

The state of this type of economy in different regions depended on the resources provided by the land. Egypt was in a favorable position due to its very fertile agricultural lands along the Nile (the country’s name, Kemet, means “black land”), mild climate, abundance of flora and fauna, and the wealth of rock and mineral resources in the mountains on both sides of the river. Missing resources, such as wood, silver, and incense necessary for rituals, were imported from other countries from the very beginning.

Natural resources

Stone extraction: pink granite in the Aswan area, sandstone in Gebel el-Silsila, shales and breccias in Wadi Hammamat, porphyries in Gebel Duchan, alabaster in Hat-Nub, limestones in Tura and Maasara, pink quartzite in Gebel el-Ahmar, basalts and dolerites in Abuzabal.

Decorative stones: turquoise, malachite, garnet, green feldspar, and chalcedony in the Sinai Peninsula; quartz, calcite, and green feldspar; onyx, amethyst, green beryl, and chalcedony in the eastern desert; amethyst and quartz in the Aswan area; quartz, calcite in the Asyut area, and chalcedony in the Abu Simbel area and the Baharija Oasis; while the Red Sea provided corals and pearls.

Lapis lazuli was most likely imported from Afghanistan, while gold came from Nubia.

Agriculture

Agriculture in all its forms—cultivation, animal husbandry, hunting, and fishing—developed both in the depths of the valley and on the edges of the black soil, and the lands were very easy to exploit.

There are many examples of preserved paintings, reliefs, sculptures, and documents from which one can learn exactly how the process of cultivation and animal husbandry proceeded.

Crops depended on the floods of the Nile. The ancient Egyptians distinguished three seasons of the calendar: the flooding of the Nile (Akhet), the growth of plants (Peret), and the harvest (Shemu).

The flood season of the Nile lasted from June to September, when the riverbanks were deposited with mud rich in mineral nutrients.

The canal system developed due to low rainfall, prompting Egyptian farmers to rely on the waters of the Nile. The area where the land was cultivated in the valley during the flood was to some extent leveled, and irrigation canals created a series of large basins, dividing the land designated for irrigation into terraces descending towards the Nile channel. From March to May, the crops were harvested; farmers used sickles and flails to separate the chaff from the grain.

Agricultural produce was processed, for example, ground into flour, or stored in warehouses for later use. From archaeological sources, it appears that in ancient Egypt, cereal crops were grown, including emmer wheat for bread baking and barley for beer brewing; common wheat likely appeared only during the Greco-Roman period. In addition to cereals, legumes were grown, including lentils, chickpeas, and sesame; vegetables—lettuce, onions, and garlic; fruits—especially dates and grapes; as well as fodder crops for animal feed. Beekeeping was also practiced, and papyrus reeds growing on the riverbanks were used to make papyrus, mats, boats, and other items.

Preserved paintings and documents depict the diversity of animal types raised; these definitely included cattle, pigs, goats, sheep, ducks, geese, and most likely pigeons. Chickens were only known from the New Kingdom period onward.

The role of hunting wild mammals in the Egyptian economy was limited, and hunting became a sport for the aristocracy quite early on. However, scenes of fishing and hunting wild birds seem closely related to cattle farming. Representations show, for example, people in the bushes engaged in fishing or cutting papyrus. The final stage of fishing often had to be done using nets, special baskets, or handheld nets. There are also depictions of hippopotamus hunting, which was most likely a necessity rather than a sport.

Craftsmanship

Craftsmanship also played a significant role in the economy of ancient Egypt. In archaeological sources, both in tomb reliefs and paintings, as well as in models, one can see the diversity of professions and the specialization of various groups of craftsmen: carpenters, goldsmiths, jewelers, builders, sculptors (sculpture was treated as both a craft and art), tanners, potters, makers of stone vessels, rope makers, bricklayers, weavers, bakers, cooks, butchers, and brewers.

In addition to producing for the needs of their own farms, specialized workshops were established, producing goods for the state and wealthy landowners.

Trade Expeditions

Egypt undertook trade expeditions to other states in the Mediterranean basin, the Near East, Asia, and some African countries. From the Levant, wood was imported, which was extremely necessary, among other things, for building all types of ships, whose great value was based on Egypt’s geographical location: the main internal communication route was the Nile, and the most common route in foreign expeditions was the sea routes.

Because of this resource, from the very beginning of the Old Kingdom, it was important to have the greatest possible access to the Mediterranean coast to enable uninterrupted supply chains. Since the Middle Kingdom, other items and resources were also exported, such as silver or clay vessels of Mediterranean cultures (e.g., Minoan vessels) or lapis lazuli.

In trade relations with Nubia, gold played the most important role. Gold supplies reached Egypt from the beginnings of the Old Kingdom, with a tremendous increase during the Middle Kingdom and a decline in the middle of the New Kingdom. It was mined later, even during the Roman period, when the exploitation was taken over by the Romans. During the Middle Kingdom, trade with Nubia was centralized in one place, in the town of Mirgissa, allowing the state to oversee trade transactions and most likely collect fees. Besides gold, ostrich feathers, ebony, precious metals, and ivory were also imported from Nubia.

Trade expeditions also reached the coasts of the ancient land of Punt (the region of the Gulf of Aden or the southern coast of the Red Sea). The most famous expedition, led by Queen Hatshepsut, was immortalized in her temple at Deir el-Bahari. Perfumes, myrrh, incense, cinnamon, balsam trees, ebony, ivory, panther skins, and live animals, including baboons, were brought back at that time.

In exchange for luxury goods and raw materials, the Egyptians supplied their neighbors with golden, silver, hard stone, and alabaster vessels, various linen products, papyrus scrolls, ox hides, ropes, lentils, dried fish, scarabs, colorful faience, and artistic furniture.

Taxes

Until the first millennium BCE, taxes were paid in the form of grain, cattle, and other goods, as well as in the form of corvée labor. During the Old Kingdom, goods and services were valued using a metal measure (copper, silver, or gold). In economic documents, references to such a value measure always appear because it was used to determine the price in product exchanges. However, in the case of larger trade transactions, the value measure was often given in metal.

There is evidence that gold and silver were also used in the tax system (alongside other goods) when villages and towns were taxpayers, and gold most often appears in texts related to officials located at the southern border of the state. However, taxes in the form of “money” were not known until the Third Intermediate Period.

After the unification of the predynastic states of Upper and Lower Egypt around 3100 BCE, a state tax system was initiated to support the ruler and his court. The office was located in Memphis, which became the seat of the social elite and the main institutions of the Old Kingdom.

The royal treasury was under the supervision of the royal steward, who controlled the collection, storage, processing, and distribution of state revenues. This office had its roots in the Predynastic Period, when both kingdoms competed with each other. As a result, the organization of this system in the Old Kingdom was a two-chamber office.

During the Middle Kingdom, the system looked similar, but preserved documents indicate that many peasants refused corvée labor, i.e., cultivation of fields, maintenance and repair of irrigation channels, work on construction projects, or acquisition of resources abroad.

In the New Kingdom period, the importance of priests from the great temples, especially the temples of Amun Ra and Ptah, increased. Despite gaining significant economic independence through their own assets, temples also enriched themselves by continuously supplying them through state organs. Fiscal documents concerning the levy in the form of offerings on altars, animals for sacrifice, clothing for temple statues, and various other needs for cults mainly come from temples, whereas documents showing the state’s side have not been preserved. Therefore, it is not possible to verify the existence of a central tax collection system, despite the existence of the “Master of Taxes” office.

However, it is known that garrisons were maintained by tax revenues. Revenue from taxes also depended on the extraction of stone for construction projects and the wages of workers in the royal necropolis, located in the village of Deir el-Medina.

In the Third Intermediate Period, taxes continued to be collected in the form of grain and corvée labor for the state. The main change during this period was the use of silver as a means of payment instead of the unit of value used so far. However, the monetization of the tax system remains the domain of later rulers, from the Ptolemaic and Roman periods.

Currency and Prices

During the time of the pharaohs, trade in Egypt was based on a barter system. Agricultural products could be exchanged for craft products, houses, or slaves, and one could even buy a position as a state official. During the Old Kingdom, the concept of value developed, and the abstract price of exchanged items was estimated according to a metal measure (copper, silver, or gold). In economic documents, references to such a value measure always appear because it was used to determine the price in product exchanges. However, in the case of larger trade transactions, the value measure was often given in metal.

The units of exchange during the Old and Middle Kingdoms were garments and debens, while during the XIX dynasty (New Kingdom), a new unit, the kit, also appeared.

• 1 shat weighed 7.5 g of gold
• 1 deben = 12 shat (or 90 g of gold)
• 1 kit = 1/10 of a deben of silver

The decimal system for shat and deben used in the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms up to the XIX dynasty was changed to the decimal system for the kit unit since the XIX dynasty.

Value was expressed in various units corresponding to the quantity of certain products: the weight of silver and copper/bronze (deben or kit), but also units of grain and sesame oil volume (char and oipe for grain, hin for oil), with 1 char of grain being roughly equal to two debens.

In the third millennium BCE, there was a wide range of copper prices relative to silver, and the value of grain relative to silver corresponded to the ideal. Thus, the concept of equivalence was just developing. However, in the second millennium BCE, the range of copper prices sharply decreased, while the value of grain in relation to silver increased.

This may be related to the fact that in the second millennium BCE, prices had to be set due to investments in exports. Exchange was based on price differences, and in this way, market prices determined investments and supply strategy.

According to another hypothesis, the value of silver decreased due to the appearance of a large amount of this metal on the market after a series of tomb robberies.

Reference

• J. Baines, J. Malek, Egypt, World of Books 1996
• S. Katary, Taxation (until the End of the Third Intermediate Period). In Juan Carlos Moreno García, Willeke Wendrich (eds.), UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology, Los Angeles 2011
• J.G. Manning, I. Morris, The Ancient Economy. Evidence and Models, Stanford University Press, 2005
• P.T. Nicholson, Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press 2000
• B.G. Trigger, B.J. Kemp, D. O’Connor, A.B. LLoyd, Ancient Egypt. A social history, Cambridge University Press 1983
• D.A. Warburton, Ancient Egypt. A Monolithic State in a Polytheistic Market Economy, IBAES VII, 2007

In ancient Egyptian religion, Menat (Ancient Egyptian: mnj.t, modern Arabic: منات) is the name of a goddess associated closely with Hathor, and it’s also closely connected to an artifact sometimes used as a musical instrument (similar to the sistrum). Starting with the reign of Amenhotep III, Menat became associated with the cult of the goddess Mut.

Description

The Menat consists of several parts. One of them is a flat tablet called the Egida (from Greek “shield”), which was worn on the chest. Strings of beads were attached to it at one end, forming a bundle or loop. The other ends of the Egida were tied to a plate that rested on the owner’s back, acting as a counterbalance. The Egida was often made of faience (ceramic), but sometimes other materials such as leather, bronze, etc., were used. This artifact was frequently depicted in painted and carved images of events and deities associated with Hathor.

Application

The artifact, whose hieroglyphic spelling slightly differed from the name of the goddess Hathor, was used in two main ways:

1. Often worn as a protective amulet (it was even boasted by the sons of Hathor and sometimes by the sacred bull Apis).
2. Held in hand by the handle-plate and used by Hathor’s priestesses as a percussion instrument.

According to legends, the necklace was supposed to bring luck and protect the owner from evil spirits. During the reign of the Ramessides (XIX and XX dynasties of pharaohs, constituting the last two-thirds of the period known as the New Kingdom), it was believed that the Menat also safeguarded in the afterlife, so it was often placed in the tomb with the deceased as a burial offering. In daily life, women wore this necklace hoping for successful pregnancies and robust health, while men typically wore it as a symbol of masculinity.

Hathor’s priestesses used the Menat as a noisy percussion instrument.

Usage

The menit was worn as a necklace and functioned as a rattle. It often occurs together with a sistrum. When used as a musical instrument, the counterweight served as a handle. Archaeological finds usually show only the counterweights made of faience or metal, which were usually decorated with motifs.

The use was based on the nature of the festivals, which were used either to appease the angry aspect or to honor the divine goodness. The menit was therefore often associated with the cults of the goddesses Hathor, Bastet, Sopdet, Tefnut, Sekhmet, and Isis. It is often depicted in ancient Egyptian artworks such as statues or murals.

In popular culture

The character Menat in Street Fighter V is named after this deity, plus he comes from Egypt.

The clothing of ancient Egypt concerned the relationship of its people with their clothes, footwear, jewelry, and cosmetics. Despite being known for its multidisciplinary knowledge, Egypt is also responsible for introducing fashion and beauty ideas to the rest of the world. The ancient Egyptians placed great importance on hygiene and self-care; mirrors, combs, and bathing objects were some of the most used items. Egypt also has a long tradition of textile production dating back to the first millennium BCE.

Thanks to the dry climate of the territory, much of its fabric has survived until the 21st century, and clothing still influences various contemporary nations. Consequently, the British Museum holds a collection of about five hundred textile pieces dating from the first millennium CE. Linen stands out as the main raw material used in clothing. Egyptian clothing has become one of the main influences in the textile industry, inspiring various fashion collections by modern brands such as Balmain, Valentino, Givenchy, and Chanel.

The Ideal of Beauty

The extant monuments of ancient Egyptian art give a clear idea of how representatives of various classes looked and dressed. For both men and women, tall, slender figures with a thin waist and broad shoulders, almond-shaped eyes, thin facial features, a straight nose, and full lips were considered ideal. Women were expected to be fair-skinned, have small breasts, wide (but not curvy) hips, and long legs. The modern archaeologist Leonard Cottrell wrote about the ancient Egyptian beauties:

“How happy the ladies of Egypt would be if they knew that even after 5,000 years they could be admired! (…) The beauties of Greece and Rome delight us, but do not excite us. They seem as cold as the marble from which they are sculpted. But if you put a Dior dress on Nefertiti and she enters a fashionable restaurant in it, she will be greeted with admiring glances from those present. Even her cosmetics won’t cause gossip.”

Fabrics in Ancient Egypt

Although sheep farming has been practiced in the Nile Valley since ancient times, wool was considered ritually impure. Only linen fabrics were used for making clothes. Both men and women could weave cloth, but spinning was exclusively a women’s task; judging by surviving images, particularly skilled craftswomen could spin with two spindles simultaneously, which undoubtedly required special coordination of movements.

The skill of ancient Egyptian spinners and weavers is still impressive to this day. Samples of fabrics have been preserved, in which 84 warp threads and 60 weft threads per square centimeter were present; 240 meters of such thread weighed only 1 gram. The lightest, almost transparent fabrics, made by Egyptian masters from such threads, were compared to “a baby’s breath” or “woven air” and were literally valued as much as gold.

Ancient Egyptian fabrics were dyed in various colors, most often red, green, and blue; in the New Kingdom era (1580–1090 BC), yellow and brown dyes appeared. The fabrics were not dyed black. Blue clothing was considered mourning attire. But the most common and beloved color among all layers of society was white.

Fabrics could be plain or patterned. Feather motifs (symbolizing the goddess Isis) and lotus flowers were favorite ornamental motifs. The pattern was applied to the fabric using embroidery or a special dyeing method using various mordants. The deities associated with weaving and clothing were Heket-hetep and Taet.

Aspects of Clothing

Egyptian clothing was simple and practical, and for the vast majority of the population, the same garment worn by a woman could be worn by a man. Social dignity was not based on gender but on social status. This means that men and women occupied the same spaces and were seen as equals. For this reason, the aesthetic sense of clothing was almost unisex long before this concept was understood by the world, permeating its vocabulary.

Throughout the history of Ancient Egypt, clothing already indicated the individual’s position in the social stratum. The higher one’s position in society, the greater the quantity and quality of fabrics and adornments worn. To demonstrate their status, prestige, vitality, and strength, pharaohs used pleats in clothing, jewelry, makeup, and body essences, which were used as perfume.

The people were very meticulous about their cleanliness and appearance; careless individuals were considered inferior. Over approximately 3000 years, Egyptian clothing remained traditional. However, with the invasion of new peoples into their territory, influences of new customs, especially from the Roman Empire, were generated.

Early Dynastic Period and the Old Kingdom

During the Thinite Period (or Early Dynastic Period), men and women from the lower classes dressed similarly, wearing plain loincloths, probably white or light-colored, reaching the knee. These were mainly made of linen, cotton, or papyrus reed. Before the development of linen, people wore clothes made of leather or woven papyrus.

Egyptians from the upper class of the same period did not differ much from the standard, except for greater ornamentation. The aristocracy was distinguished from farmers and artisans mainly by the jewelry they wore.

Children of both sexes did not wear clothes from birth until puberty.

Shepherds, boatmen, and fishermen mainly lived with a simple leather loincloth from which hung a curtain of reeds; many also worked completely naked, at least until the Middle Kingdom; by this time, it became rare to see a naked worker. Female millers, bakers, and harvest workers are often depicted with a long wraparound skirt but with the upper body exposed. Washers and laundresses who worked daily on the banks of the Nile washing other people’s clothes performed their tasks naked because they were in the water for a long time.

Shendyt

The Shendyt was one of the most common garments in Ancient Egypt. It was a kind of short skirt made of a rectangular piece of linen wrapped around the body and tied at the waist with a fabric belt. The Shendyt was regularly worn by men of the working class.

Men from the upper classes preferred more elaborate Shendyt with embroidered details, gemstones attached to the clothes, and accessories. Peasant men wore Shendyt from the waist to the knees without covering the upper body.

Kalasiris

Women’s clothing was more distinct among the classes; women of high society wore long dresses fitted to the body, which could have sleeves or not. These dresses were called Kalasiris; they were supported by straps on the shoulders and sometimes complemented with a transparent tunic worn over them. Over the dress, women could choose to wear shawls, capes, or robes. The shawl was a piece of fine linen fabric about 1.2m wide by approximately 4m long.

Fashion for women showing their breasts was not a concern. The dresses of high-class women sometimes started below the breasts and went down to the ankles.

Middle Kingdom

The First Intermediate Period (2181-2040 BCE) of Egypt began shortly after the collapse of the Old Kingdom, resulting in drastic changes in Egyptian culture, but clothing remained relatively the same. It was only in the Middle Kingdom (2040-1782 BCE) that changes in the Egyptian way of dressing were seen.

The dresses of aristocratic women changed, as they are now often made of cotton. The dresses, still tight-fitting, now had sleeves and presented a deep neckline adorned with a necklace closure at the neck. They were also made of a single piece of fabric in which the woman would wrap herself, adding a belt, thus transforming the top of the dress into a blouse.

However, there is evidence of high-class women wearing dresses that went from the ankles to the waist and were supported by thin straps that covered the breasts, passed over the shoulders, and ended at the back.

Men of the period continued to wear simple Shendyt with pleats at the front. It is not known exactly how the ancient Egyptians pleated their clothes, but images from the arts clearly show pleats in both male and female clothing. The most popular piece of clothing among men of the upper class was the triangular apron; a starched and ornamented Shendyt that fell just above the knees and was secured by a belt. It was worn over a loincloth, which was a triangular strip of fabric passing between the legs and tied at the hips.

The New Kingdom

Shortly after the Middle Kingdom, Egypt entered the Second Intermediate Period (1782 – 1570 BCE), during which the foreign people known as the Hyksos ruled Lower Egypt. Meanwhile, the Nubians seized control of the southern borders of Upper Egypt, leaving only Thebes in the hands of the Egyptians.

The Hyksos brought many advances, innovations, and inventions to Egypt that later proved to be of great utility, but they did not seem to influence Egyptian fashion. This was mainly because the Hyksos greatly admired Egyptian culture and emulated Egyptian beliefs, behavior, and clothing in their cities.

In 1570 BCE, the Theban prince Ahmose I (1570-1544 BCE) expelled the Hyksos from the country and initiated the period called the New Kingdom of Egypt (1570-1069 BCE). It was during this era that the greatest advances in Egyptian fashion occurred. The styles of the New Kingdom are those most portrayed in movies and television, regardless of the period they depict.

The New Kingdom was the Egyptian era when the territory entered the international scene, and ties with other nations were stronger than ever.

Clothing became more elaborate; the wife of Ahmose I, Ahmose-Nefertari, is depicted in a dress that reaches to the region of her ankles, also featuring winged sleeves and a wide collar.

Kalasiris adorned with jewelry began to appear at the end of the Middle Kingdom but only became more common among the upper classes in the New Kingdom. Wigs adorned with beads and jewels also appeared more frequently during this time.

The fashion innovation of the New Kingdom was the linen capelet. The capelet, or shawl cape, consisted of a rectangular piece of linen that was twisted, folded, or cut and often attached to a highly ornamented collar. Very similar to a poncho, it was widely used as an overlay to the Kalasiris, which started at the waist or just below the breasts, thus becoming the most popular style among the ruling classes.

Men’s clothing also advanced rapidly in the New Kingdom. The Shendyt of this period extended past the knee line, were intricately embroidered, and were usually complemented by a lightweight, loose blouse. The Pharaoh, depicted with his Nemes headgear, is regularly seen in this type of attire, also wearing sandals or slippers. Especially notable is the use of Shendyt and blouses with pleated and more elaborate sleeves. Large swaths of fabric were worn hanging from the waist, and intricate folds were visible beneath the sheer skirts. This style is also popular among royalty and the aristocracy, who could afford the material.

The lower classes continued to wear simple Shendyt, both sexes, but now more working-class women appeared with their upper bodies covered. Previously, Egyptian servants were depicted in tomb paintings as either fully or partially naked. However, in the New Kingdom, a large number of servants are represented, not only fully covered but also in slightly more elaborate dresses.

The clothes worn by the servants of officials and people in important positions were more refined than those of the common people. A servant depicted in a tomb from the eighteenth dynasty wears a finely pleated linen tunic and a loincloth with a wide and also pleated sash.

Undergarments

Undergarments were also developed during this period, evolving from the rough triangular piece of cloth wrapped around the waist and between the legs to a finer piece of cloth sewn to the ideal size of the wearer or tied at the hips.

The fashion of high-class men in the New Kingdom was to wear this undergarment beneath a loincloth over which a long, transparent blouse was worn, falling to the knees, with a wide collar – for the nobles – along with bracelets and sandals.

Pharaoh Tutankhamun (1336-1327 BCE) was buried with over 100 undergarments of this type, as well as shirts, jackets, Shendyt, and mantles. This was one of the most accurate examples of New Kingdom attire ever found.

Footwear

Although it was customary to walk barefoot, it was in this territory that the first sandals appeared due to the climate and sandy geography. The material of Egyptian sandals was mainly leather, woven straw, strips of palm leaves or papyrus, or even swamp reeds.

It is noted that footwear held a certain importance in Egyptian society, as there are drawings of King Narmer, dating back to 3100 BCE, showing a servant who had the function of “sandals carrier,” meaning he walked behind the kings carrying their royal footwear wherever they went. The Pharaohs wore very simple sandals, but they were adorned with gold. Although sandal bearers and people of lower classes were often depicted barefoot in paintings, they also wore sandals, as it was a luxury item for all.

These objects achieved a social function; when a pharaoh entered a temple or his subjects celebrated death in funeral chapels, they removed their sandals at the sanctuary’s entrance. There is a strong relationship between shoes and the sacred, a relationship that has been portrayed in passages of the Bible and is also common among Muslims when entering mosques.

For a long time, the only type of footwear for the ancient Egyptians was sandals. Very simple in shape, they consisted only of a sole (sometimes with an upturned toe), to which two straps were attached: one strap began at the thumb and connected to the other, covering the instep of the foot, thanks to which the shoe resembled a stirrup. Sandals were usually made of leather or papyrus leaves.

Archaeologists have repeatedly found golden sandals in royal tombs, but it is not yet clear whether such shoes were used during the lifetime of their owners, or whether they were only an accessory of the funeral rite, a kind of ancient Egyptian analogue of “white slippers”.

During the New Kingdom period, other styles of shoes appeared. In one of the chests found by researchers in the tomb of Tutankhamun (KV62), among other things, there were slippers without heels and leather socks embroidered with small gold sequins. Also found in the tomb were Tutankhamun’s sandals, depicting nine bows (the main enemies of Egypt), which the pharaoh symbolically “tramples on, tramples underfoot.”

Despite the fact that the shoes were so simple, the Egyptians took great care of them. Peasants, going to the city on business, often carried their sandals in their hands and put on shoes only on the spot. Nobles also often walked barefoot, especially at home.

Funerary Sandals

The Egyptians believed that at the moment of death, some objects that could facilitate the transition to the afterlife were buried with the deceased. This custom was common both to peasants and to pharaohs. One of these objects is the sandal, which resembles those worn in life. In funerary rituals, the footwear could be made of leather or papyrus, but if made for a member of royalty, gold was used as the raw material.

Gold sandals are not suitable for daily use; however, it was believed that earthly concerns ceased at the moment of entry into the afterlife. Texts from the Pyramid Age refer to the desire of the dead “to walk in white sandals along the beautiful paths of paradise where the blessed wander.”

Haircuts

Men and women in Egypt regularly shaved their heads to protect themselves from lice and reduce the time it would take to have a head full of hair. In the Old Kingdom and the First Intermediate Period, women are depicted with hair length just below the ears, while in the Middle Kingdom, hair is worn to the shoulders. Children also had shaved heads, except for one or two locks or a braid on the side of the head. This hairstyle was called a sidelock, a style worn by the god Horus as a child.

Characterized by strictness and precision in lines, all ancient Egyptian hairstyles received the name “geometric.” Due to the hot climate, most Egyptians wore simple hairstyles with short-cropped hair.

Often, Egyptians shaved body hair for hygiene reasons. This was especially true for priests, whose status required constant cleanliness. According to Herodotus:

“in other countries, the priests of the gods wear long hair, but in Egypt they are shaved… every three days, the priests shave the hair on their bodies so that they do not get lice or other parasites during worship.”

All the free people in Egypt wore wigs. Their shape, size, and material indicated the social status of the owners. Wigs were made from natural hair, animal wool, plant fibers, and even ropes. They were dyed in dark tones, with dark brown and black considered the most fashionable colors.

The red hair of the mummy of Ramses II is dyed with henna.

Judging by the surviving images, there were many wig styles known. They often reached the shoulders, but on ceremonial occasions, long wigs with large parallel curls were worn. Hairstyles were heavily perfumed with fragrant oils, essences, and sticky compositions. In images, the heads of noble Egyptians and their spouses are often crowned with small, whitish cones, likely made of wax or solid fat mixed with perfumes. During festivals or feasts, the cone gradually melted, giving the hair of its owner an exquisite aroma.

Women’s hairstyles were significantly longer and more elaborate than men’s throughout all periods. Ancient Egyptian aristocratic women, like their husbands, often shaved their heads and wore wigs. The most typical wig hairstyles included two: the first—all the hair was divided by a longitudinal parting, closely fitting the face on both sides, and trimmed evenly at the ends; the top of the wig was flat. The second hairstyle had the shape of a sphere. Over time, a large curled wig became popular, with three strands falling on the chest and back.

Hairstyles were also made from one’s own hair, freely spreading them down the back and decorating the ends with tassels or aromatic resin balls. Often, the hair was curled in ringlets; this curling was done after combing small, thin braids. The cold setting was widely used for curling (for this, strands of hair were wound on wooden sticks and covered with mud, and when it dried, it was shaken off, and the hair was combed). Lucas A., after studying wigs, discovered beeswax, which he considers a suitable material for curling.

Medical papyri contain recipes for wrinkles and baldness (Ebers Papyrus, Edwin Smith Papyrus).

Children—boys and girls—had their hair shaved, leaving one or several strands (for girls—on the crown, for boys—on the sides of the head). These strands were twisted into a lock (such a hairstyle was called the “lock of youth”) or braided into a braid on the left temple.

Wigs

The Egyptian elite took great care of their hair. Hair was washed, perfumed, and sometimes dyed with henna. Both men and women wore hairpieces, but wigs were more common. Wigs were made of human hair and had a filling of vegetable fiber at the bottom. They were also used to protect the scalp.

The wigs of the New Kingdom are the most ornate, especially for women, featuring pleated hairstyles with bangs and layers reaching shoulder-length or below. Hair was arranged in braids and strands; they were usually long and heavy.

They may have been mainly worn on festive and ceremonial occasions, like in 18th-century Europe. Priests shaved their heads and bodies to affirm their devotion to the deities and reinforce their cleanliness, a sign of purification.

Moustache

The fashion for moustaches and beards changed from century to century, giving way in general to clean-shaven faces. Such a fashion can be judged by the preserved sculptural portraits (for example, of Rahotep and Pharaoh Menkaure) and funerary masks. At the same time, it was forbidden to shave during the mourning period.

The false cylindrical beard of the pharaoh was one of the royal regalia, symbolizing masculinity and strength. Like a wig, it was made of wool or cut hair, twisted with gold threads, and tied to the chin with lace. This ceremonial beard could be shaped in many ways, but the most common was a pigtail curled at the end, similar to a cat’s tail.

Headgear

Because most Egyptians wore wigs, their headgear was quite simple. Slaves and peasants, working in the fields, covered their heads with kerchiefs or small cloth caps. Noble people wore such caps, embroidered with beads, under their wigs.

The most popular headgear for representatives of all classes was a headscarf (called a khepresh or nemes). It was tied over the wig in such a way that the ears remained uncovered. Two ends of the scarf hung down the chest, the third down the back (sometimes it was fastened with a ribbon or a hoop). The headscarf could be white or striped, and the color of the stripes depended on the status and occupation of the owner; for example, warriors had red stripes, priests had yellow ones, and so on. A headscarf with blue longitudinal stripes could only be worn by the pharaoh. It was called a khepresh-ushebti and was usually supplemented with a metal hoop with the uraeus or a ribbon. However, during various ceremonies, the pharaoh wore a crown—more precisely, that variation of it prescribed by the court ceremonial for the occasion.

The following types of crowns were known: 1) the white crown of Upper Egypt (hedjet), resembling in shape a cone or a bottle; 2) the red crown of Lower Egypt (desheret), which represented a truncated inverted cone with a flat bottom and a high raised rear part; 3) the double crown (pschent), combining the first two and symbolizing the unity of the country; 4) the “battle crown” blue with red ribbons; 5) the “crown of Amun” of two feathers with a gold disk between them; 6) the atef crown— a double crown, appeared after the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt (4th millennium BCE); 7) the “reed crown” (hemhemet)— a complex structure of gold feathers, ram’s horns, snakes, sun disks, etc. Judging by the surviving sculptures and reliefs, there were up to 20 types of crowns (no authentic ancient Egyptian crown has survived to our time).

An obligatory attribute of any royal headgear was the uraeus—a golden image of a cobra, which was a symbol of the goddess Wadjet, the patroness of Lower Egypt. It was placed above the forehead and sometimes supplemented with the golden head of a vulture—a sign of Nekhbet, the goddess of Upper Egypt.

Priests in temples during rituals wore gypsum-painted masks depicting gods. For example, priests of the god Thoth wore masks in the form of the head of the sacred ibis bird, and priests of Anubis wore masks in the form of the head of a jackal, and so on.

For women, the most common headgear was ribbons and diadems, plain or ornamented. The wives of pharaohs are often depicted wearing a crown resembling a vulture with outspread wings, made of gold with an inlay of precious stones or colored enamel. Sometimes, tall gold feathers—shuti (the attribute of the goddess of truth, Maat)—and an image of the lunar disk—the sign of Hathor, the goddess of beauty and love—were placed on top of this crown. Such headgear, of course, was intended only for special occasions. Generally, it seems that the headgear of queens was not so strictly defined by palace ritual and more reflected their personal tastes. For example, the beautiful Nefertiti preferred a simple blue cylindrical crown, which emphasized the graceful head carriage and slender neck.

Ceremonial headgear could be the same for men and women. In the New Kingdom era, the atef became the main crown of the queens of Egypt.

Makeup and Accessories

Men and women of the elite took care of their appearance with various cosmetics, using oils, perfumes, and paints for the eyes and face. Most often, they wore eye makeup that lined the eyelids with a line of black Kohl, an ancient cosmetic that has a similar effect to charcoal in paintings. Just like in the 21st century, they had the help of mirrors when applying makeup.

Makeup not only had an aesthetic function but also served as protection for the skin against adverse atmospheric conditions. Egyptians also wore makeup for medical reasons, as kohl and other cosmetics offered immunity against a range of diseases. Moreover, traditional Egyptian beliefs stated that if a mother wore eye makeup on her children, she would be protecting them from the evil eye.

The Egyptians used mineral pigments to produce makeup. Galena and malachite were ground on stone palettes to make eye paint, applied with fingers or a Kohl pencil made of wood, ivory, or stone. The eye paint enhanced the eyes and protected them from the strong sunlight.

During the Old Kingdom, green malachite powder was applied under the eyes. They applied oils and fats to the face to protect it, mixed them into perfumes, and placed them in incense cones worn on the head, which were worn by both men and women. The cones were made of tallow and fat that gradually melted, releasing the fragrance. However, no specimens of these perfumed cones have been found.

Accessories

From ancient times, jewelry was worn by the elite as adornment and as an indication of their status. Bracelets, rings, earrings, necklaces, pins, belt buckles, and amulets were made of gold and silver and inset with precious stones like lapis lazuli, turquoise, carnelian, and amethyst. Faience and glass were also used to decorate jewelry pieces.

The elegant design of Egyptian jewelry often reflected religious themes. Pieces included images of gods and goddesses, hieroglyphic symbols, birds, animals, and insects that played a role in the creation myth. The most common symbols are the scarab beetle, the eye of Horus, lotus and papyrus flowers, the vulture and the falcon, and the snake. Symbols such as the Isis knot, the shen ring, a symbol of eternity, and the ankh, a symbol of life, can also be mentioned.

A person’s jewelry was placed in their tomb to be worn in the afterlife, along with many other personal items, such as the sandal mentioned earlier. The costume of the ancient Egyptians consisted of a small number of elements, thanks to which accessories acquired special importance. They, along with jewelry, served as the main carriers of information about the social status of their owner.

The most common of the accessories was a belt. Commoners were girded with narrow leather straps; wealthy people, on the other hand, wore long woven ribbon belts (most often red or blue, sometimes patterned). On solemn occasions, the king wore a gold belt over the cloth belt. In front of it was attached a ceremonial apron made of gold plates, connected by strips of beads and decorated with colored glass. At the bottom, it was trimmed with a fringe of small gold uraeus.

A tail was hung from the back of the royal belt with the help of a special hollow cylinder. Originally, it was the most natural oxtail, which corresponded to one of the pharaoh’s titles, “Mighty Bull of the Two Lands”; over time, the real tail was replaced by a bundle of beads (two such ritual tails were found in Tutankhamun’s tomb).

The ancient Egyptians were familiar with gloves and mittens. Mittens were made of linen and were used to protect the hands from calluses and injuries when shooting a bow or driving a chariot. Gloves (cloth or leather) apparently had a ceremonial purpose.

Materials

For making jewelry, gold was most commonly used, the rich deposits of which were discovered in Egypt in ancient times. Moreover, what was valued most was not so much the material’s cost as its picturesque properties. Egyptian craftsmen could use various additives to give gold diverse shades—from white to green. In jewelry, gold was always combined with colored enamels and inserts of gemstones and enamel. Electrum, an alloy of gold and silver, was also widely used; it was used to make everyday items as well as fastenings and connecting elements in bracelets and necklaces.

Silver was rare and was exported from Asia, which is why it was valued more than gold for a long time. In the eastern desert, bright semi-precious stones were mined (carnelian, amethyst, and jade), and turquoise was mined in Sinai. Lapis lazuli of deep blue color reached Egypt from the territory of modern-day Afghanistan. Glass and faience (glaze based on stone or sand) often replaced stones since they could be colored in various hues. The gemstones we now consider precious—rubies, sapphires, diamonds, and emeralds—were unknown to the ancient Egyptians. Ancient Egyptians were not familiar with diamonds, opals, rubies, and sapphires; regarding emeralds, researchers’ opinions differ because emeralds are difficult to distinguish from beryl and green feldspar.

The most common among all types of jewelry were various necklaces, especially the so-called usekh—a large necklace made of several rows of beads, symbolizing the sun. It was made in the form of an open circle, with ties or clasps at the back. The beads in the bottom row most often had a drop shape, while the rest were round or oval. Often, the beads were interspersed with goldfish, shells, and scarabs. Often, such a necklace was so wide that it completely covered the shoulders and upper part of the chest and was very heavy—a royal gold necklace could weigh several kilograms. To make it lay beautifully, it was usually mounted on a lining of leather or fabric, turning it into a kind of collar. Necklaces were not only part of the attire; they also served as badges of honor. Pharaohs awarded distinguished warriors and officials with golden necklaces.

In addition to necklaces, bracelets were beloved adornments for both men and women, worn on the arms (on the forearms and wrists) and ankles. Bracelets could be very diverse—in the form of two embossed plates connected by clasps, massive gold rings with beads, gold cords, or ribbons. Rings with inserts of semi-precious stones were also worn. Signet rings with the names of the owners engraved on them and images of gods were in vogue. Hoop earrings (with or without them) were extremely popular. Sometimes they were so large and heavy that they deformed the earlobes.

Of course, only the wealthy could adorn themselves with gold and gemstones. But people of modest means loved jewelry no less. Their adornments were usually made of relatively inexpensive materials—ceramics, glass, bones, etc. However, in terms of beauty and elegance, they sometimes rivaled jewelry. For example, faience beads for necklaces were shaped like lotus buds and petals, cornflowers, daisies, grape clusters, leaves, etc., and were painted in different colors. Various shades of blue and green, as well as white, were most commonly used. Such necklaces, presumably, looked very beautiful on tanned skin.

Ancient Egyptians willingly used live flowers as adornments, making bouquets, wreaths, and garlands out of them. They especially loved white, blue, and pink lotuses. Egyptian ladies inserted lotus flowers into their hairstyles so that they hung over their foreheads, inhaling their fragrance.

Ancient Egyptian jewelry served simultaneously as amulets, intended to protect against diseases and the evil eye, ward off evil spirits, etc. The “Eye of Horus” udjat (a symbol of the solar deity), the “ankh”—a cross with a loop at the top, denoting life—as well as the figure of the scarab beetle (a symbol of resurrection, peace, and the sun), were believed to possess the greatest magical power. The udjat eye amulet was placed between the burial shrouds of the mummy and the scarab amulet—on the heart of the mummy.

Cosmetics and Perfumery

The use of cosmetics by ancient Egyptians can be traced back to the predynastic period, although there’s no evidence of a profession like cosmetology in ancient Egypt based on known findings. Scenes of preparing perfumes, applying cosmetics, and numerous cosmetic items found on tomb walls and in papyri attest to the developed industry and the significant role of self-care in the lives of Egyptians.

The ancient Egyptians attached great importance to hygiene and self-care. The Egyptians’ reverence for cleanliness (especially the priesthood) was noted by Herodotus in his “Histories” (circa 440 BCE), observing that they “prefer neatness to beauty.” For washing, they used water purified by adding sodium salts and a special cleansing paste made of a mixture of ash and fuller’s earth, which had a degreasing and exfoliating effect.

They used twigs, sticks, or pieces of cloth as “toothbrushes,” and the “toothpaste” was made from crushed plant roots. Herbal decoctions were used for mouth rinses to freshen breath. Teeth were cleaned with soda. To eliminate unpleasant breath odor, they chewed kify balls—aromatic substances composed of 16 components (dry frankincense, pine seeds, melon, pistachios, juniper, cinnamon, honey, etc.). The skin was anointed with perfumed oils (in a dry and hot climate, this not only gave the body a pleasant smell but also protected the skin from dehydration). There were ointments known for cleansing and rejuvenating the skin, removing spots and pimples, as well as depilatory agents.

Both women and men lined their eyes (to protect from the scorching sun), painted their lips, and blushed their cheeks. Eye makeup was made from honey, ground ochre, galena, gray or black lead sulfide, malachite, green copper hydroxycarbonate, as well as technical carbon, less often antimony, and stibnite. Palettes with paint were often made in the form of animals, birds, and reptiles. According to research by the American Chemical Society, ancient Egyptians intentionally added lead to cosmetics, which, in combination with salt, promoted the release of nitric oxide in the body, stimulating the immune system and preventing conjunctivitis.

Cosmetic boxes found in tombs contained various body care items (jars, cups, razors, and applicators). The main difference between modern cosmetics and ancient Egyptian cosmetics lies in the materials used in their preparation: modern cosmetics contain essential oils and alcohol, while ancient ones contain oils and fat infused with plant essences, flowers, and spices. The cheapest perfumes were simply water in which crushed lotus flowers were soaked, while the most expensive ones could include dozens of different aromatic substances. Aromatic oils protected the skin from dehydration and sunburns, so warriors and craftsmen were supplied with them along with provisions.

The production of perfumes continued in Egypt into the Hellenistic period. The famous Queen Cleopatra (69-30 BCE) even owned a real perfume factory on the shores of the Dead Sea. During excavations, archaeologists found not only the remains of buildings but also cauldrons, pots for evaporation and boiling, and hand mills for grinding herbs and roots. Cleopatra shared her knowledge on this subject in the book “On Cosmetics,” the first known cosmetic guide in history, which included recipes for making lipstick, blush, powder, etc. Some of these recipes have survived to this day.

Tattoos

The tattoos of ancient Egyptians can be judged by the mummies found with them and by decorative images. Typically, tattoos were simple (dots, circles) on the hands, thighs, abdomen, and chin. They were done by dancers, artists, or servants of particular cults (Hathor, Bes). Also, drawings made with henna have been found on some mummies, indicating an attempt by embalmers to give the body a natural appearance or to adorn oneself during life.

The usekh collar is a typical ancient Egyptian neck ornament. It is mostly a wide collar consisting of several strands of beads, with various symbols at its ends. These symbols usually include falcon heads, vultures with spread wings, and falcons or uraeus serpents.

Development

Initially, the usekh collar was a decorative piece used by the king to reward his officials and by the landlord to reward his subordinates. Since the Middle Kingdom, usekh collars have been part of funerary equipment and were depicted on coffin friezes. Until the Late Period, collars with falcon heads could be found on mummy-shaped coffins. Since the Late Period, there has been a specific spell in the Book of the Dead for a “gold usekh collar, which is placed around the neck of the transfigured one on the day of burial” (Spell 158).

In later figures, the goddess Bastet held the usekh collar as a shield in front of her chest, and the cats of Bastet also wore the aegis as a neck cord. It is likely that the (erroneous) term “aegis” was derived from these Bastet figures because the term originally referred to the shield of the Greek gods Zeus and Athena.

Chenu, a usekh collar knotted from the Old Kingdom, is known by name.

Meaning

The usekh collar primarily served as a protective symbol and was often recited in spells for the Opening of the Mouth ritual and during the dressing of the deity’s statue. In the Temple of Seti I in Abydos, there is a depiction in the Chamber of Re-Horakhty where the king presents a usekh collar with a pectoral as clothing for a deity’s statue. This ritual probably belonged to the daily morning service. The usekh collar may also have served as a reminder of the god Atum, who spread his arms around Shu and Tefnut to impart his ka to them. Thus, putting on the collar was equivalent to being embraced by divine arms. It thus had the same significance as the vulture with spread wings on the sarcophagus of Thutmose I.

Other Forms

Furthermore, from the New Kingdom onwards, there were usekh collars as amulets (modernly referred to with the Greek term “aegis”), which bore the head of a god, a sacred animal, or the king, with female deities predominating in this form. Occasionally, a divine couple was also depicted, such as Onuris and Tefnut united.

Originally, godheads over chest collars were already found on godstaffs as well as the prow and stern of godbarges. Thus, the aegis was actually just a representation of a god and the collar was merely an accessory. In the case of consecrated deities, the collar occasionally received a menit handle and possibly even served as a ritual instrument.

Sarafan (Russian: сарафан, sarafan, Persian: سراپا‎, sarâpâ) is a traditional Russian women’s sleeveless outer garment. It is a flared pinafore dress, the pattern, usage, and user base of which have evolved significantly throughout history. In terms of construction, two main types can be distinguished: the wedge-shaped sarafan primarily composed of wedges, and the straight sarafan mainly formed from straight pieces.

Originally, the word “sarafan” did not refer to women’s clothing, but to one type of men’s caftan; this meaning is known from written records from the 16th century. The name comes from the Turkic särapa (i) in Persian. سراپا‎, serāpā (“honorable garment”). Sarafans were mostly widespread in the northern regions of Russia. Women in the central and southern regions usually wore skirts instead of sarafans.

Origin and Spread

Originally coming to Russia from elsewhere in Europe, the sarafan is perceived as belonging to Russian costume tradition. It is indeed part of some Russian women’s folk costumes and is popular in many parts of Eastern and Northern Europe. The straight sarafan is also known in Karelian folk costumes and in the traditional attire of several other Finno-Ugric peoples. Different types of sarafans are also worn in many other European countries.

The sarafan is the national women’s clothing of the northern Russians. Dresses of a similar cut were also worn by women of the Finno-Ugric peoples in Russia, the Baltics, and Scandinavia. There are various views on the origin of the sarafan, as well as discussions about the existence of the sarafan in ancient Rus times. At least from the Kyivan frescoes of the Ruthenian period, it is evident that such clothing was not known in Ukrainian lands of the 11th-12th centuries, as well as in later centuries.

According to one version, clothing of a similar cut, together with the kokoshnik, was borrowed by the northern Russian population, that is, the Russians, from their closest neighbors – the Finno-Ugric peoples. This is supported by the absence of sarafans as a form of clothing among the rest of the Slavic peoples, including Belarusians and Ukrainians, and instead the spread of sarafans among Estonians.

In the Moscow state itself, the first written mentions of the sarafan, albeit as men’s outerwear (and exclusively the name), date back to the 14th century.

In Ukraine, the sarafan is exclusively women’s clothing worn by Russian settlers, which is why it spread in the east and south of the country, including Russian Old Believers who began to settle in Southern Bessarabia (Lipovans of Odessa and the border with Romania) and the eastern regions of the Left Bank from the late 18th century.

Cut and Types

A sarafan is traditionally a long women’s dress, usually sleeveless.

• Plain – the oldest type of sarafan, essentially a sleeveless dress worn over a shift. Most often, such a sarafan was straight and on straps – this form of sarafan is the most popular.
• Sarafan with a seam in front or with fasteners – a later cut of the sarafan; if there were fasteners (usually buttons) instead of a seam, they were made all over from top to bottom. The edges and middle of such sarafans were often decorated with braid. They could have detachable sleeves (especially sarafans with a “bishop’s sleeve”).
• Skirt with a bodice – the latest cut of the sarafan, popular in Southern Russia from the 2nd half of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century.

Modern Sarafans

The modern version of the sarafan is a lightweight women’s dress without sleeves, usually with straps or suspenders, as well as a dress of this cut made of warm fabric, worn over a shirt, sweater, etc.

History

Though the garment referred to as sarafan is now understood as part of Russian tradition, it is believed to have arrived there from elsewhere in Europe in the 13th century. At that time, it was called by another name, feresi, in Finnish attire, and it was a lightweight sleeved jacket for men, fastened at the front with buttons or hooks. The name sarafan was adopted for the garment in the 15th century, but it referred to a wide men’s outerwear made of wedge-shaped pieces.

Women began wearing sleeveless sarafans in the 17th century, and for a while, both genders wore them until they became distinctly women’s attire in the early 18th century. The transformation into its current form went through four stages:

1. Sleeves first became false sleeves and eventually disappeared entirely.
2. The front edges of the garment began to be sewn shut, initially from the neck to the waist and from the 17th century onwards, completely closed. However, remnants of the previous style were visible until the early 20th century. In the 1910s, two vertical ribbons were sewn onto the center front of sarafans, resembling the decorative front edges of jackets from before. These were further adorned with buttons and stitches resembling buttonholes.
3. The shoulders of the garment narrowed and eventually became straps.
4. The back piece of the garment shrank and disappeared entirely in central and southern Russia. Only in the northern regions of Russia and around Lake Baikal did sarafans with a small back piece, called “frog,” survive.

Long sarafans became popular in central and northern Russia. They were common in rural areas but also worn extensively in cities. A typical outfit included a shirt or blouse, sarafan, belt, and apron. The decorations on the sarafan indicated the woman’s social status and wealth. For example, a merchant’s wife’s sarafan might be made of expensive imported fabrics like silk, satin, or brocade, trimmed with fur and adorned with gold buttons and embroidery with gold and silver thread. Rural women and those belonging to the lower middle class wore sarafans made of homemade linen and wool fabrics. These were decorated according to means with various braided or woven ribbons, embroidery, lace, wide belts, and braids.

Until the early 18th century, women and girls from all social classes wore it, but reforms initiated by Peter the Great changed the attire of women from the middle and upper classes. From the 19th century onwards, sarafans were mainly worn by rural women in the Volga region.

Sarafan in Finland

The sarafan outfit is traditionally associated with Orthodoxy in Finland, while Lutheran women wore waist skirts. The sarafan is indeed part of some Karelian folk costumes. For example, the äyrämöi costume of Rautu and Sakkola includes a gathered shoulder skirt reminiscent of the Russian sarafan: its waist extends higher than usual, supported by narrow shoulder straps merging from the back. The shoulder skirt is also included in the national costume adapted from folk costumes.

These types of outfits were in use in Viena Karelia, Aunus, and parts of present-day North Karelia until the 20th century. However, in some areas of Karelia and the eastern archipelago of the Gulf of Finland, elderly women still wore them in the early decades of the 20th century, and even later among evacuee women.

Sarafan and Feresi

The sarafan is also referred to as the feresi. The words originate from different languages, sarafan from Persian and feresi from Greek, and over time they have meant different things based on the materials used or the pattern. In Finland, these terms are now used interchangeably, completely overlapping in meaning. However, in costume terminology, a distinction can be made between the garment (sarafan) and the ensemble comprising, for example, a blouse, headgear, and jewelry (feresi), but the distinction is also made the other way around. There are also regional differences in the use of these terms.

The New Flourishing of Sarafan in Russia

In the 1950s, there was a revival of the sarafan in the Soviet Union when fashion magazines began to emphasize the versatility of the traditional garment. They presented women with various versions of the sarafan, starting with everyday workwear made of thicker fabric and ending with weekend outfits made of lighter and brightly colored fabrics. The new popularity can be traced back to the 1960s. In the 1970s, denim versions emerged, and in the 1980s, versions made of thin and small-patterned printed fabric with abundant skirts became fashionable. Nowadays, these models are especially worn in the summer.

Kalasiris was a thin, form-fitting dress made of nearly transparent linen that was worn by women in ancient Egypt, both in the court and among the upper class, as well as by farmers and artisans. The dress evolved into a simple tunic or robe that was also worn by men, often over the shendyt, the Egyptians’ white loincloth, and under a thin shoulder cape.

History

Kalasiris, a simple dress made of thin linen, was the predominant garment for women in ancient Egypt. The garment is known from the oldest depictions in the Old Kingdom around 2700 BCE to the end of the New Kingdom around 750 BCE. Initially, the dress was tight and tube-shaped, likely sewn together on one side to form a slim skirt that went from the ankles up to the chest under the armpits and was held up by two shoulder straps attached behind the neck, meeting in front and exposing the breasts.

Other models had a single strap over one shoulder but were still form-fitting. However, the dress was usually draped in various ways with a large square piece of fabric. Eventually, light, veil-like capes tied at the chest came into fashion.

Due to the hot climate, the Egyptians dressed lightly and airily. The ancient Egyptian civilization was highly traditional and conservative, and clothing changed very little over the two-thousand-year history from the Old Kingdom (around 2700–2000 BCE) to the New Kingdom (around 1500–750 BCE). Unlike fitted jackets, tunics, and trousers in Persia, India, and China, the clothes of the ancient Egyptians, like those of the Greeks and Romans, were mostly draped around the body.

They mainly consisted of skirts and lightweight capes tied together or held in place by belts, collars, and tassels. Pleating emerged in Egypt’s third heyday, the New Kingdom, around 1580-950 BCE. Other garments also gradually became more elaborate.

During the Middle Kingdom around 2065-1660 BCE, a cape slowly developed, was worn over the shoulders, gathered in a knot on the chest, and used together with the skirt. The outfit eventually consisted of several pieces that changed in size and draping and were worn together or layered over each other. This also applies to Kalasiris. Linen was the most common material, often woven into a fine, nearly transparent fabric.

Name

Kalasiris, or kalasiris (Ancient Greek: καλάσιρις), was originally a simple women’s garment in ancient Egypt, resembling a shirt slightly above ankle-length, sewn from two rectangular pieces of fabric, with one or two wide diagonal straps, leaving the chest exposed (sometimes a one-piece shirt with a wide neckline was sewn).

The ancient Egyptian kalasiris received its name thanks to the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, who noted in his work “Histories”:

“The Egyptians wear linen tunics trimmed with fringe along the hem, called ‘kalasiris.’ Over these shirts, they put on white woolen cloaks.”

Herodotus does not specify who gave this name to the garment, so he might have heard it from Greeks living in Egypt.

Description

Kalasiris were made with sleeves (either integral or sewn separately) or without them, with deep necklines, on straps, or starting from the neckline. Often, kalasiris were knitted, clinging to the figure. A calf-hugging kalasiris didn’t allow for wide strides, making the gait mincing.

The difference in social status was not in the cut, but in the decorations and fabric quality: the nobility wore kalasiris made of fine fabrics, adorned with embroidery and pleating, supplemented with a high belt; peasants and slaves wore rough ones. Noblewomen also often wore a wide usekh collar, covering the shoulders and chest. Later, undergoing changes, kalasiris became men’s clothing as well. A shenti was worn over a man’s kalasiris.

During the Middle and then the New Kingdoms (4th to 1st millennium BCE), various versions of this garment appeared: pleated, with a wide flounce folded in large pleats, embroidered, covered with a net of ceramic beads, and intricately draped.

In the New Kingdom era (around 1580–1070 BCE), with the achievement of perfection in the production of the finest fabrics (linen and cotton), pleated clothing with its characteristic graphic clarity of straight lines became widespread – kalasiris transformed into a skirt worn on papyrus sandals.

The oldest known dress (the Tarkhan dress) was found in Egyptian Tarkhan in 1913 and dates back to 3482–3102 BCE. According to Democritus, kalasiris was also worn by Persians and Ionians.

The Nemes is the most iconic headdress of the pharaohs, worn from the Old Kingdom to the Ptolemaic period. It is well-known to the public through numerous representations, notably the golden funerary mask of Pharaoh Tutankhamun or the head of the Sphinx on the Giza Plateau. Klaft was a traditional, loose-hanging headscarf that was worn as protection from the sun. This headdress evolved into Nemes, a striped, ceremonial variant reserved for kings, pharaohs, and deities. Nemes was often adorned with an Uraeus serpent on his forehead, an ancient Egyptian symbol of divine protection and kingship.

Description

The Nemes is a linen headpiece with blue and yellow stripes (for example, Horemheb) or red and white (Tutankhamun), quite intricate, composed of several parts that evolved over time; this allows for an approximate dating of the patron of the artwork depicting it.

The different parts are:

• the Khat headdress: the main part covering the top and back of the head, from the forehead (upper edge) to the nape (which leads to the braid);
• the temporal parts: lateral parts covering the temples and forming the fold between the headdress and the wings;
• the frontal band: a golden band holding the headdress by encircling the temporal parts and resting on the ears; it allows for the headdress to be held on the sovereign’s head;
• the uraeus: representation of the cobra god supposed to protect the sovereign against his enemies;
• the wings: parts framing the sides of the king’s face, starting from the headdress and flaring out to the shoulder to form a sort of triangle;
• the droops: parts extending the wings, folding down on the king’s chest and tapering;
• the braid: part that finishes the back of the headdress, in the form of a braid going from the nape to the middle of the back.

The stripes, symbolizing the sun’s rays, likely highlight its solar aspect. Given the assimilation to the sun, the Nemes is linked to the solar cycle and rebirth; thus, the king can wear this crown in a funerary context. Before the appearance of the khépresh in the New Kingdom, the Nemes was the coronation crown symbolizing a new king; this association with coronation links the Nemes with the god Horus as the “living king.”

Symbolism

The earliest depiction of the Nemes with the uraeus that has reached us is the plaque of Pharaoh Djer (1st Dynasty) made of ivory, preserved in the British Museum. The first known sculpture of the Nemes depicts Pharaoh Djoser. Among the latest are statues of Roman emperors, including Augustus. The Nemes are also present on the head of the Great Sphinx.

The Nemes is one of the attributes shared by the pharaoh of Egypt and the deities, distinguishing him from ordinary mortals.

Design and Features

Nemes was the royal headgear in ancient Egypt and one of the symbols of power for the Egyptian pharaohs. It was a cloth made from fabric, usually striped (in most depictions, blue with gold), woven into a knot at the back and with two long side pleats, cut semi-circularly and descending onto the shoulders.

The Nemes served as protection from dust and sunburn and were a privilege of the royal family. The Nemes covered the entire upper and back parts of the head, leaving the ears uncovered. The crosswise side of the Nemes fabric was laid horizontally on the forehead, secured with a ribbon, and on top of it, the uraeus—the image of the cobra goddess Wadjet—was worn. In some cases, the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt (pschent) could be worn over the Nemes, as evidenced, among other things, by the colossi of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel.

Sometimes the word “Nemes” refers only to the royal striped scarf; therefore, it is considered a variety of the khepresh, as any Egyptian scarf tightly fitting the head is called. The khepresh was widespread among representatives of all social classes. Among ordinary Egyptians, the khepresh could be white or striped, and the color of the stripes depended on the status and occupation of the owner; for example, soldiers had red stripes, priests had yellow ones, and so on. Only the pharaoh could wear a scarf with blue longitudinal stripes.

History

The Nemes consisted of a triangular piece of cloth made of linen. It was laid tightly over the forehead, fastened at the temples, and tied at the back like a bonnet or a hood. The Nemes then hung in folds over the head, down the neck, and sides, leaving only the face and possibly the ears exposed.

Simple Nemes were cut straight across at the bottom, while ceremonial variants could be tied together in a pointed “lion’s tail” at the back, at the top of the back. The Nemes then had two flaps or end pieces that fell down towards the chest on each side of the neck. The shape of the Nemes resembled the long, full, bell-shaped wigs worn over shaved heads and were common for both genders in ancient Egypt.

Nemes were particularly used by men, often from higher social classes, as slaves and farmers were often sparsely dressed or completely naked. It also appears that soldiers during the 19th Egyptian dynasty, unlike those during the 18th, wore striped headscarves.

Royal Headgear

The first pharaoh known to be depicted with a Nemes is Djoser, who reigned from around 2690 to 2670 BC. He was also the one who built the first pyramid, the Step Pyramid at Saqqara. Although Egyptian ancient history spans millennia, the basic features of clothing changed little.

Also, the ancient Egypt’s other female ruler, Sobeknefru (ca.1787-1783 BC), was portrayed with a royal nemes and shendyt, a loincloth or kilt, over a women’s garment. The same occurred three hundred years later when one of Egypt’s most famous pharaohs, Hatshepsut, who ruled around 1473-1458 BC, again adopted traditional male regalia, including the Nemes with uraeus, false beard, and loincloth. She likely did not deny her own gender, but probably wanted to show authority to foreign rulers, respect traditions, and be accepted by the country’s population.

Several pharaohs are depicted with a Nemes and double crown, a symbol of unified Upper and Lower Egypt. In ancient Egyptian images and statues, sphinxes with human heads, such as the Sphinx at Giza, are often seen wearing headscarves. Even then, they are equipped with the divine uraeus snake.