La Rochelle was the last stronghold granted to the Protestants by the Edict of Nantes. In 1621, during the king’s minority, it attempted to proclaim itself the “New Republic of La Rochelle,” following the model of the Dutch Republic. Richelieu perceived it as a threat. Ordered by Louis XIII and commanded by Richelieu, the Siege of La Rochelle began on September 10, 1627. It concluded with the capitulation of the Protestant city on October 28, 1628, despite various relief attempts by England.
Key Dates – Siege of La Rochalle
July 11, 1573, Edict of Boulogne: Ending the fourth religious war, this edict, confirming the Edict of Nantes, grants Protestants the freedom of conscience. However, freedom of worship is allowed only in three cities: La Rochelle, Nîmes, and Montauban.
August 10, 1627, Richelieu Begins the Siege of La Rochelle: Louis XIII and Richelieu accused Protestants of disturbing the kingdom. Consequently, they inflict a defeat on the Huguenots and ensure the destruction of Protestant powers. These events lead to famine.
October 28, 1628, Louis XIII Takes La Rochelle: La Rochelle experienced a significant famine, largely due to the siege. The city decides to surrender. Several thousand inhabitants died as a result of the siege of La Rochelle.
June 28, 1629, Peace of Alès: The Protestant city of Alès capitulates to the king’s army, and the Peace of Alès is signed. While reaffirming the Edict of Nantes, which ensures freedom of worship and civic equality, the strongholds and military power of the Protestants are annihilated.
What Caused the Siege of La Rochelle?
Promulgated in April 1598 by Henry IV, the Edict of Nantes brought an end to the religious wars that had been shaking the Kingdom of France since 1592. The text granted religious, civil, and political rights to the Protestants, along with about sixty cities designated as places of refuge. Richelieu considered these cities “a state within a state” and worked towards reinstating the Catholic religion as the official religion. In 1621, Louis XIII faced a Huguenot rebellion.
In May, La Rochelle attempted to declare itself the “New Republic of La Rochelle.” In June, the king besieged the city of Saint-Jean-d’Angély, a strategically significant area to control the outskirts of the city. He constructed Fort Louis, facing La Rochelle, and declared a blockade of the city.
This initial campaign ultimately failed before reaching Montauban in 1622. Faced with a protracted conflict, Louis XIII and the Duke of Rohan, leader of the Huguenot forces, signed the Peace Treaty of Montpellier, ending the Huguenot rebellions on October 18. La Rochelle remained one of the last two Protestant strongholds, along with Montauban. However, this peace lasted only two years. When hostilities resumed, La Rochelle received financial support from Holland and assistance from England.
What Was Richelieu’s Role During the Siege of La Rochelle?
Originally destined for a military career, Cardinal Richelieu took up the ecclesiastical robe to retain the benefits of the Bishopric of Luçon. Initially backed by Marie de’ Medici, the mother of Louis XIII and regent, he swiftly became the chief minister to Louis XIII upon the latter’s ascension to power.
One of Cardinal Richelieu’s primary concerns was to strengthen royal authority, laying the groundwork for absolute royal power. He aimed to abolish the privileges of the Huguenots, particularly their military privileges. His suspicion was notably directed towards Languedoc, the territory of the Duke of Rohan, the leader of the Protestant faction. He was equally uneasy about the close ties between La Rochelle, the Netherlands, and England.
The city posed a threat of becoming an independent stronghold from which the Protestants could extend their influence throughout the entire kingdom of France, endangering the authority of Louis XIII. Consequently, Cardinal Richelieu deemed it necessary to “cut off the head of the dragon.” This policy led to a veritable war in 1627.
Drawing on his military expertise, Richelieu personally journeyed to La Rochelle. As a 12-kilometer trench encircled the city, he ordered the construction of a 1,500-meter-long and 8-meter-wide dike bristling with artillery. The objective was to prevent the English, positioned on the Isle of Ré, from supplying the city and sending reinforcements. Remnants of these constructions are still visible today at low tide.
What Forces Were at Work During the Siege of la Rochelle?
During the siege of La Rochelle, in addition to Cardinal de Richelieu, several prominent historical figures came into play. Numerous Protestant residents of La Rochelle distinguished themselves, with the most notable being Jean Guiton. As the admiral of the La Rochelle fleet in 1621, he assumed the role of the city’s mayor during the siege on May 2, 1628, boldly proclaiming that he would strike down the first person to suggest surrender.
Leading the reinforcements dispatched from England, George Villiers, the Duke of Buckingham, endeavored to capture the Isle of Ré. With a force of 6,000 soldiers, he landed on July 12, 1627, attempting to seize Fort La Prée and the fortified town of Saint-Martin-de-Ré. Despite several attempts, he was forced to withdraw. In 1628, while preparing for a second expedition, he was assassinated by a fanatic named John Felton in Portsmouth.
On the French side, Jean de Saint-Bonnet de Toiras, the governor of the Isle of Ré, notably distinguished himself by repelling Buckingham. He further showcased his military prowess in Spain in 1630, during the War of the Mantuan Succession.
How Did the Siege of La Rochelle Unfold?
Three English relief expeditions marked the siege of La Rochelle, which began on September 10, 1627. On July 12, 1627, Buckingham landed on the Île de Ré, leading a fleet of 80 ships. His objective was to control the approaches to the city, break the blockade to supply and reinforce it. However, the island’s population remained loyal to the King of France, and Buckingham faced resistance from Toiras, forcing him to retreat after sustaining heavy human losses.
Simultaneously with the maritime blockade, Richelieu had trenches dug on land. Additionally, he ordered the construction of a dike, mobilizing 4,000 men on November 30, 1627. The massive structure, built on sunken and filled ships, proved decisive in repelling the English. A second expedition led by William Feilding, Earl of Denbigh, attempted to relieve the people of La Rochelle.
Arriving in May 1628 with a fleet of 60 ships and 6 remberges, they turned back without engaging in combat, as Denbigh deemed the outcome uncertain.
The third expedition, commanded by Admiral Robert Bertie, then Earl of Lindsey, arrived near the city in September 1628. They encountered the dike constructed by Richelieu, which successfully repelled them. Marino Torre, an Italian in the service of France, blockaded the port.
In La Rochelle, famine made the situation critical. In May 1628, the decision was made to expel the “useless mouths“: women, children, and the elderly. Targeted by royal troops, they mostly perished without resources.
How Did the Protestants Surrender at the Siege of La Rochelle?
Siege of La Rochelle, 1881 Henri Motte. Image: Public Domain.
During the siege, Jean Guiton, appointed mayor of La Rochelle, distinguished himself through his energy and ability to boost the morale of the besieged. The failure of expeditions from England and the lack of supplies, however, condemned the population of La Rochelle to famine. Eventually, the inhabitants were forced to slaughter and consume horses, dogs, and cats.
Rather than witnessing the population die of hunger, Guiton decided to surrender on October 28, 1628. Richelieu acknowledged Guiton’s courage and spared him imprisonment; instead, he was exiled to England.
Richelieu entrusted Guiton with a command in the royal fleet, and he returned in 1635.
At the end of the siege of La Rochelle, Richelieu demanded an unconditional surrender. A royal edict on November 3, 1628, allowed the free and public practice of the Catholic faith, along with the preservation of Reformed worship. The temple would be converted into a cathedral. Additionally, the edict declared amnesty for the rebels.
However, the Huguenots would lose their political, military, and territorial rights in the Peace of Alès, signed on June 28, 1629. They retained only the freedom of worship and civic equality guaranteed by the Edict of Nantes.
What Were the Consequences of the Siege of La Rochelle?
The consequences of the famine in the city of La Rochelle are devastating: out of a population of 28,000 inhabitants, 5,400 survive, significantly weakened. England also suffered significant losses, primarily during the siege of the Isle of Ré: out of 7,000 soldiers, 4,000 lost their lives. The Thirty Years’ War, which saw religious and political conflict between Catholics and Protestants, was the context for England’s support of the Protestant city.
The siege of La Rochelle marks the beginning of a new war between France and England (1627–1629). The conflicts then continued in North America, where David Kirke led an expedition on the Saint Lawrence to seize Quebec, paving the way for England’s conquest of New France. However, England returned the colony to France through the Treaty of Saint-Germain in 1632, thereby ending its participation in the Thirty Years’ War and losing interest in European affairs.
In the early 16th century, a German religious figure named Martin Luther challenged the Catholic Church, initiating the Reformation. Swiftly, the Protestant revolutionary movement spread across Europe. In France, the Reformation was propagated by Jacques Lefèvre d’Étaples before being significantly influenced by the ideas of Calvin. However, as the movement gained momentum, the reformists soon became the target of persecution.
Divided, France descended into a series of civil wars continually fueled by the country’s political context—these are known as the Wars of Religion. Born in a conducive atmosphere, the armed conflicts persisted for over 30 years, concluding only with the reunification efforts of Henry IV. Consequently, the eight Wars of Religion inexorably paved the way for French absolutism.
—>The Huguenots were French Calvinist Protestants who played a significant role in the French Wars of Religion. They were followers of the Reformed tradition and often faced persecution from the Catholic majority.
What Were the Origins of the French Wars of Religion?
After an initial period of tolerance, Francis I repressed Reformist ideas.
During the reign of Francis I in France, the Protestant Reformation initially faced little opposition. Despite being a Catholic, the king demonstrated tolerance towards Protestants. However, their determined efforts to spread their faith eventually exasperated him. In 1534, for instance, hostile placards against the Mass were posted throughout the country, even in the royal chamber. This proved too much for the offended king, who immediately initiated a series of persecutions to expel the “heretics” from the country.
The repression continued under King Henry II, a less resolute Catholic who allowed the power of the Guise family, fervent Catholics hungry for power, to flourish during his reign. His death presented an opportunity for Protestants, as his inexperienced young son, Francis II, succeeded him. Exploiting the political vulnerability of the country, they organized the Amboise conspiracy in 1560 to influence the young monarch, but their plan failed.
Upon the king’s death, his brother, Charles IX, ascended to the throne at not even 10 years old. His mother, Catherine de’ Medici, assumed the regency. Despite her late husband’s behavior and the Amboise conspiracy, she aimed for reconciliation between the two religious factions. With the assistance of her new chancellor, Michel de l’Hôpital, she persuaded her son to sign the January Edict, which was relatively favorable to Protestants. However, Francis, Duke of Guise, was ousted from power due to his rigid pro-Catholic stance, disagreed, and organized the Massacre of Vassy in 1562. This tragic event immediately triggered the first of the eight French Wars of Religion.
How Were the Eight Wars of Religion Fought?
16th-century religious geopolitics on a map of modern France: Huguenot controlled – Contested – Catholic controlled.
The First War of Religion, 1562-1563: The royal power’s policy of tolerance ended in failure, leading to the First War of Religion. The royal family appeared to be unable to control the situation. This war, which started with the Massacre of Vassy, sees Francis, Duke of Guise, and the Constable of Montmorency on the Catholic side, opposing the Prince of Condé and Gaspard II de Coligny on the Protestant side. It concludes with the assassination of Francis, Duke of Guise, and the Edict of Amboise. Despite a defeat at Dreux, the Protestants emerged from the conflict with significant advantages.
The Second War of Religion, 1567-1568: However, after only four years, the Second War of Religion erupted when the Prince of Condé attempted to kidnap the young King Charles IX. It ended with the Peace of Longjumeau in 1568, but it took only a year for both parties to resume hostilities.
The Third War of Religion, 1568-1570: Catherine de’ Medici’s decision to arrest the Prince of Condé led to the battles of Jarnac in 1569 and Moncontour. Both ended in defeat for the Protestants against the troops of the Duke of Anjou, the king’s brother and future Henry III. Yet, once again, a peace treaty signed at Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1570) grants them new privileges.
The Fourth War of Religion, 1572-1573: After the Third War of Religion, France was about to witness one of the worst massacres on its territory. Gaspard de Coligny, increasingly influential with the king, plans to take up arms to support William of Orange against the Spanish king’s forces. This displeases both Catherine de’ Medici and the Guise family, who take action: on August 22, 1572, Coligny narrowly escapes an assassination attempt. The wheels of the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre were set in motion.
What Happened During the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre?
St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre by François Dubois.
—>The Queen Mother convinces her son that the Protestants, gathered in the capital for the marriage of Margaret of Valois and Henry of Navarre, are conspiring against him. She also fears that the Guise may turn against royal authority, hence her preference to align with them. In panic, the king approves the execution of Protestant leaders. The St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre resulted in 3,000 deaths in the capital on August 24, 1572. The Prince of Condé and Henry of Navarre, future Henry IV, are compelled to convert and are held at the court. This dramatic fourth war concluded with the Edict of Boulogne in July 1573. From that moment on, Protestants lost all trust in the monarchy and organized themselves. They raise an army and impose taxes on their territory.
The Fifth War of Religion, 1574-1576: Despite various treaties, the situation remains stagnant, inevitably leading to another conflict. This time, the Fifth War of Religion takes place in the first year of Henry III’s reign. It is triggered by the rebellion of his brother, the Duke of Alençon, who is joined by Henry of Navarre, having successfully escaped the Court. Notably, Henry of Navarre promptly renounced the Catholic faith. With him, the Protestants now have a capable leader to guide them to victory. The conflict concludes with the Peace of Monsieur, also known as the Edict of Beaulieu, which proves particularly favorable to the Protestants.
The Sixth War of Religion in 1577: These new favors granted to the Protestants were too much in the eyes of the Guise, who established the League, a military and political organization ready to ardently fight against the Reformists. Faced with the power of the Guise, Henry III had no choice but to align himself with the League. The sixth war concluded in a few months with the Treaty of Bergerac. This treaty deprived the Protestants of most of the advantages they had gained with the Edict of Beaulieu the previous year.
The Seventh War of Religion (1585-1588): In an attempt to appease tensions, the French king concedes fifteen secure locations to the Protestants for six months in the Treaty of Nerac (1579). However, after six months, conflict resumes as the Huguenots refuse to relinquish control of these locations. The Peace of Fleix in 1580 concluded the hostilities, granting the Protestants control of the fifteen secure locations for six years.
The Eighth War of Religion (1585-1588): In 1584, France teeters on the brink of a significant religious conflict. The king’s brother dies, leaving Henry III without an heir. Succumbing to pressure from the Catholic League, Henry III banned Protestant worship in 1585, sparking a war between Catholics and Henry of Navarre, the presumptive heir to the French crown. In a turn of events in May 1588, Parisian citizens revolted under the leadership of Henry I, Duke of Guise, forcing the king to abandon the capital and align with Henry of Navarre. Together, they attempt to reclaim Paris, but the king is assassinated shortly after choosing his ally as his successor.
Henry of Navarre, the future Henry IV, faced rejection from the Catholics, who continued to receive military support from Philip II of Spain. France descends into a significant political disorder. While Henry IV sought to secure the crown, some nobles exploited the situation, striving to establish autonomous territories, as seen with the dukes of Mercoeur and Épernon. Others, like the dukes of Savoy and Lorraine, aim to expand their territorial boundaries.
How Did Henry IV Put an End to the Wars of Religion?
The Queen Mother Catherine de’ Medici.
Henry IV’s sole means of ascending to the throne of France was renouncing Protestantism and converting to Catholicism. Subsequently, the king underwent coronation in Chartres and finally entered Paris. His imperative task was to reunify France under the crown and to preempt a Protestant uprising, he enacted the Edict of Nantes in 1598. This edict granted Protestants significant religious freedom and civil equality.
Nevertheless, the challenge persisted; neither faction was genuinely content. The weariness of the populace, however, played a pivotal role in the cessation of armed conflicts. Henry IV managed to restore a semblance of equilibrium, albeit a precarious one, as evidenced by his assassination by François Ravaillac in 1610.
—>Catherine de’ Medici was the queen consort of Henry II and mother of three French kings. She played a central role in the French Wars of Religion, often trying to balance power between the Catholic and Protestant factions.
How Many People Died in the Wars of Religion?
Henry I, Duke of Guise.
The Wars of Religion concluded in 1598 after over 30 years of nearly uninterrupted conflict. During this period, France experienced a demographic decline, with the population decreasing by one to two million inhabitants between 1560 and 1600. It is challenging to attribute all these deaths solely to the Catholic-Protestant conflict. The casualties resulted not only from wars but also from famines, the plague, and unfavorable weather events, all of which are significant factors not to be overlooked.
Historians, on the other hand, put the death toll for the St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre alone, which spread across the whole of France in 1572, at around 30,000 (and 20,000).
How Did the Wars of Religion Lead to French Absolutism?
Print depicting Huguenot aggression against Catholics at sea.
Despite the Edict of Nantes, religious conflicts did not vanish. During the reign of Louis XIII, Protestants revolted again, fearing renewed repression. However, under Richelieu’s policy, following the Siege of La Rochelle, the Peace of Alès was signed, stripping Protestants of all military and political power. Henry IV, Cardinal Richelieu, and Louis XIII paved the way for absolutism, fully established under Louis XIV. To reunify and consolidate France, the king believed in imposing a single religion on all, leading to the revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV in 1685.
Emerging in a context of monarchic fragility, the Wars of Religion often eluded royal authority, which alternated between conciliation and repression. The feudal powers, capable of destabilizing the kingdom at any moment, added to this fragility. Consequently, France descended into anarchy until Henry IV seized power. The king’s attempts at reconciliation and compromise ended in failure, as after his death, Protestant revolts and repression resurged. Tolerance was not yet embraced. Faced with this tumultuous past, the French kings opted for absolutism. Peaceful coexistence between the two Christian confessions would only materialize in the Enlightenment and the 19th century.
Chronology of the French Wars of Religion
Signature du traité de paix de Vervins by Gillot Saint-Evre (1837).
1560: Protestant conspiracy at Amboise. Execution of conspirators.
First War (1562–1563)
1562: Massacre of Vassy (March); the “triumvirate” (Guise, Saint-André, Montmorency) seizes Rouen (October).
1563: Death of Francis, Duke of Guise, at the Siege of Orléans (February); Edict of Amboise (March).
Second War (1567–1568)
1568: Peace of Longjumeau (March).
Third War (1569–1571)
1569: Invasion of Béarn; victory of the Duke of Anjou and death of Condé at Jarnac (March); Francis, Duke of Anjou’s victory at Moncontour (October).
1570: Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye granting freedom of conscience and four strongholds to the Protestants (August).
1572: St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre (August 24).
Fourth War
Failure of the Duke of Anjou before La Rochelle (February–June); Treaty of La Rochelle, giving the city, Nîmes, and Montauban to the Protestants (July).
Fifth War (1574–1576)
1575: Victory of the Henry I, Duke of Guise, (Scarface) at Dormans (October).
1576: Edict of Beaulieu (May) granting freedom of worship to Protestants everywhere except in Paris and eight safe places; birth of the League (June).
Sixth War
Uprising of Henry of Navarre: the Duke of Anjou seizes La Charité (May); Peace of Bergerac (September), restricting the Edict of Beaulieu.
Seventh War (1579–1581)
1579 Peace of Nerac, giving fifteen strongholds to Protestants (February).
1584: Alliance of Guise and Philip II of Spain (Treaty of Joinville).
1585: Henry III allies with the League (July). Henry of Navarre, heir to the throne, is deprived of his rights (September).
Eighth War (1585–1588)
1587: Victory of Henry of Navarre at Coutras (October).
1588: Day of the Barricades in Paris and Henry III’s escape to Chartres (May); Estates General in Blois (October); assassination of the Duke of Guise in Blois (December).
1589: Alliance of Henry III and Henry of Navarre (Plessis-lez-Tours, April); siege of Paris by the two Henrys (July); assassination of Henry III (August); victory of Henry IV at Arques (September).
1590: Victory of Henry IV at Ivry (March), but he cannot take Paris (May).
1593: Henry IV abjures Protestantism (July).
1594: Henry IV enters Paris.
1595: Victory of Henry IV over the Spanish at Fontaine-Française (June); submission of the Duke of Mayenne, a Catholic claimant to the throne of France.
1598: Edict of Nantes (April); Peace of Vervins with the Spanish (May).
Founded on the islands by Protestant missionaries in the 1820s, Christmas is a big yearly festival in Hawaii. This celebration incorporates Polynesian and Japanese culture as well as the traditional aura of Christmas. Instead of his usual outfit, Santa Claus (Kanakaloka) wears colorful Hawaiian clothes. He forgoes the sleigh in favor of a dolphin-drawn outrigger boat. There are many events held on the islands during Christmas but the ones in the Waikiki neighborhood tend to draw the most crowds. To say “Mele Kalikimaka” is to say “Merry Christmas” in Hawaiian and the islands become a winter wonderland as Hawaiian Christmas trees are placed beneath the starry sky and Christmas lights replace snow.
Because of its indigenous population, tropical climate, and sandy beaches, Hawaii has developed its distinctive Christmas customs, and among these are:
Makahiki: The traditional Hawaiian celebration of Makahiki, which takes place four months before Christmas, is about feasting and relaxing in honor of the environment and the native deity Lono.
Christmas Trees Arrive by Ship: Ships carrying refrigerated containers from colder climes where pine trees are cultivated are brought to tropical islands by cargo ships, where the residents get their Christmas trees. Palms are then decorated with lights by Hawaiians.
Santa Arrives in an Outrigger Canoe: To go to Hawaii, Santa or Kanakaloka doesn’t use a sleigh but rather an outrigger canoe.
Christmas Luau: During the Christmas Luau, Hawaiians come together for a traditional luau feast, where they enjoy a Kālua pig cooked in the traditional way using an “Imu” or subterranean oven.
Carols: Singing Christmas songs in Hawaiian is a popular practice since around 63% of the 1.4 million Hawaiians are Christians.
Parades: Hawaiians actually like decorating their vehicles with Christmas lights and displaying them in a procession through the streets.
Protestant missionaries brought Christmas to Hawaii in 1820. During the year 1786, when the Hawaiian island of Kauai was moored, George Dixon, the captain of the commercial ship Queen Charlotte, celebrated the first Christmas in Hawaii. An entire roast pig was part of the elaborate Christmas feast that Dixon and his crew enjoyed that year.
A four-month holiday called Makahiki was observed by the Hawaiians prior to the Christmas that is known today. During this festival, the Hawaiians prohibited all forms of warfare. Another common Christmas theme, “peace and goodwill to all men,” was still present throughout the season. The Hawaiian monarchs, Kamehameha IV and Emma, formally observed Christmas as a Thanksgiving holiday in 1856. Mary Dominis hosted the first Christmas celebration in Hawaii on December 24, 1858, at Washington Place.
The event included the first-ever appearance of Santa Claus and a Christmas tree. In 1862, it was officially designated a holiday by King Kamehameha IV. Christmas Day in Hawaii is very much the same as it is everywhere else: a big feast followed by water sports (surfing or swimming) at the beach. Many cultures and ethnic groups have made Hawaii their home, and each has its own style of celebrating this holiday.
There are contemporary and traditional ingredients in Hawaiian Christmas food and drink and here are a few favorites:
Poke: Served raw, poke is a salad of fish, onions, sesame seeds, shoyu and sesame oil marinade.
Pork hash: Grounded pork, onions, and seasonings are the fillings of this deep-fried dumpling.
Manapua: Steamed buns stuffed with char siu pork, chicken, or veggies—that’s the manapua.
Smoked Meats: Popular smoked meats include kalua pork, beef, and turkey.
Kālua Pork: This classic Hawaiian Christmas meal is prepared by braising a whole pig in a special subterranean oven known as an “imu.”
Lau Lau: This cuisine is prepared by boiling pork, fish, or chicken wrapped in taro leaves.
Turkey or Ham: A Christmas dinner in Hawaii often consists of turkey or ham.
Sticky Rice: Hawaii is known for its sticky rice, a favorite side dish.
Lomi Lomi Salmon: To make Lomi Lomi Salmon, chop some salmon and toss it with tomatoes, onions, and green onions.
Poi: Poi is a classic Hawaiian meal that uses taro root.
Candy and fruitcake: Sweets like fruitcake and candy are common Christmas treats in Hawaii.
Kulolo: It is a sweet dish that combines taro, sugar, and coconut milk.
Macadamia nut candy: One traditional Hawaiian holiday treat is macadamia nut candy.
Fresh tropical fruit: One of Hawaii’s most beloved side dishes.
Hawaiian Christmas cocktails: Mai Tais, Blue Hawaiians, and Pina Coladas are the popular Christmas cocktails in this island state.
Christmas Decorations in Hawaii
Hawaiian holiday decorations showcase the heritage and natural aspects of the islands. It encompasses the use of cultural ornaments (together with the usual Santa Claus and Christmas trees), which contribute to the general tropical ambiance of the day.
Christmas Trees
MCB Hawaii Christmas tree lighting.
Many people like decorating their trees with ornaments that have a Hawaiian theme, such as hula dancers, surfboards, tropical fruits, and flowers. A 50-foot Norfolk pine Christmas tree adorned with lights and ornaments is the focal point of the Honolulu City Lights celebration, which is usually held between December 2 and December 29 and takes place every year. Dried branches of coffee plants or aromatic cypress trees are used by certain households, not forgetting the ukulele, the popular Hawaiian musical instrument.
Ocean-Based Themes
Offerings like fruits and small toys are commonplace in nativity scenes, which are called pasitos or doorways, just like in many Christian countries. Some of these scenes have been modified to include aspects of Hawaiian culture, such as ocean-based themes including Hawaiian sea turtles, fish ornaments, and shells. This theme can also be seen in Christmas wreaths. Poinsettias are the traditional greenery used to decorate with red coffee berries.
Banners and Sings
Among the many Hawaiian Christmas decorations available are those depicting Santa Claus surfing, hula dancing, sunbathing, and hanging ten (or hang ten). Decorative banners and signs with tropical motifs and Hawaiian holiday greetings also abound. For a really Hawaiian Christmas, many choose decorations depicting the islands’ famous sunsets.
Inflatable Palms, Sand Sculptures, and Tropical Flowers
Palm trees are common in Hawaii; however, only the Loulu is native, while the others are invasive. Therefore, the use of inflatable palms and other tropical symbols helps set the mood for a tropical feast. Large sand sculptures with a Christmas motif are also on display at the Sheraton Waikiki over the winter holidays every year, just like in other parts of Honolulu and other Hawaiian cities. Tropical flowers are also a common element in Hawaiian holiday décor.
The Krampus is a frightening figure in the Advent tradition accompanying Saint Nicholas. He is widespread in the Eastern Alpine region, southern Bavaria and the Upper Palatinate, Austria, Liechtenstein, Hungary, Croatia, Slovenia, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, South Tyrol, Trentino, and parts of non-Alpine Northern Italy. While Saint Nicholas rewards well-behaved children with gifts, the naughty ones are punished by Krampus. The figure of Krampus originates, like many other demonic figures in the Alpine region, from pre-Christian times. The group consisting of Saint Nicholas, Krampus, and other companions is referred to in Bavarian dialects as Bass or Pass.
History of Krampus
Origin of the Name
St. Nicholas and Krampus.
The name is derived from the Middle High German “Krampen,” meaning ‘claw,’ or Bavarian “Krampn,” referring to ‘something lifeless, dried up, withered, or wilted.’ In many regions, the figure of Krampus has merged with the Perchta (or Berchta) tradition (an Alpine pagan goddess).
In the Bavarian Alpine foothills and the Austrian Salzkammergut, Styria, and Salzburg, Krampus is more commonly known as Kramperl.
In Styria and Carinthia, the term Bartl is also used, a short form of Bartholomew. Due to the centuries-long Slovenian-German bilingualism in Carinthia and Styria, it can be assumed that the Slovenian term “parkelj” also derives from “Bartl,” especially since the shift of t → k and d → g (Kittel → kikelj, Kandl → kangla) occurs in other Slovenian loanwords. In the Salzkammergut, the term Miglo is also used. In the Tyrolean region, one often speaks of Tuifl, Tuifltåg, or Tuifltratzen, derived from the word Devil. The term Ganggerl is also used.
The Krampus tradition was originally widespread throughout the Habsburg Empire and adjacent areas and was later banned during the Inquisition, as no one was allowed, under the penalty of death, to disguise themselves as a devilish figure. However, this winter custom continued in some remote places.
Origins and Development of the Krampus Tradition
There are no sources before the end of the 16th century. The custom seems to have developed only since the mid-17th century, starting in monastery schools (Children’s Bishop Feast): Accompanied by frightening figures, devils, and animal masks (Habergeiß), Saint Nicholas checks and rewards well-behaved children, while the naughty ones are punished by Krampus. In the Counter-Reformation era, parlor games emerged, which still exist in Bad Mitterndorf, Tauplitz, and Pichl-Kainisch (Salzkammergut), in Salzburg, and in Tyrol.
Since that time, Krampus groups have formed in parallel with the Perchtenlauf. In the Perchtenlauf, only able-bodied, unmarried men from the village were allowed to participate, and the event became public again in the mid-19th century. Outside the areas influenced by the Counter-Reformation, Krampuses remained displaced by the North German-Protestant figure Knecht Ruprecht. In the Alemannic-Protestant region, the two forms mix, likely sharing a common origin in an Italian figure from the 16th century: there was the idea that the devil would devour the souls of sinners. Evil is particularly strong in the harsh winter season, hence manifesting in this form, which was vividly depicted.
Krampus Runs
In many villages and cities in the Eastern Alpine region, southern Bavaria and the Upper Palatinate, Austria, parts of the Principality of Liechtenstein, Hungary, Slovenia, Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Italy (limited to South Tyrol, Trentino, especially in the Vinschgau and Pustertal), and parts of Croatia, there are still Krampus parades. People dressed as Krampus march through the streets, making loud noises with their bells to scare passersby. They also use their long switches. Tuifltratzen (Tyrol) or Kramperltratzn (Bavarian “tratzen” means ‘to tease, mock, quarrel, banter, ridicule’; in parts of Austria: Kramperlstauben, German “stauben” means ‘to scatter, drive away’) is a challenge for the children of the region who try to provoke the Krampuses without getting caught or struck.
Krampus Day is on December 5th, the eve of the Feast of Saint Nicholas on December 6th. Typically, both figures appear together on the evening of December 5th, but in some places, they may also appear on December 6th. Among the largest parades with over a thousand Krampuses (in 2008) is the Krampuslauf in St. Johann im Pongau, held annually on December 6th, and the largest Krampuslauf in Austria in Klagenfurt. The latter covers a distance of 1.5 kilometers.
Variations and Regional Specifics
It should be noted that there are regional differences in traditions that can vary significantly (for example, processions in Carinthia with fireworks, torches, and fire breathers, as opposed to the use of switches to tease onlookers in Salzburg). One of the most impressive and spectacular Krampus parades occurs in East Tyrol. In this region, the tradition includes not only the procession but also a traditional Krampus throw, similar to the throwing technique from “Ranggeln,” between Krampus and a “Raufbold” (brawler). However, this is entirely voluntary for the brave, as designated zones are set up for this type of tradition. The audience can safely observe the spectacle behind barriers.
An additional peculiarity of the tradition is the decades-long practice of “Tischziehen” (table pulling) in the Osttirol dialects, known as “tischziagn” or “tischzoichn.” In these events, organized separately from the parades, some voluntary men sit behind a large, solid wooden table and try to hold the table against the oncoming Krampuses for as long as possible, using their own strength. The goal of the Krampuses is either to tip the table over or to pull it far enough away from the starting point.
This type of competition is decided separately for each round since men usually switch after a round, and the Krampuses divide into different groups.
In the Osttirol Defereggental, on December 5th, Nikolaus and Krampus are accompanied by a series of other figures that have visited the farms throughout the year: Bajazzo, Lotter, and Litterin (beggars), a bridal couple with a minstrel, a doctor, a policeman, a mayor, a firefighter, and Death, symbolizing the transience of life. In Berchtesgadener Land, the southern part of the district of the same name, there are two types of Krampuses: the fully fur-clad “Kramperl” and the more agile “Gankerl” (also: Ganggerl), equipped with stocking trousers without fur and smaller bells. The Gankerl, in turn, accompanies the Bassen, who are entirely bundled in straw, protecting them, and are related to the Glöckler of the Perchten.
In the Gastein Valley, annually on December 5th and 6th, 80 to over 100 groups are active. The various groups, consisting of Krampus, “Engerl” (angels), “Buttnmandl” (tub carriers; not to be confused with the Buttnmandl in Berchtesgadener Land, see paragraph above), and Nikolaus, are recognized by the different colors of their garments. They traditionally go from house to house on December 5th in the centers of the towns Bad Gastein, Bad Hofgastein, and Dorfgastein, and on December 6th in rural areas. The groups visit homes and request entry from the homeowners.
The Nikolaus (and possibly the angel) and the tub carrier enter the room, the “well-behaved” are rewarded, and then the Krampuses or Kramperl are allowed in, and the “misbehaved” are punished. When two groups meet (which can happen frequently, as each group has an independent path from all others), a strenuous and spectacular greeting ritual takes place.
The Nicholases cross their bishop’s staffs, the angels and the tub carriers also greet each other, then come the “Vorteufelrempeln” (the two Vorteufel greet each other and demonstrate their strength through mutual bumping), after which the remaining Krampuses may also bump. Once this is done, the groups recognize each other and wish each other “A guads Weitageh’, treu in guadn oidn Brauch” (a good continuation, true to the good, old tradition). Numerous locals and guests from near and far gather in the Gastein Valley on these two days every year.
The Krampus also shares a function with the figure known as Knecht Ruprecht in the northern and western German regions, but there are differences between the two characters. While Knecht Ruprecht appears individually, the Krampuses usually appear in larger groups.
In Swabia, Pelznickel accompanies the gift-bringer. In Switzerland, Nikolaus is accompanied by “Schmutzli.” Similar to Krampus, Schmutzli is intended to punish naughty children but carries a sack and wears a bell strap instead of cow or beam bells.
The Krampus, in appearance, resembles the devil as well as mythical and animal figures, similar to the Schiechperchten found in Alpine traditions. Unlike the latter, who appear during the Rauhnächte, the Krampuses are exclusively part of Advent traditions.
In the Scandinavian region, similar figures appear between Christmas and New Year’s Eve. This custom is known as “julebukklaufen” and was common in Norway at least until the mid-20th century.
Equipment
Coat or trousers made of sheep or goat fur. In some parts of Lower Bavaria, it is customary for the “devil” to dress in potato sacks. In this region, there are also fur Krampuses who wear no mask but only fur and horns. In 1928, a furrier’s textbook mentioned Krampus production as a significant use for black rabbit fur remnants.
Wooden mask (Larve) carved from pine or lime wood, with (real) goat, ibex, or ram horns. Nowadays, there are also many Krampuses wearing aluminum, plastic, or rubber masks.
Cowbells or beam bells (or “rolls”), attached to a belt or strap on the back. Either a beam bell reaching down to the knees or several smaller to medium-sized cowbells are used. Rattles or bells, on the other hand, are only used by Schirchperchten. Sometimes, a chain for rattling can be found.
Horsehair or cowtail
Birch rod
Butte (Bavarian, also “Kraxn”), a container attached to the back, in which, according to legend, naughty children are taken.
However, the equipment varies from place to place. Typically, Krampus masks cover the entire head. A recent trend includes wooden masks that leave the chin and lower lip exposed, allowing the runner to move the mouth and stick out the tongue. The visible facial parts are painted with appropriate colors to make the masks look more “real.”
Reception
Criticism
Krampus attacks and fights regularly cause dismay and public discussion. Every year, confrontations occur during Krampus runs. Occasionally, spectators retaliate with whip strikes and attack Krampuses. In 2013, after several Krampus runs in East Tyrol, a total of eight injured individuals (mostly with bone fractures) were admitted to the District Hospital Lienz, and over 60 additional patients were treated on an outpatient basis. In 2022, in Upper Austria, an eleven-year-old Krampus performer was grabbed so violently by the horns of his mask and pulled back and forth that he had to be taken to Linz University Hospital.
In the Mirror of Art (Postcards)
Especially at the beginning of the 20th century, artists also embraced the Kramperl as a motif in their artwork.
In Television Series
Episode 8 of Season 10 of the animated series American Dad dedicated an entire episode to Krampus. He also made a guest appearance in Episode 7 of Season 13 of the same animated series.
In Season 3, Episode 8 of the series Grimm, the Krampus appeared as a malicious being.
The Sky series production “Der Pass” and the US horror-comedy “Krampus” delved into the Krampus myth.
Cinema
Krampus is the main character in the eponymous horror film (2015) by Michael Dougherty.
As a Literary Figure
BROM: Krampus (original: Krampus – The Yule Lord). Translated from American into German by Jakob Schmidt. Knaur, Munich 2013. ISBN 978-3-426-65334-0.
Music
The Italian Gothic rock band Lacuna Coil wrote the song “Naughty Christmas” about the Krampus figure.
The German band Feuerschwanz released the music video “Krampus” in 2021.
In Italian folklore, the Befana (a lexical corruption of Epiphany, from the Greek ἐπιφάνεια, epifáneia, through bifanìa and befanìa) is an elderly lady who delivers gifts to children throughout Italy on the eve of Epiphany (the night of January 5), similar to Santa Claus or the Magi; she is a figure linked to the Italian Christmas season. In Christmas folklore, the Befana visits all the children in Italy on the eve of Epiphany to fill their stockings with sweets, candies, dried fruits, and toys if they have behaved well. Otherwise, those who have misbehaved will find their stockings filled with coal or garlic.
In many poorer parts of Italy, especially in rural Sicily, a stick was placed in a stocking instead of coal. Being a good housekeeper, many say she will sweep the floor before leaving. For some, “sweeping away” means sweeping away the problems of the year. The child’s family usually leaves a small glass of wine and a plate with some bites, often regional or local, for the Befana. She is usually depicted as a witch flying on a broomstick, wearing a black shawl and covered in soot because she enters children’s homes through the chimney. She often smiles and carries a bag, sack, or basket full of candies, gifts, or both.
History of Befana
The origin was perhaps connected to a set of pagan propitiatory rites dating back to the 10th–6th century B.C., concerning seasonal cycles linked to agriculture, related to the harvest of the past year, now ready to be reborn as the new year, spread in northern, central, and southern Italy through an ancient Mithraism and other related cults, such as the Celtic one, linked to the boreal winter. The ancient Romans inherited these rites, associating them with the Roman calendar and celebrating the temporal interregnum between the end of the solar year, essentially the winter solstice, and the recurrence of the Invincible Sun. The twelfth night after the winter solstice marked the death and rebirth of nature through Mother Nature.
The Romans believed that during these twelve nights (whose number would represent both the twelve months of the innovative Roman calendar in its transition from purely lunar to lunisolar, but probably also associated with other numbers and mythological symbols), female figures would fly over cultivated fields to propitiate the fertility of future harvests, hence the myth of the “flying” figure. According to some, this female figure was initially identified with Diana, the lunar goddess not only associated with hunting but also with vegetation. According to others, she was associated with a minor deity called Sàtia (the goddess of satiety) or Abùndia (the goddess of abundance). Another hypothesis connects the Befana to an ancient Roman festival, also held in winter, in honor of Janus and Strenia (from which the term “strenna” also derives), during which gifts were exchanged.
According to widely accepted interpretations in central and northern Europe, it would refer to the Celtic figure of Perchta, a female figure widespread throughout Europe with vaguely similar names: Bertha in Great Britain, Berchta in Austria, Switzerland, France, and Northern Italy; Holda or “Frau Holle” in Germany; and Frigg in Scandinavia. It is always a feminine personification of winter and is often depicted as an old, hunchbacked woman with a hooked nose, disheveled white hair, and abnormal feet, dressed in rags and worn-out shoes.
Already in the 4th century AD, the then-Church of Rome began to condemn all pagan rites and beliefs, defining them as a product of satanic influences. These overlaps gave rise to many personifications, which culminated in the late Middle Ages. The broom is thought to be a representation of the pyres, where the handle represented the pole to which the condemned woman was tied and the twigs represented the stack of firewood, but the flying broom was also an ancient symbol representing the purification of homes (and souls) in anticipation of the rebirth of the season.
Condemned by the Church, the ancient pagan female figure was gradually accepted into Catholicism as a kind of dualism between good and evil. Already in the time of the theologian Epiphanius of Salamis, the Epiphany celebration itself was proposed on the date of the twelfth night after Christmas, thus absorbing the ancient pagan numerical symbolism. In 1928, the fascist regime introduced the celebration of Fascist Befana, where gifts were distributed to children from less affluent classes. After Mussolini’s fall, the Fascist Befana continued to be celebrated only in the Italian Social Republic.
In more recent times, countless and widely spread are the Italian representations of Befana and the festivals dedicated to her; often it is a performer who descends from the bell tower of a town square, or elderly women disguised to distribute gifts to children. Tradition depicts her as “old” to indicate the end of a cycle: with the winter solstice, we transition from the old to the new, from cold and endless nights to the lengthening of the period of light; furthermore, on the legal calendar level, with the end of the year, we enter the new Gregorian year; even liturgically, the strong liturgical, Christmas season concludes, and the Ordinary Time begins. That is why on the day of Epiphany, when Befana is also celebrated, the saying goes, “Epiphany, all holidays take away.”
The name “Befana,” referring to the female figure displayed on the night of Epiphany, was already widespread in the popular dialect of the 14th century, especially in the lands of ancient Etruria (Tuscany and Tuscia in present-day northern Lazio). It was first used in Italian by Francesco Berni in 1535 and later by Agnolo Firenzuola in 1541. Since, by tradition, the Befana leaves gifts in a stocking hanging by the fireplace, in Dovadola in the Forlì Apennines, they prepare the sock defined as “the longest in the world.” There are still some rare places where the term “Pefana” has remained in popular language, such as in the town of Montignoso, in the rest of the Province of Massa-Carrara, in La Spezia, as well as in Garfagnana and Versilia, with traditions not in line with the usual Epiphany celebrations.
A religious version, on the other hand, tells that the Three Wise Men, on their way to Bethlehem, asked an old woman for directions and insisted that she go with them to bring gifts to the Savior. The old woman refused, but shortly after, repentant, she prepared a sack full of gifts and set out in search of the Magi and baby Jesus. Not finding them, she knocked on every door and delivered gifts to children, hoping to be forgiven for her refusal.
The Character
The Befana evokes the religious tradition of Saint Lucy (Santa Lucia), who dispensed gifts to children before her, as St. Nicholas did before the advent of Santa Claus. She is not evil; she is only annoyed with adults and grumpy with those she doesn’t like because they try to be clever. But with children, she is indulgent and understanding, a little grandmother full of care and gifts.
Befana’s Physical Appearance and Symbolism
She is not a beautiful, young, and charming woman; on the contrary, she is an old lady hunched by the ailments of age and cold, with few teeth, a wrinkled face, and sometimes, but not always, a very prominent nose to emphasize her old age and lack of beauty due to age.
The old appearance derives from a symbolic representation of the old year: once truly concluded, it can be burned, as happened in many European countries where there was a tradition of burning effigies dressed in worn-out clothes at the beginning of the year (see, for example, Giubiana and Panevin or Pignarûl, Casera, Seima or Brusa la vecia, the Falò del vecchione held in Bologna on New Year’s, as well as the “sparo del Pupo” in Gallipoli, or the bonfire of Veggia Pasquetta, which opens the carnival every year on January 6 in Varallo, Piedmont). In many parts of Italy, the practice of burning or sawing into pieces a puppet in the shape of an old woman (in this case filled with sweets) was instead part of the rituals at the end of Lent. A similar thing happens in Salento with the puppet of Caremma, adorned with iconographic symbols reminiscent of the ancient Fates. In this perspective, the use of gifts would again take on a propitiatory value for the new year.
Clothing and Shoes
To adequately shield herself, the Befana wears long, worn, and cheerfully patched skirts; she often wears an apron. Additionally, she uses heavy, anti-cold stockings and comfortable shoes, but not the high boots more suitable for fairytale witches. On her sometimes hunched shoulders, she always has a shawl made of heavy and colorful wool, not a fluttering cloak, as seen in some images on the internet.
The Kerchief
One must not confuse the Befana with the witches of Anglo-Saxon tradition. A genuine Befana, in fact, does not wear a pointed hat, as often depicted on many websites, blogs, and even in some television commercials. Instead, she exclusively uses a heavy fabric kerchief (the pezzóla) or a large woolen scarf knotted prominently under the chin.
The Broom
She carries a broom, often used for support or for brief flights. In the imagination, Befana rides the broom differently from depictions of witches, holding the twigs in front of her. Even in this aspect, the specific iconography of the Befana is not entirely comparable to that of witches.
The Stocking
Another frequent “image” mistake about the Befana concerns the sack of gifts. In reality, the true Befana carries her gifts and her coal and garlic in worn and loose jute sacks that take the form of enormous stockings or in wicker baskets, depending on the locality and tradition of the celebration.
The Coal
According to oral tradition, the Befana delivers gifts to good children or coal and garlic to mischievous children. The coal, or even ashes, initially a symbol of ritual bonfires, were originally placed in stockings or shoes along with sweets in remembrance of seasonal renewal and burned effigies. In the moral Catholic perspective of subsequent centuries, only coal and/or garlic were placed in stockings and shoes as punishment for children who had misbehaved during the previous year.
Epiphany Celebrations in Italy
In Veneto, on the night between January 5 and 6, the tradition “Se brusa a vecia” takes place, where a straw effigy shaped like the Befana is burned in the fields. It is a propitiatory ritual to burn away the troubles and negativities of the past year. The direction in which the sparks and smoke will go is also significant: “Faive a ponente panoce gnente, faive a levante panoce tante…” It is also a way to bring the community together in a moment so crucial to rural life: people drink vin brulè and eat pinza, a typical Venetian dessert.
In Liguria, Bazâra (pronounced basâra), the origin of the word Befana is different from Italian. In Genoese, it means “dirty and unkempt old woman.” One might think of Iberian languages for the etymology of the word “basura,” which similarly means a dirty and unkempt person. The Bazara celebration is still called “Pasquetta” today. Unlike in Italian, in Liguria, Pasquetta does not refer to the day after Easter but to any holiday (Pasqua means the main holiday, and Pasquetta means a secondary one).
Not only does the word change, but so do some traditions. For example, children receive “ciapellette,” small shoes filled with chocolate, chestnuts, garlic, and mandarins, or alternatively, “marenghi d’öo,” chocolate coins. Traditionally, children would leave their shoes outside the window, and the hovering spirit of Bazâra in the night would fill them. According to legend, Bazâra was assumed to have broken shoes and needed new ones, leaving a reward for all the children willing to leave a pair as a gift outside the window. This celebration marks the first holiday of the year when, traditionally, fish and lasagne without eggs, called “bianche” or “Epifagna Gianca Lasagna” (meaning White Epiphany Lasagna or Mandilli de Sea), are eaten. In the past, girls would leave olive leaves on the hot ash of the fireplace to draw love prophecies.
In Urbania, a Official House of the Befana is traditionally set up. Every year, the “National Festival of the Befana” is celebrated there, a tradition now two decades old and known throughout Italy. Similarly, in Barga in Lucchesia, for twenty years, an association that “protects” the folkloric tradition of the Befana places the official house of the old lady in the woods adjacent to the village, with various events and initiatives culminating in the days of January 5 and 6.
Also in Tuscany, in the province of Grosseto, there are the “Befani” (on the island of Elba, they are called “Befanotti”), men who, on Epiphany day, go along with the Befana through the city streets of the towns, performing traditional Maremman songs and wishing “buona Pasqua” (Easter wishes tied to the Epiphany liturgy when the “announcement of Easter day” is read in the Church). In Capezzano Pianore, a fraction of the province of Lucca, the festival is particularly felt on January 5, with the participation of groups accompanying Befanas with traditional songs and music, bringing gifts and sweets to the hamlets of the village until late at night. On January 6, the festivities culminate with the liturgical procession carrying the statue of the child Jesus.
In Corsanico, a small hillside hamlet in the province of Lucca, the night of January 5 is celebrated. The Befana arrives at “Dalla Stagina” (a wooded area of the village) and reaches the homes of all the children to scare those who have behaved badly and bring gifts to those who have been good, usually accompanied by her unsettling and corpulent helper (Mrs. Trude). The Befana of Corsanico and her assistant wear long black robes, a large pointed hat decorated with ivy, and a black stocking to cover their faces. In Corsanico tradition, the Befana is anything but a reassuring figure.
Parents and grandparents usually prepare the children in early December, warning them that the arrival of the old witch is imminent and encouraging them to behave well and not be capricious. A custom linked to the Corsanico Befana is the “candy waterfall from the fireplace,” reciting the following formula: “Befana befana, you are my lady, you are my bride, throw me down something, a little apple, or a little pear, or a piece of Befanino” in front of the fireplace from early December until January 6.
In many cases, children can witness actual cascades of sweets, traditional cookies (Befanino), or dried fruits falling into their homes, directly from the fireplace. Another figure to mention is that of “Alca vecchia,” the very old mother of the Befana, who passes over the roofs of houses on the night of January 6 to check that the good children who received gifts continue to behave well even the day after receiving them. In the best-case scenario, she will come down the chimney to retrieve the gifts; in the worst case, in addition to the gifts, she will try to take home the naughtiest children. In Corsanico, there is also a significant tradition related to Befana songs, verses, stanzas, and playful lyrics specifically written to make fun of the most peculiar and talked-about figures in the village.
In Sardinia, the Italian “Befana” is instead an introduction that, although not indigenous and relatively recent, has eventually supplanted traditional festivals on the island, such as Pasca de sos tres Res or de is tres Urreis (“the feast of the three kings”), analogous to the Spanish festival de los reyes magos. The Carta de Logu, drafted in the Sardinian language and remaining in force until 1827, refers to Epiphany as Pasca Nuntza, as this is the day established for the correct definition of movable feasts, including Easter (known in Sardinian as sa Pasca Manna, “the big feast”).
The Traffic Policeman’s Befana
An important separate tradition in Italy was that of the traffic policeman’s Befana. It started in the first half of the twentieth century and exploded in the early ’50s, first with the advent of mass mopeds and then cars. It involved physically placing gifts at the sides of the platforms from which traffic police directed traffic. The tradition slowly waned in the ’60s due to the advent of traffic lights and the rapid change in Italians’ habits with the economic boom (although it is the subject of some revivals today).
Nursery Rhymes and Folk Legends
“Oh Befana Befanina Fill the stocking, make it fine-a! Pay no mind to whims so small Bring dolls and candy for all!”
“The Befana comes at night With shoes all torn and not a sight With patches on her skirt so grand Hooray hooray for Befana!”
From which the variant originates:
“The Befana comes at night With shoes all torn, a funny sight With a nose like a Roman’s might (Or: with a hat like a Roman’s might) (Or: with a dress like a Roman’s might) Hooray hooray for Befana!”
This is a variant common in Tuscany:
“The Befana comes at night With shoes all torn, it’s quite a plight She crosses all the roofs in flight Bringing dolls and candy so bright”
Or:
“The Befana comes at night With shoes all torn, a sorry sight Buys a new pair, that’s right With pen and ink, she sets it right”
Calabrian Variant:
“Oh Befana Befanuzza Leave the squash, don’t cause a fuss-a! Pay no mind to candy so sweet Bring bread and treats we can eat!”
Other variants:
“The Befana comes at night With shoes all torn, a funny sight Dressed in a trullallà way Here comes the Befana, hooray!”
“The Befana comes at night With shoes all torn, a lovely sight Dressed all in blue so true Here comes the Befana, through and through”
“The Befana comes at night With shoes all torn, a sight Dressed in a big underskirt array Hooray hooray for Befana!”
“The Befana comes at night With shoes all torn, a sight Dressed in a bandana so fine Here comes, here comes the Befana!”
“The Befana comes at night With shoes all torn, a funny sight And they’re torn at the top, so high The poor Befana, oh my oh my”
“The Befana comes at night With shoes all torn, a sorry sight Bringing wind and northern light Hooray hooray for Befana!”
“The Befana comes at night With stockings all torn, not tight Dressed in a Spanish delight Passing through, just one time, all right!”
“The Befana comes at night With shoes all torn, a fight With a dress all tattered and so With a laundry basket in tow Filled, filled with lovely gifts For the children who are swift!”
According to a “Christianized” version of a legend dating back to the 12th century, the Wise Men, on their way to Bethlehem to bring gifts to the Baby Jesus, couldn’t find the way and asked an elderly lady for directions. Despite their insistence on her following them and visiting the baby, the woman did not leave her house to accompany them. Later, regretting not having gone with them, she prepared a sack full of gifts, went out of her house, and tried to find them without success. So, she stopped at every house she found along the way, giving gifts to the children she encountered, hoping that one of them was the little Jesus. Since then, she has traveled around the world, giving gifts to all children on the night of January 6th, seeking forgiveness.
In some versions, she is said to be the wife of Santa Claus, or in others, a friend or relative. In yet other versions, it is said that they are in slight conflict, as the man in red would spread the word of the non-existence of this old lady. In still others, it is narrated that the Befana has a very old husband (Il Befanotto), so ugly as to terrify children upon his arrival, while accompanying his old and dilapidated wife.
Serenades
In some areas of Italy, there has been a longstanding tradition of singing and playing serenades and songs about the Befana on the evening and night between the 5th and 6th of January.
Literature
In the 18th century, the learned Florentine Domenico Maria Manni wrote “L’Istorica notizia delle origini e del significato delle Befane” (The Historical Account of the Origins and Meaning of Befanas). In 1549, the writer Agnolo Firenzuola mentioned her in his poems. “La freccia azzurra” is a children’s story written by Gianni Rodari and published by Editori Riuniti in 1964. An animated film was adapted from this story, directed by Enzo D’Alò. Giovanni Pascoli wrote a poem titled “La befana.”
Filmography
“La freccia azzurra,” an animated film by Enzo D’Alò (1996)
“Miacarabefana.it,” directed by Lodovico Gasparini – TV film (2009)
“S.O.S. Befana,” directed by Francesco Vicario – TV film (2011)
“La Befana vien di notte,” directed by Michele Soavi (2018)
“La Befana vien di notte II – Le origini,” directed by Paola Randi (2021)
“Nuovo Santa Clause cercasi,” Disney+ series (2022-present) – The character of Befana appears, played by actress Laura San Giacomo.
The Zwarte Piet (Dutch; West Frisian Swarte Pyt, “Black Peter”) or Piet is, in the Netherlands and Flanders, the helper of Sinterklaas, Saint Nicholas in the Dutch tradition. The Zwarte Piet, present everywhere in November and December, is extremely popular among the population, and the Sinterklaas festival is more significant than Christmas. In France and the French-speaking part of Belgium, the character is known as Père Fouettard.
Originally, Zwarte Piet was a frightening figure in Dutch folklore unrelated to the Sinterklaas tradition. It only became associated with St. Nicholas in the mid-to-late 19th century. From that time, it served a similar function to figures like Knecht Ruprecht, Schmutzli, or Krampus—punishing naughty children instead of the physically reserved Saint. In the 20th century, the single helper evolved into a group of Zwarte Piets assisting Sinterklaas. The performers’ faces are painted brown or black, and they wear colorful festive clothing reminiscent of 16th-century servants.
Sinterklaas and Zwarte Piets. (Alexander van Loon, Flickr)
Since 2013, criticism has increased regarding whether the character of Zwarte Piet (as in the case of Blackface) could be racially charged. This was sparked by the Jamaican Professor of Social History, Verene Shepherd, who, as a member of a working group at the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR), called for the abolition of the Sinterklaas festival along with Zwarte Piet. The population responded emotionally to these allegations. Consequently, alternative costumes have emerged, where the black on the face is only suggested as soot, or performers are painted in colors like green or red. The character is increasingly referred to simply as Piet, rather than Zwarte Piet.
Zwarte Piet’s Function and Characteristics
The Sinterklaas festival on December 5th is the most popular folk tradition in the Netherlands, as a 2010 survey revealed. In its current form, it is unique to the Netherlands and Flanders. It is primarily a children’s festival, with adult participation as well. According to tradition, Sinterklaas and Zwarte Piet bring gifts during the Sinterklaas festival on December 5th. Zwarte Piet climbs through the chimneys of houses—where people sleep—and distributes sweets. Additionally, he serves as Sinterklaas’s assistant, holding his book or staff, guiding his horse, or performing other tasks for him.
Until the 1970s, Zwarte Piet often carried a rod, with which he punished naughty children. Nowadays, the rod is rarely seen in Zwarte Piet’s hand. Although it still exists as an attribute, it is no longer used. Some children are afraid of Zwarte Piet because all misdeeds are recorded in Sinterklaas’s book. Moreover, some parents tell their children that Zwarte Piet takes the stubborn kids to Spain in a jute sack.
Saint Nicholas and Zwarte Piets arriving by boat, Netherlands.
In recent times, Sinterklaas and Zwarte Piet can be seen in city centers weeks before December 5th, often near department stores. In mid-November, Sinterklaas makes a festive entry into a specific city, which is broadcast on television. Especially the Sinterklaas featured in the children’s television program Sinterklaasjournaal has many Zwarte Piet as helpers. Piet has been assigned various tasks, such as shopping, wrapping, transportation, etc. There is also now a leader of the Piet, known as the “Head Piet.” The fictional news program reports on the difficulties Piet faces on their way to the Netherlands. For example, one Piet lost the gifts, requiring a joint effort from the bishop’s entourage to save the celebration for the children.
In older depictions, Zwarte Piet had a black face, large red lips, an afro hairstyle, and golden earrings. He was wild, childish, and unreliable, playing pranks and speaking clumsily. According to a children’s song, he says: Want ook al ben ik zwart als roet / Ik meen het wel goed (Even though I’m black as soot, I mean well). Consequently, he had to assert his goodness because his appearance didn’t suggest it. Later on, Zwarte Piet became more serious and wiser, serving as support for the elderly Sinterklaas.
Zwarte Piet’s Origin
Saint Nicholas and the Zwarte Piet, 1850.
The cult around Saint Nicholas of Myra is ancient, while the Dutch Zwarte Piet can be traced back to the Baroque period and is mentioned as a frightening figure alongside entities like Poltergeist, Nightmare, and Klabautermann in Pieter Nieuwland’s 1766 work De bespookte Waereld ontspookt (“The haunted world dehaunted”). In the Alpine region, Krampus is documented as the black, demonic servant of Nicholas. This black-white contrast (Nicholas’s beard being white) has a pre-Christian origin, symbolizing the (rewarding) good spirit overcoming the (punishing) evil spirit. There is no evidence supporting a connection between Krampus and Zwarte Piet.
The “modern” Zwarte Piet originated with the teacher Jan Schenkman. According to Schenkman (1850), the Dutch saint resides in Spain. This might be due to the rhyme between the Dutch name for Spain, Spanje, and appeltjes van oranje (golden little apples, oranges), as found in the famous song about Piet Hein. Alternatively, it could be related to the fact that during the 16th century, when the children’s celebration was documented, the Netherlands, like Spain, belonged to the Habsburg monarchy. The presence of a Moor in Oriental attire on stage might be connected to the fact that Spain experienced nearly 800 years of Moorish rule in al-Andalus. The term “Moor,” often used for Zwarte Piet, can refer to both a sub-Saharan African and a darker North African.
Cover of a children’s book featuring Zwarte Piet: “In the bag – the grave fate of naughty Grietje and Pietje. Worded to the youth by Uncle Abraham.” 1915.
According to the director of the Rijksmuseum, there is a painting from 1520 depicting the court of Emperor Charles V. A proud black man is already shown with the attributes later associated with Zwarte Piet. However, Sinterklaas initially had no companion; it was only in 1850 that Schenkman portrayed him with an unnamed black servant in his picture book. In a later edition from 1858, this figure wears a page uniform with breeches and a beret. Although Schenkman did not invent the companion, as there are indications of earlier use, he canonized it, according to the Meertens Institute for Folklore.
While a connection to slavery, prevalent in the Dutch colonies at the time, cannot be proven, the stereotypical depictions may have been influenced by the contemporary discourse on colonialism and slavery. The name Pieter has been in use since 1859, and only around 1900 did the name Zwarte Piet become established. On the other hand, a connection to the black ravens of Wotan is more likely to be excluded, just as the comparison between the airborne Wotan and the rooftop-riding Sinterklaas is rather superficial. Additionally, Zwarte Piet is not black due to soot, as he is already black upon arrival by boat from Spain and not only after delivering gifts through chimneys.
Controversy
Isolated Zwarte Piet Protests
Sinterklaas and Zwarte Piet, Netherlands.
Since the 1970s, there have been occasional complaints about Zwarte Piet, as his appearance and behavior are seen by some as reminiscent of an uneducated Black person, raising concerns about racism. For instance, in 1987, a Black Dutchwoman expressed on the children’s program Sesamstraat that she disliked the tradition because, during Sinterklaas time, Blacks were referred to as Zwarte Piet.
In 2011, two Black Dutch individuals intended to hold a banner saying “Nederland kan beter” (“The Netherlands can do better”) during Sinterklaas’ entry. When the police prohibited this, they complied but revealed T-shirts with the inscription “Zwarte Piet is racisme” (“Black Pete is racism”). The police sought to prohibit this as an unauthorized demonstration, and when the two individuals did not comply, a scuffle ensued, leading to their arrest. They were fined 140 euros.
In 2013, the public broadcaster EenVandaag collected statements from dark-skinned Dutch people, often of Surinamese or Caribbean descent. Many recounted positive childhood experiences during Sinterklaas but also recalled instances of discrimination and bullying. Both adults and children made “jokes” about whether the dark-skinned child had arrived in the country too early or had missed the boat (back to Spain). If they spoke up against it, they encountered incomprehension, so they learned to adapt. As adults, many continued to celebrate Sinterklaas, but some avoided the festivities as much as possible. The festival, they argued, shouldn’t be abolished, but the companion should be adapted to modern times.
Sinterklaas and child Zwarte Piet. 1910.
Accusations in 2013
In October 2013, a nationwide protest erupted in the Netherlands when a Jamaican professor of social history suggested that the country should abolish Zwarte Piet. Verene Shepherd has been part of a four-member Working Group of Experts on People of African Descent at the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHCHR) since 2008, aiming to highlight human rights issues. In January 2013, the group asked the Dutch government for clarification on the Sinterklaas festival. The Zwarte Piet perpetuates a stereotype that portrays people of African origin as second-class citizens and incites racism, the group argued. They also mentioned hearing that Sinterklaas and Zwarte Piet were proposed to UNESCO as intangible cultural heritage of the Netherlands. However, a government representative stated in July that the latter was not true.
Shepherd stated in an interview with a Dutch newspaper:
“As a Black person, I feel that if I were to live in the Netherlands, I would resist it. As a member of the research group, I am obligated to conduct more research, but as a Black person, I would certainly resist. […] We are investigating whether the information we have received is correct. If not, we will change our stance. But the complaints we receive point to racism and a return to slavery. That is what we are investigating.”
In her opinion, the Sinterklaas festival should take place for the last time in 2013, as having a single Santa Claus would be sufficient (instead of both St. Nicholas on December 6th and Santa Claus on the 24th). She wanted the issue to be addressed in the UN General Assembly.
The Belgian UNESCO representative, Marc Jacobs, responded a few days after the media uproar, stating that the working group could not speak on behalf of the United Nations or UNESCO. He called the working group incompetent and said their quasi-official request should not be taken seriously. The instrument of intangible cultural heritage was being misused. A delegation from the Dutch Parliament’s Second Chamber, located in New York, wanted to meet with the social historian and explain the Sinterklaas festival to her.
A Dutch online newspaper drew a connection between the debate and the question of compensation for the descendants of slaves. Caribbean countries have been demanding some form of compensation from the countries that have benefited the most from the slave trade for decades. In the summer of 2013, the leaders of 14 Caribbean countries in Miami formulated a corresponding demand for the United Kingdom, France, and the Netherlands. Jamaican academic Verene Shepherd was one of the driving forces behind the “battle plan” of these 14 countries.
Consent or Mediating Positions
Some voices questioned how Zwarte Piet was portrayed on this occasion. Peter Jan Magry, a professor of ethnology in Amsterdam, told Algemeen Dagblad on October 24, 2013:
“Because the Sinterklaas festival is almost in the genes of the Dutch, we have had blinders on regarding the appearance of Zwarte Piet. Pieterbaas has indeed transformed from a foolish bogeyman into a clever friend of children in recent decades, but he still has kinky hair, baggy pants, red lips, and large earrings. For outsiders, he is a black stereotype that is perceived as racist.”
Cultural traditions need to be thoroughly understood instead of immediately expressing an opinion. However, the appearance of Zwarte Piet has indeed changed insufficiently with society. From a servant, he has become a friend of Sinterklaas, no longer carries a rod, no longer speaks in crooked sentences, and is no longer a foolish grimace-maker. But it must change that he still looks like a Black person as imagined by a White person in 1858.
Some organizers and politicians have also moved in this direction or at least expressed understanding. If public opinion slowly changes, organizers and department stores would also adapt. The center-right Prime Minister Mark Rutte said he could hardly change Piet’s color, while Interior Minister Ronald Plasterk (Social Democrats) said that children would still have fun even if a few green or blue Piet joined the black ones in the future.
On the Caribbean island of Bonaire, which has had the status of a special Dutch municipality since 2010, Sinterklaas is also celebrated. Mostly dark-skinned residents paint themselves black or brown for their role as Zwarte Piet, while Sinterklaas paints himself white. Due to the influx, candidates have to audition, said the Sinterklaas coordinator of a youth center, and there have never been accusations of racism. In contrast, on the neighboring island of Curaçao in 2011, there was a discussion that led to painting the Zwarte Piet in different colors. Children were told that the boat had sailed through a rainbow. An employee of the youth center in Bonaire explained that Zwarte Piet got his color from the soot in the chimney. Residents of Bonaire prefer not to be reminded of the slave past and would rather see themselves as descendants of Indians.
Negative Reactions
In the broader population, a massive wave of protests has emerged with particularly intense emotions. According to a survey, 92 percent of respondents want to keep Zwarte Piet, and a Facebook support page called Pietitie (a portmanteau of Piet and petitie, Dutch for the petition) received 2 million likes within two days. It has been reported that tattoos related to the topic have suddenly increased.
Geert Wilders of the right-wing populist Party for Freedom suggested on Twitter that instead of celebrating Sinterklaas, the United Nations should be abolished. The UN complained that members of the volunteer human rights group were harassed, intimidated, and attacked for their personal integrity. The popular Dutch newspaper De Telegraaf referred to Shepherd, who was unreachable, as a “zeurpiet” (‘whining Pete’).
In Groningen, a foundation that organizes the festival for underprivileged children initially planned to accompany Sinterklaas with not only black but also yellow and green Petes. However, they reconsidered this decision after receiving death threats and accusations that the foundation was behaving like traitors during World War II or supporters of the National Socialist Movement. The editor-in-chief of two children’s magazines stated that the discussion was only taking place among adults, and their magazine for elementary school children would not cover it. Otherwise, it would have to be revealed immediately that they were just men in costumes. Children are conservative; they want everything to stay as they are accustomed to.
On October 26, 2013, according to police reports, 500 people peacefully demonstrated in support of Zwarte Piet on the Malieveld in The Hague. The event was initiated by a sixteen-year-old. During the demonstration, Facebook petitions were handed over to PVV parliamentarian Joram van Klaveren, who intended to take them to the Second Chamber. A black woman protested on the sidelines of the demonstration against the UN for its role in the transfer of the former Dutch colony Dutch New Guinea to Indonesia in 1969, justified by a controversial vote (Act of Free Choice). The woman was mistakenly taken for a Zwarte Piet opponent and was harassed and insulted by demonstrators (“Go back to your own country”). The police ensured the woman’s safety.
On October 24, literature scholar Marleen de Vries wrote in the newspaper de Volkskrant that the character of “Zwarte Piet” has always been adaptable. She traces the black man back to the Moors, who were present on the European continent early and for centuries due to the conquest of Spain (from 711 to; the abandonment of the last stronghold in 1492). Moors associated with a bishop have been known since the late Middle Ages. De Vries sees the prototype for “Zwarte Piet” in the Saracens, who were feared. She describes the portrayal of the Moor as part of European cultural history for 700 years. According to de Vries, referring to slavery is misleading.
UN and Dutch UNESCO List
Independent of Verene Shepherd’s group, the Sinterklaas festival was also examined concerning its inclusion on a UNESCO list for intangible cultural heritage. In early summer, the Sint Nicolaasgenootschap requested the festival’s inclusion in this list. The Knowledge Center Intangible Heritage Netherlands dealt with this matter.
The director of the center, during the consideration of the request, welcomed it but expressed concerns that the discussion about Zwarte Piet could resurface. She inquired about how the society intended to handle the issue. In turn, the Sint Nicolaasgenootschap refused to make any changes.
In 2015, the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination issued a recommendation. The Dutch government should actively work towards eliminating negative stereotypes surrounding Zwarte Piet, especially those reminiscent of the slavery past. The Dutch delegation understood the pain and expressed openness to dialogue but rejected government intervention in defining or banning Piet’s appearance.
Highway Blockade 2017
On November 18, 2017, protesters traveled by bus to the province of Friesland. They intended to demonstrate against Zwarte Piet and racism during the Sinterklaasintocht in Dokkum. They had the municipality’s permission. On the A7 highway near Joure, they were stopped: activists advocating for Zwarte Piet blocked the highway with cars and threatened the demonstrators. Under police escort, the anti-Piet demonstrators returned while the mayor prohibited the anti-Piet protest, fearing chaos during Sinterklaas’s arrival.
As a consequence, 34 pro-Zwarte-Piet activists faced charges for the blockade. On November 9, 2018, the verdict was delivered. The judges largely followed the prosecution’s stance. The activists had prevented a demonstration, curtailing the demonstrators’ right to freedom of expression. Moreover, they significantly endangered traffic. Most pro-activists received 120 hours of community service. The ringleader, Jenny Douwes, received 240 hours of community service and a one-month suspended prison sentence. They are collecting funds through crowdfunding for an appeal.
Recent Developments
In November 2017, Algemeen Dagblad reported that TV presenter Humberto Tan had been under protection for a year and a half due to his remarks against Zwarte Piet. The reason was his solidarity with Sylvana Simons of the DENK Party, who also received death threats and required protection. In the same month, the newspaper declared a Sinterklaas ceasefire, a kind of truce in the interest of children. While Sinterklaas is in the Netherlands, discussions on the topic should be avoided. This call was supported by politicians Mark Rutte, Jan Terlouw, Erica Terpstra, Lodewijk Asscher, and former Sinterklaas actor Bram van der Vlugt, as well as singers, comedians, and other well-known Dutch figures.
Dutch newspapers reported in 2018 on the ongoing polarization of the debate, with demonstrators either for or against the traditional Zwarte Piet. The majority of society rejects the radicalism of violent Zwarte Piet supporters and has become more open to change. Currently, there is a coexistence of Piet with full face paint and those with only a few black strokes on their faces, interpreted as remnants of soot.
De Volkskrant described how some children explain the changes: the Piet are lazier than before because they no longer transport as many packages through chimneys, and therefore, they are not as black. Children recognize Piet through the costume and call them Zwarte Piet, even if they don’t have face paint. A study from Leiden University in 2015 found that children aged 5 to 7 perceive Zwarte Piet as clever, friendly, and significant, associating him more with a clown than with black people.
While the German manufacturer Playmobil offered a set with Zwarte Piet with dark skin in 2018, only the supermarkets Jumbo and Albert Heijn still offered Zwarte Piet as chocolate figures. AH reported that Piet had been adjusted for a few years and no longer had earrings or red lips. Other supermarkets had only sooty Piet or none at all, or the sooty Piet only appeared on advertising posters. In some AH branches, unknown individuals pressed the heads of chocolate Zwarte Piet with their thumbs.
During the arrival of Sinterklaas in November 2018, there were disturbances in various cities. According to the police, Kick Out Zwarte Piet activists peacefully demonstrated and followed the rules. However, in Eindhoven and Rotterdam, for example, they were surrounded and insulted by pro-Zwarte-Piet demonstrators. Objects like eggs or beer bottles were thrown. The mayor of Eindhoven, the liberal John Jorritsma, described it as the very intimidating behavior of a large group of aggressive and unregistered hooligans. Similar incidents occurred in 2022 in Staphorst against Kick Out Zwarte Piet, whose demonstration was ultimately canceled by the mayor, and Amnesty International.
The Maginot Line was a system of fortifications built from 1928 to 1938, located on the northeast border of France. It is named after the Minister of War at the time, André Maginot, who had this defense project adopted by Parliament in 1930.
Following the trauma of World War I, the objective was to prevent a new German invasion and make the French territory impregnable. The Maginot Line became closely associated with the painful memory of the 1940 defeat. In the collective memory, it bears a significant responsibility, symbolizing the immobility, sclerosis, and archaism of the French army, strictly confined to a defensive strategy unsuitable for the realities of modern, fast-paced, and mobile warfare.
A Consequence of World War I
135 mm turret model 1932 (block 6 of the Rochonvillers fortification).
After the conclusion of World War I, France found it imperative to completely reassess its military strategy. The war experience marked a radical shift in warfare, with the emergence of aviation, armored forces, and the development of highly destructive artillery. The vulnerability of the traditional infantry became evident in the staggering losses suffered by the French army throughout the war. The previously untenable strategy of relentless offense, adopted by the French high command in 1914, needed reevaluation, paving the way for the formulation of a new strategy.
Marshal Foch advocated for the creation of a rapidly deployable mobile army, while Joffre and, particularly, Pétain argued that a continuous defensive front was invulnerable, forming the basis for France’s defense.
Additionally, the Treaty of Versailles returned Alsace and Lorraine to France. These newly acquired, richly populated territories necessitated inclusion in the new French defense policy. The existing line of forts from Montmédy to Belfort was inadequate for defending these territories in the event of a new war, a constant concern for the French high command.
World War I also led to a reevaluation of fortifications. The rapid fall of Belgian forts in August 1914 convinced the high command of the futility of such structures, leading to the disarmament of forts. The forts of Séré de Rivières, built in the 1880s, were scarcely used during the war’s initial phase. Troops moved forward beyond the forts, making them susceptible to quick capture by the Germans in the early days of the Battle of Verdun.
However, the Battle of Verdun played a pivotal role in the rehabilitation of fortifications. The resilience of Fort Vaux and the significant role of Fort Souville highlighted the utility of fortifications. Lessons from this battle were crucial in shaping future strategies. The new strategy became decidedly defensive, relying on massive fortifications housing effective artillery.
The construction of the new French fortifications adhered to principles such as protecting the Northeastern border facing Germany and the Southeastern border facing Italy. This involved establishing a continuous front and creating an uninterrupted line of fire along the fortifications. The backbone of the system comprised deeply entrenched fortified structures with dispersed organs and equipment, allowing crews to live and fight for months without external contact. The construction of this system was entrusted to the Commission de Défense du Territoire (CDT) and later to the Commission de Défense des Frontières (CDF) starting in 1922.
Construction of the Maginot Line
Barbed wire network in front of the entrance to the Immerhof.
These two commissions would be tasked with defining the nature and layout of the new fortifications. However, it would not be their responsibility to implement the construction of the fortifications; they served as a reflective body where different concepts of fortification would be debated.
By the end of 1925, the Supreme War Council approved the commission’s report, envisioning the construction of a discontinuous fortification system, even during times of peace.
The project presented in November of the following year outlines the creation of three fortified regions—meaning three continuous lines of fortifications separated by non-fortified spaces, similar to Séré de Rivières’ fortified curtains—centered around Metz, the Lauter Valley, and Belfort, along with fortified positions behind the main ones.
This project was gradually streamlined, leading to the final 1929 plan that envisioned the creation of two fortified regions (Metz and Lauter), a specific defense line along the Rhine in Alsace, and the defensive organization of the Alps.
In 1927, the Commission for the Organization of Fortified Regions (CORF) was established. Its role was to implement the decisions of the CDF, and it became the primary architect of the Maginot Line. Comprising the best specialists from the three armed forces involved—artillery, infantry, and engineering—it was tasked with finalizing the positions’ layout, implementing construction projects, and managing equipment.
The CORF established regional delegations in Metz and Strasbourg, to which local engineering headquarters (Thionville, Bitche, Mulhouse, Belfort, and Nice, among others) are subordinate. The enormity of the task, the scale of the construction projects, the numerous technical challenges, and the overwhelming responsibility placed on the technicians and officers working on this colossal project necessitated the involvement of the country’s scientific and technical elite.
Turret for two mixed arms.
The next step was to gain approval for the project from political institutions. Early in 1929, the Council of Ministers approved the CORF’s project. When André Maginot succeeded Paul Painlevé as Minister of War at the end of 1929, he was tasked with taking over the dossier. He ensured the project’s approval in the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate, where it received over 90% of the votes.
On January 14, 1930, a law was passed allocating 2.9 billion francs over 5 years for the fortification projects. However, in reality, the work had already begun long before.
By the end of 1928, construction of the first structure of the Maginot Line, the Rimplas fortification in the Alps facing Italy, was underway, although the majority of the fortifications would later be oriented towards Germany.
Most of the major works in the Northeast were initiated in 1929. The blocks were cast and armed between 1929 and 1934. Most structures became operational by 1935, even though considerable work was still required to enhance the comfort inside the fortifications.
Simultaneously, hundreds of casemates and thousands of small bunkers were constructed according to the CORF’s plans, and millions of rails were planted to establish a massive anti-tank barrier along the northeastern border. By 1936, the core of the Maginot Line was constructed and operational, leading to the dissolution of the CORF. However, this did not mean that construction of the Maginot Line ceased entirely.
Budget and Technical Limitations
An STG blockhouse in the Cattenom woods. Image: Wikimedia, CC BY-SA 3.0 de.
The budget consistently put pressure on the CORF (Commission d’Organisation des Régions Fortifiées) throughout the construction process, either due to unanticipated costs, particularly for specific circumstances requiring special arrangements, or as a result of the extremely high inflation during those years. For these reasons, the ambitions of the CORF had to be constantly scaled-down, leading to the abandonment of the construction of certain blocks, bunkers, or even entire structures, resulting in serious weaknesses in certain sectors.
The Faulquemont region and the border with Belgium from Longuyon to Willy were both fortified as part of a second phase of work that began in 1934 to equip certain sectors that the first phase had neglected. However, the structures built in this second period had a much lower budget and, consequently, were of much lower quality than those constructed in the previous period.
After the CORF’s mandate ended in 1936, the construction of the Maginot Line continued under the guidance of the Main-d’œuvre militaire (MOM) or the Service Technique du Génie (STG) of each region, following plans drawn by officers present on-site.
These late achievements suffered not only from a significant lack of resources but also from a blatant lack of coherence, as each sector followed plans drawn by officers whose tactics could differ radically from those of the neighboring sector. These isolated construction campaigns did not cease with the declaration of war and sometimes continued until June 1940. Alongside the actual construction, a campaign of technical innovation had to be launched to equip the new fortifications.
By 1936, France possessed a brand-new and seemingly invulnerable system of fortifications. The years that followed, especially with the outbreak of World War II, provided an opportunity for the Maginot Line to prove its qualities in battle. Indeed, the Maginot Line played a genuine strategic role in the campaign in France, a role often unknown to the general public today, even though the battles that took place there were of great intensity.
The Maginot Line in the War
Single CORF casemate at Ravin-de-Crusnes. Image: Wikimedia, CC BY-SA 3.0.
The moment the large fortifications are put into service, they are occupied by specialized troops created for the occasion—fortress troops comprising detachments of infantry, artillery, and engineering. In times of peace, these troops are stationed in barracks behind the fortifications they occupy at the slightest alert. Thus, even before the declaration of war in September 1939, the Maginot Line would be put on alert several times based on the convulsions in Franco-German diplomatic relations, such as the remilitarization of the Rhineland in March 1936 or the Anschluss in March 1938. However, on August 23, 1939, when reservists were put on alert, the occupation became permanent.
During the fall and winter of 1939–1940, similar to the rest of the front, no notable events occurred on the Maginot Line except for a few skirmishes and aerial combats. Half of the French army—the 3rd, 5th, and 8th armies—massed behind the line and remained entirely passive during these nine months of the “Phoney War.”
On May 10, 1940, the German army launched its major offensive against Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and France. The French army stationed behind the Belgian border immediately moved to engage the Wehrmacht in Belgium, while the troops of the Maginot Line remained in their positions. In the initial days of the campaign, the battlefield remains distant from the Maginot Line.
The first significant contact between the German army and the fortifications of the Maginot Line occurred on May 16, 1940, at the Ferté outpost near Montmédy. It is a small and lower-quality outpost built in 1934, but it is the first Maginot Line outpost that the Germans had the opportunity to attack. They unleash a barrage of shells on the two casemates, overwhelming the modest outpost. Three days of incessant bombardment filled the interior with smoke, causing the asphyxiation and death of all 107 soldiers in the crew.
Apart from this tragic episode, the majority of the Maginot Line remains away from the main axes of the German offensive. Fearing the resistance of the fortifications, the Germans launched assaults against the line itself only very late in the campaign, coinciding with the beginning of the evacuation of Maginot Line troops after Weygand’s general retreat order on June 12. By this date, the French army is already defeated, and the Maginot Line troops are the only corps holding their positions with intact equipment.
However, when the Germans launched their first major offensive against the Maginot Line, most of its garrison troops were still in place. The Wehrmacht chooses to attack in the Sarre Valley, where the Maginot Line consists of small casemates and large artificial water bodies forming a defensive line. On June 14, 1940, after artillery and aviation bombardment, the Germans assaulted the fortified line.
Type B 81 mortar firing chamber in the Bois du Four A5 structure. Image: Michaël Séramour, CC BY-SA 4.0.
Fierce fighting ensues throughout the day in the woods of the Sarre Valley. By evening, French troops, reinforced by some Polish units, managed to repel the Germans at the cost of 500 casualties. The Wehrmacht, on the other hand, suffered over 1,000 losses. Paradoxically, this became the greatest French victory of the 1940 campaign, achieved on the same day as the fall of Paris.
However, it is a victory without lasting impact. The Sarre troops, like the rest of the French army, must retreat, abandoning the positions they fiercely defended on June 14. The general retreat of all field troops leaves the Maginot Line with only 22,000 defenders, from Luxembourg to Switzerland.
From then on, the Germans exploited this breach in the Maginot Line to encircle it. Soon, most fortified outposts would find themselves attacked from all sides. On June 15, the German army launched an offensive on the corner of the Maginot Line in Lower Alsace.
For several days, the Germans attempted to breach the line of fortifications but failed.
On June 19, a new German attack was launched in the Vosges. The mountain range crest was defended only by a series of small casemates deprived of artillery support due to the withdrawal of field artillery. They could only resist fiercely before being taken.
On June 16, taking advantage of the French withdrawal in the Rhine Valley, the Germans launched a bold amphibious operation. In a state of significant numerical inferiority and almost without artillery support, the French could only delay the battle before gradually retreating. The fighting, however, continued until the armistice between France and Germany came into effect on June 22.
However, the battles are not confined to the Northeast. On June 10, 1940, Italy declared war on France and launched an offensive against the French fortifications in the Alps. Despite significant numerical superiority, the Italian advance was laborious and faced great difficulties, notably due to the effectiveness of the Maginot Line fortifications in the Alps.
After Armistice
The most imposing casemate in the north-east: Block 5 of the Rochonvillers fortification, with four battlements each protecting a cannon. Image: Michel Teiten, CC BY 2.5.
When the armistice came into effect on June 24, 1940, the Maginot Line was largely intact. No major artillery fortifications had surrendered to the Germans. While a few casemates and small fortifications had fallen to the Wehrmacht from June 20 onwards, neither the artillery—the Germans utilized 420mm cannons—nor aerial bombardments succeeded in incapacitating the concrete and steel fortresses. When the fighting ceased, both adversaries faced each other, and the situation proved to be quite delicate to resolve.
According to the laws of war, as the troops of the Maginot Line were undefeated, they were entitled to withdraw without being imprisoned, a concession the Germans refused. The French negotiators at the armistice commission were compelled to yield.
For several days, a French military delegation bearing government orders toured all the Maginot Line fortifications to organize the surrender and captivity of all garrisons. On July 1, 1940, the 22,000 defenders of the Maginot Line abandoned their fortifications to surrender them to the Germans. Like two million French soldiers, they would endure nearly five years of captivity in Germany.
During the occupation, the Germans capitalized on the potential of the Maginot Line. Some fortifications were used to test new German weapons, while others became true underground war factories, sheltered from Allied bombardments.
As the prospect of an Allied attack on Europe became increasingly likely, the Germans conceived grand plans to repurpose the Maginot Line into a vast defensive line facing the West. The Germans had made no significant changes, however, when the Americans reached the back of the Maginot Line in October 1944.
In some areas, the Maginot Line impeded Allied progress, but it did not play a significant strategic role during this campaign. Before abandoning certain fortifications, the Germans sometimes carried out explosive demolitions.
Phased Abandonment of the Maginot Line
On ne passe pas!. The 1918 French propaganda poster by Maurice Neumont. Image: Temple.edu
After the restoration of peace, the Maginot Line was not abandoned. It now plays a role in NATO’s strategy, considered a defensive line against a potential Soviet offensive in Western Europe. However, despite being at the forefront of military technology in 1939–1940, the Maginot Line is entirely obsolete in the face of new artillery and the realities of the Cold War and the atomic bomb era.
In the 1960s, the military gradually abandoned the Maginot Line. Many fortifications were simply left to decay and fall into oblivion. Some of them are still in use by the military, like the Hochwald fortification in Alsace, which currently houses one of Europe’s most significant radar bases. Others have been acquired by enthusiasts’ associations, restored, and opened to the public. It is now possible to visit some of these sites that played an important, albeit often overlooked, role during the 1940 campaign. The fortress troops ultimately lived up to the motto of their corps, “On ne passe pas!” (They shall not pass).
Featured Image: A5 Bois du Four Maginot Line, Wikimedia, CC BY-SA 4.0.
Sinterklaas (Dutch: Sint-Nicolaas) or simply De Sint, in French Saint-Nicolas, is the main character and the name of the holiday for children celebrated in the Netherlands on the eve of St. Nicholas’ birthday, which falls on December 5th. In Belgium and some former Dutch colonies, the celebration occurs on December 6th, the actual day of St. Nicholas’ feast. On the island of Curaçao, Sinterklaas arrives by ship at Sint Annabaai Bay a week after his arrival in the Netherlands.
Traditionally, Sinterklaas arrives in the Netherlands by steamship, always on the first Saturday after the feast day of St. Martin, who passed away on November 8th. Dutch children believe that Sinterklaas comes specifically from Spain to visit them. In 2007, he visited Kampen in the Overijssel province as the first location, and in 2006, he was ceremoniously welcomed in Middelburg in the Zeeland province. In 2009, Sinterklaas planned to arrive in Schiedam on November 14th.
Saint Nicholas and Zwarte Piets arriving by boat, Netherlands.
The arrival of Sinterklaas means that from that moment on, children can place their shoes by the fireplace every evening before bedtime (Dutch: De schoen zetten) to find small gifts (mostly sweets) the next morning, provided they have been good. On the evening of December 5th, Sinterklaas brings a package with a significant gift (Dutch: Pakjesavond) to children who have been obedient throughout the year.
The celebration of Sinterklaas is solemnly observed throughout the Netherlands, except in the town of Grouw (Grou) in the Friesland province, where the celebration of Sint Piter takes place on February 21st. For instance, the Polish equivalent of the Dutch holiday Sinterklaas is the celebration of Saint Nicholas’ Day on December 6th.
Saint Nicholas’ Day is also observed, although somewhat less commonly, in other countries: Luxembourg (known as Kleeschen), Austria, Switzerland (Samichlaus), France (Saint Nicolas), Germany, Romania, Slovenia (Sv. Miklavž), Serbia (Sveti Nikola), Turkey (Noel Baba), Brazil (Papai Noel), the Czech Republic (Mikuláš), and Hungary. In the United States and the United Kingdom, we encounter the figures of Santa Claus and Father Christmas, respectively, with a fairy-tale-commercial-advertising character, and the period of gift-giving extends from St. Nicholas’ feast to New Year’s.
Contemporary Celebration
Sinterklaas and Zwarte Piets. (Alexander van Loon, Flickr)
According to public opinion surveys, the Dutch consider Sinterklaas the most popular holiday, leading to calls for December 5th to become an official public holiday. In 2009, 55% of the Dutch declared they would celebrate Sinterklaas solemnly, with an average spending of more than 120 euros on gifts. The holiday is most popular among individuals aged 18 to 34 (around 65%). Chocolate letters are definitely the most popular sweets.
Dutch children emotionally experience Sinterklaas’ arrival, manifested by stress-like symptoms. Psychologists caution against frightening children with the idea that if they misbehave, they may be taken to Spain in a sack by Sinterklaas or not receive a gift. Additionally, Sinterklaas songs can evoke anxiety in the youngest ones.
For commercial reasons, Sinterklaas arrives almost a month earlier (November 15th, 2008), and characteristic sweets and pastries for this period sometimes appear on store shelves as early as late September. This causes confusion in the minds of preschoolers due to their lack of a fully developed sense of time. Television starts airing Sinterklaas programs by the end of October. Parents of children with ADHD complain that kids get excited at the sight of toy advertising brochures dropped into mailboxes, leading to additional tension and misbehavior.
The issue of children’s stress related to the Sinterklaas holiday (Dutch: Sinterklaasstress or Sintstress) is commented on in the media. Until recently, Sinterklaas would quietly leave the Netherlands on December 6th and return to Spain by ship. A new trend has emerged: organizing a festive farewell to Sinterklaas (Dutch: Sinterklaas uittocht). Especially autistic children feel the need to say goodbye to Sinterklaas.
Origin of the Holiday
Saint Nicholas and the Zwarte Piet, 1850.
The tradition of celebrating Sinterklaas is connected with the figure of Saint Nicholas of Myra, who was a bishop in Myra, the capital of Lycia, in the early 4th century, and even incorporates older historical elements.
Historians have not been able to confirm whether Bishop Nicholas had a long, gray beard, like Sinterklaas. According to beliefs, Sinterklaas moves across the roofs of houses on a gray horse named Amerigo, while the Walloons believe it is a donkey. Sinterklaas is dressed in an episcopal robe and a hat called a mitre in Latin, holding an ornate bishop’s crook, or crozier, in his hands.
Initially, Saint Nicholas’ Day was celebrated only in Eastern Europe. It was only in the 13th century that it was decided to celebrate Saint Nicholas’ feast in Western Europe. Around the same time in Utrecht, the shoes of four poor children were filled with coins, and efforts were made in other cities to organize small gifts for the poor. In the early days of the Eighty Years’ War, Calvinist priests attempted to discontinue the solemn celebration of Saint Nicholas’ Day due to perceived heretical elements. However, the holiday was already so popular that the call for a boycott did not receive a positive response, even from the Protestant part of society.
Between the figures of Saint Nicholas of Myra and the Germanic pagan god Odin, many similarities can be found. Odin also rides a gray horse (Sleipnir) with eight legs, holds a spear in his hand, and moves through the heavens. During the festival associated with the astronomical phenomenon of the winter solstice, young girls would ask Odin for the gift of an image of their future fiancé. This is why images of young men are found on cookies (speculaas poppen). Odin was always accompanied by two ravens: Hugin and Munin, possibly explaining why the assistant of the Dutch Saint Nicholas wears a feather on his hat.
The belief that Sinterklaas arrives from Spain to the Netherlands is most likely historically conditioned. In the 16th century, trading ships brought expensive items, delicacies, spices, and oranges from Spain to the Netherlands, despite the ongoing war between the two states (1568–1648). Trade flourished, and the Dutch were convinced that everything from the south, including Sinterklaas, came from Spain. Perhaps the relocation of Saint Nicholas’ remains from Muslim-occupied Myra to a tomb in Bari, which was then under Spanish rule, in 1087 played a part.
Another concept suggests that the Dutch identified Sinterklaas as a Catholic saint with the Roman Catholic Spaniards who ruled over the territory of present-day Holland in the Middle Ages. The treats exchanged at that time, such as mandarins, sweet almonds, and figs, came from Spain, so people, when giving each other gifts, said that Sinterklaas brought these delicacies, especially from Spain. In the second half of the 19th century, the arrival of Sinterklaas from Spain to the Netherlands was described in a children’s picture book by teacher Jan Schenkman, depicting the holiday celebrations in large cities.
Placing Shoes During Sinterklaas
In the Netherlands, gifts for Saint Nicholas’ Day, known as Sinterklaas, are placed in children’s shoes that have been previously set out by the fireplace. In the period between Sinterklaas’s official arrival in the Netherlands and December 5th, for several days, children place their shoes by the fireplace before going to bed so that the next morning they can check what they received as presents. If they behaved well, small gifts such as chocolates, candies, marzipan figures, or cookies could be found in the shoes. Sometimes, children also put a carrot or a glass of milk for Amerigo, Sinterklaas’s horse, in the shoe.
This tradition dates back to the 15th century, when initially only the poor would place their shoes in the church on the evening of Sinterklaas, December 5th. The wealthy would add a little something to the shoes, and on December 6th, which is the official day of Saint Nicholas’ death, the income would be distributed among the poor and beggars. Archival materials confirming the existence of this custom date back to 1427 in the Saint Nicholas Church in Utrecht. Over time, Sinterklaas became a family celebration, and by roughly the 16th century, children started placing their shoes in the largest room of the family home for Sinterklaas to hide presents in them.
The 17th-century Dutch painter Jan Steen captured the morning of Sinterklaas in two paintings. In the painting titled Saint Nicholas’ Day, you can see what Saint Nicholas brought as gifts for the children. The most generous was a little girl who received a doll and a bucket full of toys and sweets from Saint Nicholas. A boy on the left wipes away tears as he finds a twig in his shoe. An older girl triumphantly holds his shoe up, while another boy laughs, pointing to the shoe with the twig. Only the grandmother standing in the back looks kindly at the crying boy and reaches behind the curtain, perhaps hiding a gift for him. In those times, boys often found twigs or a small bag of salt in their shoes.
Evening of Gift Packages
On the evening of December 5th, Sinterklaas leaves, usually by the fireplace, packages with grand presents for children as a reward for being good throughout the year. During the economic crisis and the outbreak of World War II, the tradition of giving gifts for Sinterklaas was not yet a common phenomenon in the Netherlands. It was only the prosperity that followed the end of World War II that contributed to the popularization and further development of the custom of exchanging gifts on December 5th. Right after the war, in many Dutch families, gifts were placed on the respective person’s chair, and the ritual was surrounded by an air of great mystery.
Over time, the image of Sinterklaas underwent a transformation: from an invisible, magical gift-giver to a great friend of children with the appearance of a benevolent grandfather. This figure, with a sack full of presents, visits children in their homes, accompanied and assisted by his black helpers.
Initially, parents gifted children with handmade trinkets, later mostly with store-bought items. Large corporations and trade unions also adopted the custom of giving packages to the children of their employees or members. In big cities, it became popular among students, friends, and colleagues to draw lots and exchange small gifts for Sinterklaas. This way, the tradition ceased to be solely the privilege of parents giving gifts to children. Even the possibility of electronic drawing of lots appeared on the Internet.
(St. Nicholas) Sinterklaas and Zwarte Piet.
Sweets and Pastries Typical for the Sinterklaas Period
During Sinterklaas’ stay in the Netherlands, traditional sweets and pastries appear in bakeries and on food stalls in department stores and supermarkets, which are not available for the rest of the year. Examples of sweets and pastries associated with the Sinterklaas holiday:
chocoladeletters – chocolate letters of various sizes: milk, dark, or white chocolate; often placed in children’s shoes; the most common choice is a large chocolate letter, typically the initial of the recipient’s name.
marzipan figurines – small figures of fruits or animals made of marzipan.
amandelstaaf/boterletter – a mass of ground almonds and sugar with lemon juice in puff pastry shaped like a long roll or the letters S, M, or W.
borstplaat – candies, usually heart-shaped, with vanilla or cocoa flavor, consisting mainly of sugar and milk.
taaitaai – hard and chewy, very difficult to bite cookies with a light anise flavor, often shaped like Sinterklaas figures.
speculaasstaaf – a mass of ground almonds and sugar with lemon juice in speculaas dough, a slightly under-risen dough with a dense structure, characterized by its distinctive aromatic and spicy taste and scent derived from a blend of spices including cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves, ginger, cardamom, and white pepper.
deegmannetjes – buns made from semi-sweet dough in the shape of little figures with raisin eyes.
Zwarte Piet
Sinterklaas and Zwarte Piet, Netherlands.
Sinterklaas is accompanied and assisted by one or several Zwarte Pieten (Zwarte Piet, pronounced: pit). The task of Zwarte Piet (Black Pete) is to carry the bag of presents and climb through chimneys into homes to secretly place gifts into the shoes children have set out by the fireplace. The black assistant of Sinterklaas is dressed in the costume of a page from the late 16th and early 17th centuries, similar to the attire worn by courtiers in royal courts.
Before World War II, Sinterklaas was accompanied by only one black assistant. After the war, Canadian soldiers who took part in organizing the first post-war Sinterklaas celebration, unconstrained by the rigor of tradition, initiated the participation of several Zwarte Pieten. Since then, Sinterklaas has always been accompanied by several, and even dozens, of dark-skinned helpers, each fulfilling a different role.
While Sinterklaas is a calm and dignified elderly gentleman, his helpers behave playfully, engage in mischief, make jokes, perform acrobatic tricks, and also distribute unique, tiny, spiced cookies to children and passersby on the street, called “kruidnootjes” and “pepernoten.” Kruidnootjes are small, round, dark brown, dry cookies with a flat bottom. Pepernoten are cookies with anise in the form of light brown, irregularly shaped cubes.
a boy from Mauretania, which would explain the color of his skin,
a subdued devil,
an Ethiopian boy named Piter (from Petrus), whom Sinterklaas bought at a slave market in Myra, granted freedom, and out of gratitude, he remained by his rescuer’s side,
a former assistant of an Italian chimney sweep, as he has the skill of walking on roofs, is dressed in a chimney sweep suit, and carries a broom.
The black skin color of Sinterklaas’s helpers and the golden earrings that Zwarte Pieten wears are often criticized for allegedly promoting racism by invoking the tradition of slavery. In Flanders, children refer to Zwarte Piet as Pieterknecht, which means Pieter’s helper. Pieterknecht is a politically correct term that does not refer to skin color.
Songs About Sinterklaas
In the Netherlands, there are numerous songs about Sinterklaas sung by children during this holiday. Examples of songs include:
“Someone is knocking at the door” / Daar wordt aan de deur geklopt
“He arrives, he arrives, dear, kind Sint” / Hij komt, hij komt, die lieve goede Sint
“Children, listen, who is knocking there” / Hoor wie klopt daar kinderen
Sinterklaas’s attire is inspired by the robes worn by bishops, complete with the attributes associated with bishops. For practical reasons, Sinterklaas’s robes are often more modest. Sinterklaas typically wears a long purple cassock fastened with numerous buttons, over which he puts on a long alb, and a red stole draped around his neck.
Over this attire, he wears an elaborately decorated cape fastened in the front with a chain and two hooks. The inner side of the cape is gold-yellow or white.
When Sinterklaas is seated on his horse, the cape falls onto the animal’s back. On his head, Sinterklaas wears a red hat, which closely resembles a mitre, the headgear of bishops. In his hand, he holds a pastoral staff. He wears black boots on his feet and long, white, or occasionally purple gloves on his hands. On his ring finger, he wears a large, episcopal, golden signet ring with a ruby.
Controversies, Criticism, and Competition
The mutual exchange of gifts on Sinterklaas has historically faced opposition from the Protestant Church; for example, around 1600, celebrating this holiday was prohibited in Delft. Martin Luther opposed this Catholic custom. Even in 1895, the mayor of the town of Sluis spoke against celebrating the Sinterklaas ceremony in public schools. Presently, within the Catholic Church, there are voices of protest—opponents of Sinterklaas and Santa Claus point to the departure from tradition and the complete commercialization of the holiday.
In the late 20th century, Saint Nicholas in Poland and Sinterklaas in the Netherlands faced competition from themselves in the form of the American Santa Claus, known in Dutch as kerstman. Santa Claus initially became popular in the United Kingdom, where he is called Father Christmas, and then expanded his reach to almost all of Europe as Santa.
The name Santa Claus comes from the Dutch word Sinterklaas, which was incorporated into American English and Americanized by Dutch immigrants who arrived in America in 1614 and, among other things, founded New York, initially named New Amsterdam. At lightning speed, the historical figure of Saint Nicholas of Myra transformed into the commercially attractive figure of Santa Claus.
Christmas in Croatia is a Christian tradition commemorating the birth of Jesus. The peak of the Christmas celebration occurs on Christmas Day, the 25th of December, and extends to Epiphany on the 6th of January. The period from the first Advent is marked by preparations for Christmas. The Christmas season in Croatia is a blend of Christian and secular traditions, influenced primarily by the Roman Catholic Church’s customs, as well as older Slavic and Central European folklore. Many of the practices can be found in other Western Christian countries. There are numerous regional and local variations in the celebration of Christmas. This article presents the traditions commonly associated with Christmas in Croatia and, unless stated otherwise, practiced in the majority of the country.
Modern Christmas traditions in Croatia have roots dating back to the 19th century. In Croatia, Christmas celebrations have a more Christian character and are less commercial compared to Nordic countries, for example. Christmas is celebrated with family and friends. However, similar to Sweden and the rest of the Christian world, commercial elements with expensive gifts are becoming increasingly common.
In families where gift-giving is practiced, it is traditionally Santa Claus (Croatian: Djed Božićnjak) and less frequently the Baby Jesus (Croatian: mali Isus) who brings them on Christmas Day, the 25th of December. The tradition of the Baby Jesus comes from Germany and Austria, where some children similarly receive presents from Christkind. Apart from Christmas Day, children usually receive gifts in the form of sweets and fruit on St. Nicholas Day on the 6th of December.
Advent (Croatian: došašće or advent) begins on the fourth Sunday before Christmas, and the period leading up to the 25th of December is characterized by preparations for Christmas. In some parts of the country (and among Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina), the Christmas celebration traditionally starts on St. Catherine of Alexandria’s Day on the 25th of November.
Throughout the Advent season, early morning masses (singular Croatian: zorica, plural Croatian: zorice) are organized in the country’s Roman Catholic churches, featuring a rich repertoire of special Advent songs. Depending on the region, Saint Barbara’s Day on the 4th of December and Saint Lucy’s Day on the 13th of December are associated with different traditions and rituals, especially in rural areas, where neighbors and acquaintances pay visits, wishing each other luck and well-being.
Advent Wreath
Since the end of the 20th century, the tradition of having an Advent wreath has grown stronger in Croatia. The Advent wreath serves the same purpose as the Advent candlestick in Sweden and is placed centrally on the table or in another prominent location. The Advent wreath consists of a wreath bound with evergreen plant material (usually coniferous plants) and four live candles. On the first Sunday of Advent, one of the candles on the Advent wreath is lit.
On the second Sunday of Advent, both the first candle and the one next to it are lit, and so on until the fourth Sunday of Advent, when all the candles are lit. As the candles have burned for different lengths of time, a “staircase” of lights has formed by the fourth Advent. The shape and appearance of the Advent wreath, as well as the color of the candles, can vary.
Typically, four slightly thicker candles are used, but variations with slim and tall candles also exist. The candles are usually white and/or red, but some have Advent wreaths with three purple candles and one pink candle. In the Roman Catholic Church, purple is the color of reflection, suffering, and repentance. In this arrangement, the pink candle is lit on the fourth Sunday of Advent.
During the Advent season, Christmas wheat (Croatian: Božićna pšenica) is sown. According to this originally pre-Christian tradition, now associated with traditional Christmas celebrations, wheat seeds are soaked on a plate or in a pot. Depending on the tradition or region, the wheat is sown either on Saint Barbara’s Day on the 4th of December or, more commonly, on Saint Lucy’s Day on the 13th of December. The seeds sprout in either soil or cotton.
The plate or pot is usually placed on the table, and sometimes a candle is placed in the middle of the sowing. On Christmas Day, approximately ten-centimeter-long shoots emerged. According to tradition, a ribbon in the colors of the Croatian tricolor (red, white, and blue) is tied around the shoots. If a candle is used, it is lit on Christmas Day. According to folklore, a prosperous year awaits if the shoots have grown well and the straws have become long. Tradition dictates that the straws and shoots are given to the birds after Christmas, as the “holy” Christmas wheat should not be thrown in the trash.
On Saint Nicholas Day, on the 6th of December, Saint Nicholas brings gifts to all the good children. According to tradition, all children should clean their shoes the day before he arrives and place them by the window. The window is left ajar so that Saint Nicholas can peek in during the night. If the children have polished their shoes well, they receive candy and/or toys in or next to their gleaming shoes.
Sometimes a (usually golden) bundle of twigs is left in the shoes as a reminder of the importance of being good. The bundle becomes very large if the children have been disobedient during the year. Saint Nicholas’s companion is an angel, or more commonly, the devilish Krampus, a figure originating from Advent folklore in the Alpine and pre-Alpine regions. Saint Nicholas Day is traditionally the main day for gift-giving. However, since the end of the 20th century, it has become increasingly common to exchange gifts on Christmas Day.
Christmas Eve
Christmas Eve (Croatian: Badnja večer or Badnjak) on the 24th of December is celebrated by most with family and/or friends. The Croatian word for Christmas Eve comes from the verb “bdjeti,” meaning ‘to watch.’ The day is symbolized by preparations for Christmas Day, which is the highlight of Christmas. In most homes, it is on Christmas Eve that the tree is brought into the house, and decorated, and Christmas food is cooked and prepared.
According to an older tradition, especially prevalent in rural areas, it was customary to bring in three logs on Christmas Eve and place them by the open fireplace. The logs represented the Trinity and were used to kindle a fire in the open fireplace and light candles. Similarly, straw was brought into the house and spread on the floor, usually under the dining table, to evoke the memory of Jesus’ birth in a stable. From the leftover straw, wreaths were made, symbolizing fertility and a good harvest. This custom lives on in the tradition of placing straws under the tablecloth on Christmas Eve to recall the manger in Bethlehem.
The tradition of having a Christmas tree originates from Germany and has been practiced in Croatia since the 19th century. Before that, the tradition dictated that houses be decorated with flowers and fruits, mainly apples, plums, and pears. However, this practice was replaced by the Christmas tree, usually brought into the house and adorned with customary Christmas decorations on Christmas Eve. The tree is sometimes decorated with licitar hearts. These hearts are intricately decorated and made from an edible material. However, they are primarily hung for decorative purposes. The Christmas tree is allowed to remain until Epiphany, when Christmas is officially over.
According to Roman Catholic tradition, meat is not consumed on Christmas Eve, and the meal consists of fish, usually cod (Croatian: bakalar), prepared in a way that resembles lutefisk. A central part of the dinner table is the Christmas Eve bread (Croatian: Badnji kruh), which consists of honey, nuts, and dried fruit. Christmas Eve culminates in the Midnight Mass (Croatian: polnoćka). During the mass, both local and internationally recognizable Christmas carols are sung.
Christmas Day
Christmas Day (Croatian: Božić, meaning “little God”) is the highlight of Christmas. On this day, people wish their family and friends a Merry Christmas (Croatian: Sretan Božić or Čestit Božić). Many participate in the Christmas morning service. On Christmas Day, most families have some form of gift-giving. According to tradition, it is Santa Claus (Croatian: Djed Božićnjak, meaning ‘Grandfather Christmas’) who brings these gifts. In some homes, it is the Baby Jesus (Croatian: mali Isus). The rituals surrounding gift-giving can vary, but commonly, the presents are already under the tree in the morning.
The traditional Christmas dinner can consist of pork, turkey, or both, depending on the region or family traditions. The central part of the Christmas table is the glazed Christmas bread (not to be confused with Christmas Eve bread). Christmas bread includes ingredients like nutmeg, raisins, and almonds and is shaped like a wreath.
Many place a candle in the middle of the bread, and it stays on the table until Epiphany (the 6th of January), when Christmas is considered over and the bread is shared and eaten by everyone in the family. Other foods that may be part of the Christmas dinner include sarma (cabbage rolls filled with meat and rice), various types of roasted meat, local sausages, pancetta, cheese, pršut (air-dried ham), kulen (spicy sausage), as well as various types of cookies baked on Christmas Eve, such as fritule.
In antiquity, the Gallic Wars corresponds to the Roman conquest of Gaul, a territory roughly equivalent to present-day France, as well as Belgium, the Netherlands, parts of Germany, Luxembourg, and Northern Italy. Gaul was then composed of numerous populations with different customs and laws. During this war, Vercingetorix managed to unite the Gauls, who faced the Romans in two major battles: Gergovia, where the Gauls emerged victorious, and Alesia, marking their definitive defeat.
Julius Caesar conquered Gaul in less than 8 years, from 58 to 50 BCE, with approximately 100,000 men. Caesar himself narrates this campaign in his work titled “Commentarii de Bello Gallico (Commentaries on the Gallic War),” portraying himself as an inspired and victorious leader to appeal to the Senate, to whom he was accountable. It is worth noting that this war, ostensibly aimed at protecting Rome and its allies, also served the purpose of advancing the proconsul’s political career, bringing military glory, and settling his debts.
Key Battles of the Gallic Wars
Battle of the Arar (58 BC): Caesar’s first major battle against the Helvetii tribe, a Germanic Celtic tribe, resulting in a decisive Roman victory.
Battle of Bibracte (58 BC): Another battle against the Helvetii, fought near the Mont Beuvray in present-day Burgundy. The Romans, led by Caesar, emerged victorious.
Battle of Vosges (58 BC): An engagement during the pursuit of Vercingetorix, where Caesar achieved a victory over the rebellious Gallic chieftain.
Battle of the Axona (57 BC): Engagement against the Belgae confederation, where Caesar successfully defeated the forces of the Belgic tribes.
Battle of the Sabis (57 BC): An encounter with the Germanic Suebi tribe led by Ariovistus, resulting in a victory for Caesar and securing Roman influence over the region.
Battle of Lutetia (52 BC): A skirmish fought near present-day Paris during the rebellion.
Battle of Gergovia (52 BC): A significant defeat for Caesar against the united Gallic tribes led by Vercingetorix. This marked a rare setback for Caesar in the course of the war.
Siege of Alesia (52 BC): A decisive siege where Caesar’s forces surrounded and defeated Vercingetorix and his Gallic allies, effectively ending organized Gallic resistance.
Battle of Gergovia (52 BC): Following the siege of Alesia, Caesar faced further resistance at Gergovia but ultimately succeeded in capturing the city.
Battle of Alesia (52 BC): Not to be confused with the Siege of Alesia, this earlier battle was part of Vercingetorix’s rebellion. Caesar emerged victorious, further establishing Roman dominance.
Why Was the Gallic Wars Fought?
Vercingetorix statue by Frédéric Bartholdi, on Place de Jaude, in Clermont-Ferrand, France.
The causes of the Gallic Wars are manifold. Some Gallic tribes could potentially pose a threat to the Roman Republic, but Julius Caesar had much to gain from it. In his Commentaries on the Gallic Wars, Caesar justifies each of his campaigns in Gaul as a pacifying mission or as assistance to a threatened tribe. According to his rhetoric, Caesar is not conquering; he is protecting the weaker ones. It is true that the Aedui, an allied tribe of the Romans, seek Roman support against the Helvetii, who have decided to join Aquitaine.
Rome already had a foothold in the southern Gaulish territory, in Gallia Narbonensis (Transalpine Gaul), and allies among these peoples. Furthermore, Rome worries that the opportunistic and belligerent Germanic peoples might invade the Helvetii’s territory. However, Julius Caesar saw this primarily as an opportunity to gain military glory over Pompey and Crassus, fellow members of the triumvirate with him, who jointly led Rome.
Support for the Aedui elicits hostile reactions from other tribes, and Caesar eventually deems it necessary to conquer the entirety of Gaul to pacify the region. Every pretext is used to defend the interests of Rome. Between preventive action and the desire for glory, the Gallic Wars conveniently serves Julius Caesar, who seizes the opportunity.
Where and When Did the Gallic Wars Take Place?
Multi-year overview of the Gallic Wars. Image: CC BY-SA 3.0.
The Gallic Wars took the form of a series of military campaigns directed against various Gallic tribes that then constituted the territory. Initially, the objective was to contain the Helvetii, which was accomplished in two campaigns during the same year, 58 BC. The following year, Julius Caesar turned his attention to the Belgians, who had raised an army of allied tribes. The proconsul gradually subdues the different peoples of Belgic Gaul. Military operations continued in Britain and then in Aquitaine. In 55 BC, Germanic tribes threatened the last Belgian tribes subjected to Rome. The formidable Germanic peoples put up a strong resistance before Caesar managed to cross the Rhine, a technical feat achieved through the construction of a bridge.
Julius Caesar then set his sights on Britain (modern-day Great Britain), accused of sending reinforcements during minor Gallic uprisings. This opportunity allowed the general to regain favor in Rome after the challenges faced by the Germanic peoples. Caesar is subsequently harassed by various revolts, necessitating his intervention across the region. He is compelled to continue fighting, while Pompey, with whom rivalry intensifies, is in Rome at the heart of power. However, Pompey lends him legions for reinforcement. The only tribes left to conquer in 53 BC were the Treveri, Menapii, and Eburones, under the leadership of Ambiorix. It is through the ingenuity of Lieutenant Titus Labienus that Julius Caesar achieves this.
In 52 BC, a new revolt looms. The massacre of Cenabum, executed by the Carnutes, sparks rebellious sentiments throughout Gaul. Under Vercingetorix, of Arvernian origin, many Gauls unite. After a defeat at Avaricum, the Gallic leader is victorious at the Battle of Gergovia before eventually surrendering in the Battle of Alesia. The Bituriges and then the Carnutes rise again the following year. However, the last resistors to Roman domination were defeated during the Siege of Uxellodunum in 51 BC. Julius Caesar, adorned with glory, finally returned to Rome to seize power. Crossing the Rubicon with a legion, he triggered the Civil War in 49 BC.
Which Gallic Peoples Were Subdued by Julius Caesar?
The campaigns of 58 BC (In Italian). Note the Roman territory in yellow does not yet include modern day France, the Low Countries, or Germany. Image: CC BY-SA 3.0.
During the Gallic War, Julius Caesar subdued many Gallic peoples, often facing repeated resistance as different tribes continued to revolt:
58 BC: the Helvetii, towards present-day Switzerland;
57 BC: the Nervii, Atrebates, and Viromandui, towards present-day Belgium;
56 BC: the Armoricans and Venelli, towards present-day Brittany;
55 BC: the Morini and Menapii towards Belgium, the Usipetes and Tencteri towards the Rhine;
54 BC: the Breton coalition;
53 BC: the Eburones, in the northeast of Gaul;
52 BC: the Arverni, Sequani, and Parisii, in the central-eastern part of Gaul and towards present-day Paris;
51 BC: the Bellovaci (towards Belgium), the Pictones (towards present-day Poitou), the Bituriges (Celtic Gaul between the Loire and the Massif Central), the Cadurci (around Cahors), the Treveri (Gaul Belgium), and the Carnutes (Beauce).
Why Did Julius Caesar Write the Book Gallic Wars?
Caesar receives Divicon’s ambassadorship on the Arar River after the Roman victory over the Helvetians.
The primary account of the Gallic War comes from Julius Caesar himself, who is both the judge and the party involved, as he writes about it. His Commentaries on the Gallic Wars were divided into seven volumes, one for each year of the military campaign. They were regularly published in Rome in batches of two or three volumes. Aulus Hirtius, a close friend of Julius Caesar, will write an eighth book to describe the situation in Gaul in 50 BC and the final conflicts in 51 BC.
While Caesar and Aulus Hirtius consider these works as historical documents, one must approach the pages with a critical perspective, keeping in mind that the author is not neutral and consistently portrays himself in a favorable light.
When Caesar depicts his adversaries as formidable and challenging to defeat, it is to highlight his own victory and downplay the role of his lieutenants. Julius Caesar sought glory during the Gallic Wars and aimed to persuade the Roman aristocracy, through his Commentaries, that his military campaigns were justified. These are indeed commentaries, concise remarks that stick to the facts in the form of raw notes.
Cicero praises Caesar’s straightforward and effective writing style. However, a certain level of caution is warranted when interpreting these writings. Many individuals who participated in the war, particularly the lieutenants, could testify in cases of falsehood. The complete text of The Gallic Wars is available online.
What Was Vercingetorix’s Role in the Gallic Wars?
An Arvernian named Vercingetorix led the largest uprising of the Gallic tribes. It all begins with the massacre of Cenabum on January 23, 52 BC, where the Carnutes executed Roman citizens. The entire Gaul was inflamed following this event. A nobleman newly in power, Vercingetorix takes the lead in the rebellion and gathers the Senones, Parisii, Pictones, Cadurci, Turones, Aulerci, Lemovices, Andes, and other clans from the oceanic border, as well as the Bituriges.
Having previously served in the Roman army, Vercingetorix employs their strategies. He adopted the scorched-earth policy of destroying cities and fields to hinder the Roman army’s supply lines. After the Gallic defeat at Avaricum, resulting in a massacre, Vercingetorix’s forces retreat to the oppidum of Gergovia.
Despite successfully foiling the betrayal by the Aedui, the Romans abandoned the siege after significant losses in skirmishes. They head towards Lutetia to confront the Parisii, Senones, and Aulerci. The entire Gaul revolts at this moment and unites behind Vercingetorix at Bibracte, except for the Remi, Lingones, and Treviri. In August 52 BC, Vercingetorix attempted to crush the Roman troops but was forced to retreat to Alesia, where he eventually surrendered.
Why and How Did the Gauls Lose the Gallic Wars?
The defeat of Vercingetorix took place in September 52 BC at Alesia, where 95,000 Gauls were entrenched in the oppidum and resisted a siege. Julius Caesar undertook significant encirclement works to prevent the Gauls from going out to resupply. The idea was also to make combat more challenging for the Gauls during their skirmish attempts. The Gallic relief army was insufficient to free Vercingetorix and his troops.
The vast multitude of Gallic tribes, often divided, tended to betray each other regularly. It was also through the Germanic cavalry that the Romans managed to win the final battle. The Romans had indeed enlisted German mercenaries to tilt the odds in their favor.
Key Dates in the Gallic Wars
58 BC: Caesar Annexes Switzerland: Julius Caesar invades the land and manages to assert his authority over the Helvetii people. Roman dominance gradually extended across the entire territory, which takes on the name Helvetia. Initially, it fell under the province of Belgica before being integrated into the Gallia Lugdunensis.
57 BC: Julius Caesar Subdues the Belgian Territory: Caesar managed to subdue the Celtic and Germanic peoples of Belgium despite fierce resistance and uprisings. Roman Belgium then encompassed a much larger territory than it would later become. It is divided into three provinces: Belgica Prima, Germania Inferior (Germania Secunda), and Belgica Secunda. The region experienced some development, and significant cities were founded (Tournai, Tongres).
In the years to come, it will be marked in the north by the presence of Frankish Germans (future Flemish) and in the south by a population of more Latinized Franks (future Walloons).
52 BC: The Siege of Gergovia: Located in the Arverni region, Gergovia was the site of a major battle in the Gallic Wars. The Arverni and Bituriges tribes, which Vercingetorix led, won the battle with the Romans. Julius Caesar had six legions in addition to his Gallic allies, especially the Aedui. To conceal his defeat from the Senate, Caesar pretends to prefer supporting his lieutenant Labienus further north.
May 52 BC: The Romans Capture Lutetia: Lutetia, which the Romans, under the command of Lieutenant Labenius, have held since the third century BCE, falls into their hands. Residents of the fortified city destroy it because they won’t give up to the invaders. This action allowed the Romans to quickly spread their own architecture. The Gaulish people gave the city the name Paris, which the Romans called “Civitas Parisorium,” or the city of the Parisii.
52 BC: The Battle of Alesia: The Siege of Alesia lasted 6 to 8 weeks. Vercingetorix and his troops retreated to this oppidum after the failure of an attack that was meant to be decisive. In response, Caesar built significant fortifications that greatly hindered the Gauls. Furthermore, reinforcements are delayed, arriving only after 6 weeks. The Romans eventually prevailed, thanks to Germanic reinforcements.
What Were the Consequences of the Gallic Wars?
The Gallic Wars marked the beginning of Rome’s significant expansion and the onset of the civil war in Rome, known as Caesar’s Civil War, pitting Julius Caesar against Pompey. Following his victory in Gaul, Julius Caesar returned to Italy with great prestige, seizing power as imperator and later as dictator for life, thereby ending the Roman Republic in favor of the Roman Empire.
In Gaul, an entire civilization undergoes transformation, as Caesar’s triumph gives rise to Gallo-Roman culture, leaving enduring legacies evident today in various aspects such as roads, architecture, law, and other elements resulting from the Roman conquest of Gaul.
Cicero’s “De divinatione” (44 BCE), which rejects astrology and other supposedly divinatory techniques, serves as a rich historical source for understanding the conception of scientificity in classical Roman antiquity. Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) compiled in his “Naturalis Historia” the science of ancient Greece. Although science in Ancient Rome did not undergo the same development as in Hellenic culture, it was a civilization with significant advances in the systematization and organization of classical knowledge.
The Romans excelled in applied technology, particularly in agriculture, public works, and military technology: hydraulic mills, central heating systems, and insulation against housing humidity; catapults, crossbows, and assault towers mounted on wheels; lighthouses in ports; and, above all, a road construction system with stone pavement amalgamated with mortar, curbs, and drainage ditches, which has allowed a substantial preservation of the Roman road layout.
The development of engineering in high-construction instruments such as pulleys, cranes, and mills, as well as the evolution of the arch in architecture, set precedents in shaping technology and applied science. The organization of cities and the establishment of new transportation and communication mechanisms are also part of their engineering developments. Pliny the Elder’s work stands out as an heir to Hellenic natural philosophy, compiling over 37 volumes and texts with various observations on natural philosophy in Latin. Claudius Ptolemy, in “Almagest,” describes a model of planetary motion, popularizing the geocentric idea of the universe. The establishment of the Roman calendar based on solar cycles, as well as its own mythology, is also part of Rome’s scientific heritage.
In medicine, they drew from the various influences of the Hellenic schools of Hippocrates and Asclepiades. The fear of Hellenization by Cato and other Roman intellectuals kept medical practice unregulated for much of the republic and the empire. Medical education was private, and its performance was based on non-systematic practices. The main author of the period was Galen, who systematized and translated the works of Hellenic medicine into Latin during his lifetime, including detailed descriptions of animal and human dissections. These works had a significant impact during the Middle Ages. There is also evidence that Celsus practiced plastic surgery techniques during his lifetime.
Constructions
Roman Aqueduct Segovia, Spain.
The most important Roman constructions were:
Theaters, where works of art were performed.
Amphitheaters, where gladiators fought.
Circuses, where chariot races took place.
Baths (Thermes), where people bathed and exercised.
Triumphal arches, commemorating historical events and figures.
Aqueducts, for channeling and supplying rainwater.
Gardens, where various crops were introduced.
Calendar
Detail of the Fasti Consularii (a calendar that counted years based on the names of the consuls who had held office), originally located in the Roman Forum (currently in the Capitoline Museums). The Roman calendar was the first system to divide time in ancient Rome. According to mythic tradition, the Roman calendar was created by one of its first two kings, Romulus. The early Roman calendar set the duration of months at 29 days, 12 hours, and 44 minutes, with lunar months of 29 or 30 days. The month was the larger fraction, and the day was the smaller one, although later it was divided into hours.
The Romans considered the day to begin at midnight. When establishing the year (from “annus,” meaning ring), they set its duration at 10 months (decimal system). However, later, under Greek influence, they transitioned to a year of 12 months, with 368 days and ¾ of another day, with months alternating between 30 and 29 days. Every two years, a year with 13 months was added, progressively adjusting the system by removing or adding days. Thus, a year was established that began in spring (in the month dedicated to the god of war Mars, i.e., the month “martius” = March), followed by the opening month (“aprilis” = April), the month of growth (“maius” = May), and the month of flourishing (“junius” = June).
The months then continued in order from the fifth to the tenth: quintilis (July), sextilis (August), septembris (September), octobris (October), novembris (November), and decembris (December). This was followed by the month for the opening of agricultural work (“januarius” = January) and the month of purifications (“februarius” = February). If another month was added, it had no name but was called “mercedonius” as it was dedicated to payment.
With progressive adjustments, months with 31 days were established (March, May, July, and October), those with 28 days (February, which had 29 days every four years), and those with 29 days (the others), with an intercalated month of 27 days every two years. Thus, the first and third years of the cycle had 355 days each; the second year had 383 days, and the fourth year had 382 days, totaling 1474 days. Each month was divided into weeks ranging from 4 to 9 days: the second and fourth weeks of the month were 8 days long, the third was 9 days (except in February, which was 8, and in the intercalated month, which was 7), and the first week was 6 days in months with 31 days and 4 days in others.
The announcement of the duration of the first week was called the announcement of the calends; the ninth day of the nine-day weeks was called nonae or nonas; and the first day of the third week was called idus (or ides). Each period of five years was called a lustrum, as sacrifices (lustrum) were made the year after the census review, which occurred every four years.
This system was used until 46 BCE, when Julius Caesar, who was then a dictator and Pontifex Maximus, decreed a calendar reform, advised by the Greek Sosigenes of Alexandria, creating the Julian calendar.
Medicine
Roman medicine refers to the medical practices developed in ancient Rome. The Etruscan civilization, before importing knowledge from Greek medicine, had barely developed a medical corpus of interest, except for a notable skill in dentistry. However, the increasing importance of the metropolis during the early expansion attracted significant Greek and Alexandrian medical figures, ultimately shaping Rome into the primary center for medical knowledge, clinical practice, and education in the Mediterranean region.
The most important medical figures in ancient Rome were Asclepiades of Bithynia (124 or 129 BCE–40 BCE), Celsus, and Galen. Asclepiades, openly opposing the Hippocratic theory of humors, developed a new medical thought based on the works of Democritus, the Methodic School, explaining illness through the influence of atoms permeating the body’s pores, anticipating the microbial theory. Some physicians associated with this school were Themison of Laodicea, Thessalus of Tralles, or Soranus of Ephesus, the author of the first known biography of Hippocrates.
Galens (129–201 AD)
Between 25 BCE and 50 CE, another significant medical figure lived: Aulus Cornelius Celsus. There is no record of him practicing medicine, but a medical treatise (De re medica libri octo) is preserved, included in a larger, encyclopedic work called De artibus (On the Arts). This medical treatise includes the clinical definition of inflammation that has endured to this day: “heat, pain, swelling, and redness” (sometimes also expressed as “swelling, redness, burning, and pain”). It also describes plastic surgery operations, the removal of nasal polyps, tonsils, etc.
With the onset of the Christian era, another medical school developed in Rome, the Pneumatic School. While the Hippocratics attributed disease to liquid humors and the atomists emphasized the influence of solid particles called atoms, the pneumatics saw the cause of human pathological disorders in the pneuma (gas) entering the body through the lungs. Followers of this line of thought included Athenaeus of Attalia and Aretaeus of Cappadocia.
In Rome, the medical profession was already organized (reminiscent of the current specialization divisions) into general physicians (medici), surgeons (medici vulnerum, chirurgi), oculists (medici ab oculis), dentists, and specialists in ear diseases. There was no official regulation to be considered a physician but starting with the privileges granted to physicians by Julius Caesar, a maximum quota per city was established. Moreover, Roman legions had a field surgeon and a team capable of setting up a hospital (valetudinaria) on the battlefield to tend to the wounded during combat.
One of these legionary doctors, enlisted in Nero’s armies, was Pedanius Dioscorides of Anazarbus (Cilicia), the author of the most widely used and known pharmacological manual until the 15th century. His travels with the Roman army allowed him to compile a vast collection of herbs (around six hundred) and medicinal substances to draft his monumental work, De materia medica (Dioscorides).
But the quintessential Roman medical figure was Claudius Galen, whose influence endured until the 16th century. Galen already practiced dissection, but with animals, as the anatomical study of human corpses was strongly frowned upon. This led him to make certain anatomical and physiological errors that persisted until Vesalius. He was the primary exponent of the Hippocratic school, but his work is a synthesis of all the medical knowledge of his time. His treatises were copied, translated, and studied for the next thirteen centuries, making him one of the most important and influential physicians in Western medicine.
Judging by what was found in the home of a Pompeii doctor, surgical materials were not excessively rudimentary. There are indications that they knew about the dental mirror and the antiseptic properties of certain ointments. Medical education was private, and there were no official titles. Anyone could practice medicine, even during the imperial era, when physicians were exempt from taxes and military service. Most doctors were Greeks and Jews. There was not significant progress in medicine in Roman civilization because there was no interest in experimental research, and there was an obsession with writing medical books in verse. Sammonicus (the inventor of the magic formula Abracadabra) introduced this trend that would dominate the Middle Ages.
Regarding healthcare organizations, the significant Roman contribution was the hospital system. However, its beginnings were nothing more than the establishment of a shelter for poor patients to die in, known as the illa Tiberiana. With the expansion of the empire, military hospitals were established in strategic locations. Following these, charitable hospitals emerged. The first was founded by Fabiola of Rome, marking the first documented precedent of “social medicine” and making her one of the most famous women in the history of organized medicine. In this hospital, the poor received free care.
Archaeological excavations revealed the plan and arrangement of this unique building, where rooms and corridors for the sick and poor were orderly grouped around the main structure, organized into sections according to different classes of patients. According to historian Camille Jullian, the foundation of this hospital is one of the most significant events in the history of Western civilization.
According to Henry Chadwick, emeritus regius professor at the University of Cambridge and historian of early Christianity, the practice of charity expressed prominently through the care of the sick was likely one of the most powerful reasons for the spread of Christianity.
By the year 251, the Church of Rome was supporting over 1,500 people in need. Despite the existence of Roman proto-field hospitals, the Empire lacked social hospital awareness until the foundation of the first large Christian hospitals. In the East, the Basilias Hospital was founded near Cappadocia (inspired by Basil of Caesarea), and another hospital in Edessa was founded by Ephrem the Syrian, with three hundred beds for plague victims.
A crucial contribution of Roman public medicine must be highlighted: Among the leading Roman architects (Columella, Marcus Vitruvius, or Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa), there was a belief that malaria spread through insects or swampy waters. Under this principle, they undertook public works such as aqueducts, sewers, and public baths aimed at ensuring a supply of quality drinking water and an adequate sewage disposal system. Modern medicine will validate their insight almost twenty centuries later when it is demonstrated that the supply of clean water and the sewage disposal system are two key indicators of a population’s health level.
