Malevus

Category: History

Witness the transformation across time and interpret the past of human societies while shedding light on the most prominent events.

  • Leonardo da Vinci’s Self-Propelled Cart, 1478

    Leonardo da Vinci’s Self-Propelled Cart, 1478

  • How Many Wives Did Genghis Khan Have?

    How Many Wives Did Genghis Khan Have?

    Genghis Khan had seven wives. Along with his 13 official children, Temüjin (Genghis Khan) had around 120 children. They were from his seven Mongolian wives and 500 concubines of which 44 are documented including Chaga Khatun, Gurbasu Khatun, Abika Khatun, Gunju Khatun, Isukhan Khatun, Kunju Khatun and others. The nine children alone were from his first wife Börte, the Great Khatun. And Genghis Khan’s primary wives were as follows: Börte, Khulan, Juerbiesu, Yesugen, Yesui, Ibaqa, and Möge. They were the principal khatuns of the Great Khan. Let’s find out more about those wives.

    During Genghis Khan’s rule, a tradition was followed where the most attractive women from each tribe were selected by Genghis Khan to be his concubines. Aside from Mongolian women, these concubines also comprised captives of other nationalities. The women selected by Genghis Khan were given to his queens or “khatuns” and also close relatives. The Great Khan’s seven primary wives operated his harems in the form of yurts which were the housings for the concubines. Genghis Khan’s concubines belonged to the “Four Great Ordos” (courts).

    According to studies, 8% of men who live in or around the former Mongol Empire have the same Y-chromosome as Genghis Khan. Due to his numerous wives, Genghis Khan is the ancestor of as many as 20 million men today, or around 0.5% of all men on the planet.

    Börte Khatun (l. 1161–1230)

    Genghis Khan and his wife, Börte Khatun, in eastern costumes.
    Genghis Khan and his wife Börte Khatun in eastern costumes. (Image: Metmuseum, Public Domain)

    Genghis Khan had seven first-class wives or consorts, among whom Börte Khatun was the highest-ranking. Along with the mother of Genghis, Höelun, Börte was one of the most important individuals in the life of the Khan. She was born into the Olkhonud of Khongirad in 1161, and the Olkhonud was also the tribe of Genghis’ mother. For Genghis Khan, only Börte’s sons were eligible to become the rulers of the Mongol Empire.

    Her appearance

    The Olkhonud tribe’s female members were renowned for having unusually stunning looks. Börte is often shown as a beautiful lady wearing a white silky gown, carrying a white lamb, wearing gold coins in her hair, and sitting atop a white horse. She was characterized as having a light complexion, fire in the eyes, and a vivid face, all of which indicated that she was bright.

    Börte Khatun was the daughter of Teyin (or Dei Seichen), the 12th-century chieftain of Khongirad province. Just like Genghis, she practiced Tengrism, the ancient religion of Turks and Mongols. Temüjin and Börte married when they were 9 and 10 years old, respectively.

    The kidnapping of Börte

    Regarding the marriage between Temüjin and Börte, the Secret History of the Mongols states that Temüjin was favored by Teyin of the Khongirad tribe when he was still in his teens, and Teyin’s daughter Börte became Temüjin’s permitted wife. However, this is probably a fiction, and when Temüjin tried to marry Börte, Börte’s father Teyin allegedly opposed the marriage, but through the intercession of her younger brother, Archi Noyan, the couple was finally allowed to marry.

    When Temüjin and Börte were still childless after their marriage, Temüjin was attacked by the Merkits, and his wife Börte was captured. However, the Khongirad tribe of Keraites decided to cooperate with Temüjin because they were sworn allies (anda) with Temüjin’s father, Yesugei, and Khongirad helped rescue Börte from the Merkits, and she was safely returned to Temüjin after staying captive for 8 months.

    Börte gave birth to Jochi shortly after being rescued, indicating that she was raped by Merkits. But Genghis Khan saw the baby as his own and called him “Jochi,” which means “guest” in Mongolian. Without Khongirad’s help, Börte could have become the wife of a Merkit man, at least in the story.

    The Mongols of that time had a custom of capturing married women, and it was common for the stronger tribe to capture the women of the weaker tribe, or for the tribe that won the battle to take the women of the losing tribe as wives.

    Another version of the story

    However, in another version of the story, Börte was already pregnant with Jochi when she was captured by the Merkit tribe, and Jochi’s father was actually Genghis Khan. In the “History of Mongolia,” Vol. 1, Part 1, it is written that when the Merkits took the opportunity to plunder the house of Genghis Khan, they sent his wife Börte, who was already carrying Jochi, to Khongirad, because peace had been established between two tribes at the time (p. 41). Thus, Börte was pregnant with Jochi when she was attacked by the Merkits.

    Famously, there was also a conflict between Jochi, the firstborn, and Chagatai, the secondborn, regarding Jochi’s dubious origin. At the same time, Jochi withdraws from Genghis Khan’s battles for unknown reasons.

    But there is no concrete source stating that Chagatai actually accused Jochi of having questionable origins. The claim that Jochi was the son of the Merkit tribe appears to be a fiction created by the author of The Secret History of the Mongols for dramatic effect.

    Börte Khatun held the Chinese title of “Üjin,” a title given to the consort of the Chinese emperor or second-in-line to the empress. She was the mother of Jochi, Chagatai, Ögedei, and Tolui, Genghis’ only apparent heir. Börte Khatun also gave birth to five daughters who became wives of tribal and provincial princes: Alakhai Bekhi, Checheikhen, Alaltun, Tümelün, and Qocin Beki (Huochenbieji).

    Khulan Khatun (l. 1164–1220)

    Genghis Khan wife Khulan Khatun from the Mongolian edition of The Secret History of the Mongols, 1989.
    Genghis Khan wife Khulan Khatun. Illustration from the Mongolian edition of The Secret History of the Mongols, 1989.

    Khulan Khatun (1164–1220) was Kuoliejian’s (or Kölgen’s) mother. Among Genghis Khan’s seven wives, Khulan was second in rank to Börte, and she accompanied Genghis Khan on one of his famous western expeditions. Her son Kuoliejian was also second in status to Genghis Khan’s other sons from Börte.

    Khulan Khatun was one of the wives of Genghis Khan. As the Great Khatun Börte Üjin’s second-in-command, she was known as the Second Khatun. A vassalage in the Khentii Mountains was awarded to her when she also led the Second Ordo (court) at the time. “Holan” refers to a “wild horse enclosure” and comes from medieval Mongolian.

    Dairusun, a chieftain of the Uvas Merkit tribe, was Khulan Khatun’s father, and the Uvas Merkit clan was one of the Three Merkits. In 1204, when Mongolia was almost united under Temüjin, leader of the Borjigin tribe, his Mongols faced resistance from both the western Naimans and the eastern Merkits, but Genghis Khan ultimately prevailed in battle.

    The Merkit chief, Toqtoa Beki, escaped, and the Uighur clan head, Dairusun, conceded defeat to Temüjin. With his surrender, the women of the Uvas were given in plunder marriages to Borjigin royalty, and Khulan became Temüjin’s wife. In 1206, at the Kurultai on the Onon River, Temüjin was crowned “Genghis Khan,” and he sealed Khulan as his second wife.

    There was a child born to Khulan Khatun and Genghis Khan, and he was named Kölgen (or Kuoliejian). Genghis Khan brought Khulan Khatun on his western expeditions because he was so fond of her. Khulan Khatun became sick and died in 1220 during the Mongol invasion of India, ending the Anushtegin (or Khwarazmian) dynasty. Genghis Khan had her body buried under deep ice.

    Yesugen Khatun (m. 1202)

    A Tatar woman from the 1600s wearing traditional clothing, just like Genghis Khan's wife Yesugen Khatun.
    A Tatar woman from the 1600s wearing traditional clothing. (Image)

    Genghis Khan had many wives, and Yesugen Khatun was one of them. Yesugen was born in the Tatar province and married Genghis Khan through a plunder marriage when the Mongols conquered the region in 1202.

    After Yesugen claimed that her elder sister Yesui was just a better fit for a khan’s wife in terms of appearance and intelligence, Genghis Khan set out to find Yesui, whose whereabouts were unknown, and married her. When he did, Yesugen abdicated in favor of her sister in 1206.

    Genghis Khan, impressed by Yesugen’s behavior, once again accepted her as his own wife (khatun), elevating the status of the Yesui and Yesugen sisters. The two sisters thus became the wives of Genghis Khan together.

    Their brothers Yeke Kutokut and Jochi were able to rise to the position of Mingghan (captain of a thousand households) in the Mongol Empire because of their sisters’ prominence as Genghis Khan’s wives.

    After serving in the Third Ordo, Yesugen and her nobler elder sister Yesui Khatun were awarded the Khangai Mountains as a vassal town. This is true of each and every one of Genghis Khan’s wives.

    According to the narrative in “Tatar Tribes,” Genghis Khan granted permission to Yesui and Yesugen to raise two sons, Kuri and Kara (“Black”) Mangut, who were selected from the same clan. The two sons went on to become prominent military leaders in the Iranian Tanmachi Mongols, and their descendants founded the Hulagu Ulus (Ilkhanate) in 1256.

    “History of Yuan” (1370) places Yesugen at the top of the Fourth Ordo, but another source puts her third in order in the list of Genghis Khan’s wives. However, considering the anecdote that Yesugen handed over her position to Yesui, it is natural to make her the head of the Fourth Ordo.

    It is known that Yesugen, like her sister, accompanied her Tatar father Yeke Cheren on many journeys, but nothing more is known about her. She is believed to have died early, before her older sister did, somewhere between 1195 and 1221, after giving birth to a boy named Cha’ur who also lived only for a short time.

    Ibaqa Beki Khatun (m. 1204–1206)

    Sorghaghtani Beki was a Kerait woman just like Ibaqa Beki Khatun.
    Sorghaghtani Beki was a Kerait woman just like Ibaqa Beki Khatun.

    Kerait princess Ibaqa Beki Khatun was also a wife of Genghis Khan from 1204 to 1206. Her father, Jakha Gambhu, was the younger brother of Keraites Khan Toghrul.

    After Toghrul’s defeat, Jakha Gambhu and his Nestorian Christian daughter, Ibaqa Beki, went to Naiman, where Genghis Khan destroyed the tribe. Despite the defeat, Jakha Gambhu refused to give up his two daughters to Genghis Khan as a token of surrender.

    But the eldest daughter, Ibaqa Beki, was taken by Genghis Khan as his wife, while the second daughter, Sorghaghtani Beki, became the mother of several of Genghis Khan’s grandsons, including Möngke Khan, Hulagu Khan, Ariq Böke, and Kublai Khan. Ibaqa’s other sister Begtütmish married Genghis Khan’s son Jochi.

    In a more popular version of the story, Jakha Gambhu and Genghis Khan joined forces to crush the Naimans in 1204. Genghis Khan was granted Ibaqa Beki as a wife as part of this alliance.

    Ibaqa and Genghis Khan were married for 24 months, but they were unable to have children, so the Khan divorced her and handed her over to the Uru’ut clan commander Jürchedei. Perhaps Genghis Khan rewarded Jürchedei with Ibaqa for helping him slay Jakha Gambhu and injure Nilga Senggum. Ibaqa moved to northern China, where Jürchedei was given leadership over 4,000 fighters by the Great Khan.

    It was initially believed that Ibaqa had poisoned the infamous alcoholic Ögedei Khan, Genghis Khan’s most prominent son, but that was not the case. Once a year, Ibaqa Beki visited Mongolia to reestablish court contacts and throw parties with her powerful sister Sorghaghtani.

    Yesui Khatun (m. 1206)

    Genghis Khan's wife Yesui Khatun. (Illustration from the Mongolian edition of "The Secret History of the Mongols"), 1989.
    Genghis Khan’s wife Yesui Khatun. (Illustration from the Mongolian edition of “The Secret History of the Mongols”), 1989.

    Yesui or Yesulun was one of Genghis Khan’s wives, and she was a native Tatar. According to the Yuanshi, or “The History of Yuan,” Yesui was in charge of the Third Ordo among Genghis Khan’s wives. Chinese accounts also list Yesui as third in rank among Genghis Khan’s seven wives. There is not much mention of Yesui in Mongolian history other than the details below.

    The “Secret History of the Yuan Dynasty” contains the only narrative account of Yesui. And the “New Yuan History” essentially reprints this previous narrative of Yesui Khatun’s life as her biography.

    Genghis Khan seized Yesui’s sister Yesugen and took her as one of his favorite wives when the Tatar division was conquered in 1202. Yesui was the daughter of Yeke Cheren of the Tatar division. One day Yesugen confessed to Khan, “My sister Yesui is more beautiful than I am. She was recently married, but she is probably drifting away somewhere.” Thus, Yesui was proposed to Genghis Khan by Yesugen.

    In answer to such an odd claim, Genghis Khan said, “Then, if she is more beautiful than you, would you give up your position?” Yes, Yesui said, “I would.” Genghis Khan was so curious that he sent his warriors to find Yesui; unfortunately, she and her husband had already escaped into the woods.

    Her husband received a large blow from Genghis Khan, and Genghis Khan abducted Yesui. After her sister Yesui arrived, Yesugen took a lesser seat and made her sister the new favorite khatun in 1206. But Genghis Khan was impressed by this move and kept Yesugen and Yesui in favor together.

    Later, while Genghis Kang was having a banquet with Yesui and Yesugen by his side, Yesui kept sighing for some reason. Genghis Khan felt suspicious and asked the participants of the banquet to divide themselves into tribes. One young man did not belong to any tribe.

    When questioned, he replied, “I am the husband of Yesui. I was attacked and fled, but I have returned now that things have cooled down. I thought I would not be noticed among the crowd.” Genghis Khan replied, “He is the one who came here with hostile intent because his wife was taken from him.” Genghis Khan killed the young man on the spot.

    Yesui spoke on behalf of Genghis Khan’s household during the 1218 conquest of the Anushtegin (or Khwarazmian) dynasty to choose a successor in the event of Genghis Khan’s untimely death. On his 1226 invasion of Western Xia, Genghis Khan was joined by Yesui.

    During the conquest, when Genghis Khan became unwell, Yesui called a meeting of his generals to determine the best course of action. Despite Genghis Khan’s eventual death, the Mongol Empire was able to crush Western Xia.

    Möge Khatun

    Kaidu with his Bekrin wife, just like Möge Khatun. Ögedei's son Khashi also married a Bekrin division woman and his son Kaidu (1230-1301) was born from this union. (W. Common)
    Kaidu with his wife from the Bekrin tribe, just like Möge Khatun. Ögedei’s son Khashi also married a Bekrin division woman and his son Kaidu (1230-1301) was born from this union. (Public Domain)

    Möge Khatun, birth and death dates unknown, was an empress in the court of Ögedei Khan, the Mongol Empire’s second khan. She was from the Bekrin (Mekrin) tribe, which is located in the eastern Tengri Tagh (literally, “Mountain of Gods” or Tian Shan).

    From what we can gather from the Shushi (History of the Mekrin Tribes), Möge Khatun was delivered to Genghis Khan upon the leader of the Bekrin tribe’s return to the Mongol Empire. Genghis Khan liked Möge Khatun, although it is reported that he was unable to produce children with her.

    Genghis Khan also declared, “The clan of Bekrin should give up their daughters. To the one who is favored is given the right to marry me or my sons.” It was then that the practice of intertribal marriage between Genghis Khan’s family and the Bekrin people became commonplace.

    Ögedei was also fond of her, and she often went on hunts with him. Soon after Genghis Khan’s death, his son Ögedei married Möge Khatun in a levirate union, showering her with such favor that all the other Khatuns envied her.

    Despite the fact that Ögedei had already chosen Möge Khatun as his wife, his brother Chagatai was still interested in her and sent a messenger to ask for her hand in marriage.

    Ögedei replied that because he had already taken Möge Khatun, he could have any other woman he desired, but Chagatai stated that he liked Möge Khatun and did not want to have any other woman. Möge took over as ruler after Ögedei Khan died in 1241. Töregene Khatun, however, had replaced the ministers of Ögedei and gained control as regent with a collaboration of Chagatai by early-1242. 

    There is evidence that Möge held a prominent position among the Ögedei’s wives, as she is mentioned alongside his first wife Boraqchin, and second wife Töregene in the first section of the Mongolian chronicles and is called “Empress II” in the Empress List of the History of Yuan (1370), Volume 106, Table 1.

    Khashi, Ögedei’s son, followed in his father’s footsteps by marrying a Bekrin division woman named Shabkana Khatun, and Kaidu (1230-1301) was born from this union. Kaidu seized the Bekrin people under Jitanj’s leadership and made them his subjects, establishing a monarchy in Central Asia known as the Kaidu Ulus that did not acknowledge the sovereignty of the rightful Kublai Khan. Möge Khatun never had children.

    Juerbiesu

    A group of Khitan women, just like Juerbiesu, with their distinctive hairstyles. Liao Dynasty (907-1125) tomb mural by unknown painter.
    A group of Khitan women, just like Juerbiesu, with their distinctive hairstyles. Liao Dynasty (907-1125) tomb mural by unknown painter. (Wikimedia, Public Domain)

    The identity and background of Juerbiesu remain a mystery. She was the last wife of the Gurkhan (“The Universal Ruler”) of the Kara Khitai Khanate, Yelü Zhilugu. Originally Inanch Bilge Khan’s favorite concubine, Juerbiesu later became the wife of his son, Tayang Khan.

    However, Tayang Khan was weak, so Juerbiesu ultimately wielded the lion’s share of political power in Naiman. Juerbiesu was the last empress of the Western Liao (Kara Khitai, “Black Khitan”) emperor Yelü Zhilugu.

    During a hunting trip in 1211, Yelü Zhilugu was kidnapped by his son-in-law, Kuchlug, king of the Naiman barbarians, and his army of 8,000 men. Kuchlug then declared himself emperor of Khitan, an Eastern proto-Mongolic people of Donghu. Additionally, Kuchlug recognized Juerbiesu as his empress dowager.

    From 1177 until Genghis Khan’s invasion of Mongolia in 1213, Juerbiesu dominated the region. The princess called Hunhu (d. 1218), who was Juerbiesu’s daughter, was also handed to Kuchlug. Tafgach Khatun was the historical name of Hunhu.

    After Genghis Khan annihilated the Naiman tribe and Tayang Khan was murdered, Juerbiesu made numerous disparaging statements about Mongols, characterizing their appearance as disgusting. However, she soon revoked her claims and visited Genghis Khan’s tent alone, where he questioned her about the accusations but was immediately captivated by her beauty.

    When Juerbiesu made a commitment to service, Genghis Khan made Juerbiesu one of his wives, ranking behind only Khulan and Börte Khatun. With Juerbiesu, Genghis Khan had seven first-class wives during his lifetime.

    FAQs About Genghis Khan’s Wives

    Genghis Khan's wife Börte.
    Genghis Khan’s wife Börte.

    How many wives did Genghis Khan have?

    Genghis Khan had seven wives. His 120 children were from his seven wives and 500 concubines of which 44 are documented including Chaga Khatun, Gurbasu Khatun, Abika Khatun, Gunju Khatun, Isukhan Khatun, Kunju Khatun and others. Genghis Khan’s primary wives were as follows: Börte, Khulan, Juerbiesu, Yesugen, Yesui, Ibaqa, and Möge. They were the principal khatuns of the Great Khan.

    Who was the main wife of Genghis Khan?

    Genghis Khan had seven first-class wives or consorts, among whom Börte Khatun was the main wife of Genghis Khan. Along with the mother of Genghis, Höelun, Börte was one of the most important individuals in the life of the Khan. She was born into the Olkhonud of Khongirad in 1161, and the Olkhonud was also the tribe of Genghis’ mother. For Genghis Khan, only Börte’s sons were eligible to become the rulers of the Mongol Empire.

    Why did Genghis Khan have many wives?

    During Genghis Khan’s rule, a tradition was followed where the most attractive women from each tribe were selected by the Khan to be his concubines. Every one of his wives stood for his achievements in politics and the military. The women selected by Genghis Khan were given to his queens or “khatuns” and also close relatives.

    Who had most wives in history?

    Genghis Khan had most wives in history. Temüjin (Genghis Khan) had around 120 children and they were from his seven Mongolian wives and 500 concubines of which 44 are documented including Chaga Khatun, Gurbasu Khatun, Abika Khatun, Gunju Khatun, Isukhan Khatun, Kunju Khatun, and his primary wives Börte, Khulan, Juerbiesu, Yesugen, Yesui, Ibaqa, and Möge.

    How much DNA do we share with Genghis Khan?

    According to studies, 8% of men who live in or around the former Mongol Empire have the same Y-chromosome as Genghis Khan. Due to his numerous wives, Genghis Khan is the ancestor of as many as 20 million males today, or around 0.5% of all men on the planet.

    References

    1. Featured Image: File:Empressesryuandinastycollage.jpg
    2. Frank McClynn, 2015. Genghis Khan: His Conquests, His Empire, His Legacy. ISBN 978-0306823961.
    3. Timothy May, 2016. Commercial Queens: Mongolian Khatuns and the Silk Road. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.
    4. Jack Weatherford, 2011. The Secret History of the Mongol Queens.
    5. Anne F. Broadbridge, 2018. Women and the Making of the Mongol Empire. Cambridge University Press.
    6. Bruno De Nicola, 2017. Women in Mongol Iran: The Khatuns, 1206-1335. Edinburgh University Press.
  • Were the Nazis Atheists? The Religion of the Nazi Party

    Were the Nazis Atheists? The Religion of the Nazi Party

    The notion that Nazis were “atheists” is a Christian fabrication aimed at deflecting responsibility for their involvement in Nazi crimes and the Holocaust and placing the blame on “godless” atheists. In reality, around 90% of Nazis were Christians. The downfall of the Christian Centre Party played a crucial role in Adolf Hitler‘s rise to power (and being a multibillionaire—see Hitler’s net worth), as the Church threatened to remove all its priests from the party to seal the end of it.

    The reality is that Christianity is deeply anti-Semitic; it can be traced back to the Gospels and may be seen in the writings of Martin Luther, who was himself a particularly vicious anti-Semite. The Nazis benefited greatly from him and his ideas.

    The Church’s Alignment with the Nazis

    The German Christians, especially in the case of the Gospels, the German Evangelical Church, were Protestants who conformed to the Führer and the Nazi ideal and anti-Semitism. In the German Reich in 1939, 94% of the population was Christian while just 1.5% was atheist; nonetheless, the Nazi Party still won 43.9 percent of the vote with 88.5 percent voter participation in the 1933 election. The data speaks for itself when it comes to the religion of the Nazis and the Nazi Party.

    Although Hitler considered himself a Catholic and privately confirmed this to General Gerhard Engel in 1941, “I am now as before a Catholic and will always remain so,” he declared himself a “German Christian” rather than a Catholic in an early speech during his dictatorship (1933–1945). Despite some differences with the Church, it is not accurate to classify Hitler or the other Nazis as atheists.

    The Church aligned itself with Hitler and the Nazis in their shared goal of exterminating Jews and defeating atheistic communism, as many communists were atheists at the time. Although the Church later distinguished itself from Hitler and the Nazis, it never did so during the Third Reich.

    Adolf Hitler’s quote on religion:

    “It’s been our misfortune to have the wrong religion. Why did it have to be Christianity, with its meekness and flabbiness? Islam was a Männerreligion—a religion of men—and hygienic too. The soldiers of Islam received a “warrior’s heaven”, a real earthly paradise with houris [virgin women] and wine flowing. Islam was much more suited to the Germanic temperament than the Jewish filth and priestly twaddle of Christianity.”

    The Religion of the Nazis

    Adolf Hitler addresses the crowd at a Nazi rally in Dortmund, Germany, in 1933. 
    Adolf Hitler addresses the crowd at a Nazi rally in Dortmund, Germany, in 1933. 

    It’s clear from Hitler’s “Mein Kampf” that Hitler, a devout Catholic, never abandoned his faith or quit the Church. His objectives have always been Christian-inspired, yet Hitler had a dim view of churches, which he described as “effeminate.” Heinrich Himmler and the SS were not atheistic; rather, they sought to revitalize ancient forms of Germanic religion.

    The Pietist movement represented a subset of evangelical Christians, and Luther’s pietistic ideas were particularly useful to the Nazis. They were known to be strictly traditional and totally against enjoying life. The Pietists were an early support group for the Nazi Party. Many low-income Germans were convinced to support National Socialism by the anti-Semitic ideology of Pietists, who promised to lift their communities out of poverty.

    However, it wasn’t only the Pietists; many moderate Protestants supported the Nazis wholeheartedly. Religious conservatives voted overwhelmingly for the NSDAP throughout the rest of Germany. The Deutsche Christians movement was primarily made up of Nazis and Hitlerists.

    When Hitler was named Reich Chancellor in 1933, they enthusiastically rejoiced. Overall, the Christian community was crucial to the Nazi Party and Hitler’s rise to power. The NSDAP did very well among Lutherans. Thus, it appears that the Nazis were not atheists but Christians.

    Some Christian groups still believe that the Nazis were atheists, even though this isn’t true and seems to be a way to distract from the fact that the churches were deeply involved in Nazi atrocities while also smearing and demonizing atheism.

    The Nazis Banned All Atheist Organizations Before Targeting Jews

    The primary force in the battle against Nazism were atheists, specifically communists, who were never recognized for their efforts and were even labeled traitors to their homeland after the war. This irrational strategy worked, with Hitler first prohibiting all atheist organizations before targeting Jews.

    This resulted in the elimination of all existing atheist associations in Germany. As a result, the sacrifices of the German atheists, including fleeing, resisting, or dying in concentration camps, were ignored.

    Consequently, no atheist group in Germany was able to survive beyond the Nazi regime. This prohibition applied not only to communists but also to all humanist organizations. Atheists either fled, fought against Nazism, or perished in concentration camps.

    Despite this, the false notion that Nazis were atheists and that is why they were responsible for all wrongdoing was spread as a demagogic tactic for scapegoating atheism. This was wielded as a weapon for political gain.

    To Become an SS, One Had to Swear to Believe in God

    nazi ss oath

    Contrary to popular belief, the notion that Nazis were atheists is a falsehood. The SS Oath of the Nazi Party is especially significant for determining if the Nazis were atheists or not: To join the SS, one had to pledge allegiance to God and wage war against atheism.

    The complete Oath of the SS was comprised of three questions and answers, and the following excerpt is sourced directly from the pen of Heinrich Himmler himself.

    GermanEnglish
    “Wie ist Dein Eid ?”
    – “Ich schwöre Dir, Adolf Hitler, als Führer und Kanzler des Deutschen Reiches Treue und Tapferkeit. Wir geloben Dir und den von Dir bestimmten Vorgesetzten Gehorsam bis in den Tod. So wahr mir Gott helfe !”

    “Also glaubst Du an einen Gott ?”
    – “Ja, ich glaube an einen Herrgott.”

    “Was hältst Du von einem Menschen, der nicht an einen Gott glaubt?”
    – “Ich halte ihn für überheblich, größenwahnsinnig und dumm; er ist nicht für uns geeignet.    		“What is your oath?”
    – “I vow to you, Adolf Hitler, as Führer and chancellor of the German Reich loyalty and bravery. I vow to you and to the leaders, that you set for me, absolute allegiance, till death. So help me god !”

    “So you believe in a god?”
    – “Yes, I believe in a supreme being.”

    “What do you think about a man who does not believe in a god?”
    -“I think he is overbearing, megalomaniac and foolish; he is not adequate for our society.”

    If Nazis were supposed to be religious Christians, according to their oaths, it seems reasonable that they would train their top fighters (SS or Schutzstaffel) to be anti-atheist.

    Tension Over Baptized Jews

    The churches initially supported most of the Nazi policies. However, tensions arose over the issue of euthanasia and the extermination of baptized Jews, whom the Nazis considered Jews while the Church saw them as Christians.

    The Church made great efforts to covertly evacuate baptized Jews from the country, while remaining apathetic towards non-baptized Jews. This is evidence that the Church was well aware of what was happening to the Jews.

    In fact, there were priests in every extermination camp, serving as chaplains to the guard personnel. To suggest that they were unaware of what was happening is naive. The Nazis also persecuted priests and put them in concentration camps.

    However, the Nazis did not label the Church as anti-National Socialist. The priests who were imprisoned were mostly from small church resistance groups, because not all Christians turned a blind eye and supported the Nazis after all.

    The Christian Roots in the Nazi Ideology

    As a religious institution, the church has never been beyond spreading false information. Atheism among the Nazis is one of them. But as a condition of joining the SS, one had to take an oath to oppose atheism and profess their faith in God.

    Paganism was also practiced by the Nazis, as claimed by the Nazi Party’s regional leader (Gauleiter) Karl Wahl. To this day, this claim still allows people to accuse Pagan people they encounter of being Nazis. A few of the National Socialists were really interested in instituting a kind of Germanic Paganism. Hitler openly expressed his disdain for these individuals.

    The Gospels, Christian history, and one of the prominent anti-Semitic figures in German history, Martin Luther, all provide unambiguous Christian foundations for Nazi anti-Semitism. The Nazis always had Luther to use in their anti-Semitic rants; Goebbels, on the other hand, was no match for him.

    Ante Pavelic, who sought to construct a “Catholic State,” was also responsible for some of the greatest atrocities perpetrated during World War II following the Nazis. His deeds were so heinous that even Hitler was surprised by them. Over 100,000 Serbs and Jews were killed in concentration and extermination camps as a direct consequence of Pavelic’s orders.

    What Does It All Mean?

    Does being involved in evil acts like those committed by the Nazis automatically make one an atheist, even if one claims to be a theist of a certain religion? And can the same be said for an atheist who performs acts of charity?

    Are they secretly theists? There is a tendency to categorize bad people as non-believers and good people as believers, but the reality is that most people don’t align with their religion and may even lie about their beliefs.

    This means that even some theists can be terrible individuals. However, even if we assume that the Nazis were all atheists, it doesn’t mean that all atheists today are Nazis or that atheism inherently leads to Nazism.

    Moreover, this fact alone wouldn’t be proof of the existence or non-existence of God. Whether someone is a truth-teller, or a liar doesn’t change based on the atrocities they commit in the name of their beliefs.

    The Religion of the Nazis at a Glance

    Were the majority of Nazis Christians or atheists?

    The majority of Nazis were Christians, with approximately 90% of them identifying as Christians. The notion that Nazis were atheists is a fabrication aimed at deflecting responsibility for their crimes.

    Did the Christian Church align itself with the Nazis?

    Yes, the Christian Church aligned itself with Hitler and the Nazis in their shared goal of exterminating Jews and combating atheistic communism. Many Christian groups and conservatives supported the Nazi Party and played a crucial role in Hitler’s rise to power.

    Were the Nazis specifically targeting atheists before Jews?

    No, the Nazis banned all atheist organizations before targeting Jews. Atheist groups, along with humanist organizations, were prohibited in Germany. The sacrifices of German atheists in opposing Nazism were largely ignored and undermined.

    Did the SS require belief in God?

    Contrary to popular belief, the Nazis were not atheists. To become a member of the SS, one had to swear allegiance to God and wage war against atheism. The SS oath demonstrates their religious affiliation.

    How did the Christian Church respond to the Nazis’ actions?

    While the Church initially supported many Nazi policies, tensions arose over issues such as euthanasia and the extermination of baptized Jews. Some priests covertly helped evacuate baptized Jews, indicating the Church’s awareness of the persecution. However, there were priests in extermination camps serving as chaplains to guard personnel, suggesting complicity in the atrocities.

    References

    1. Oath of the SS by Heinrich Himmler – Archive.org
    2. The Third Reich in Power, 1933 – 1939 – By Richard J. Evans · 2012
    3. Catholicism and the Roots of Nazism – By Derek Hastings · 2011
  • Was Hitler Immigrant? Hitler’s Migration to Germany

    Was Hitler Immigrant? Hitler’s Migration to Germany

  • Hitler’s Net Worth: How Rich Was Adolf Hitler?

    Hitler’s Net Worth: How Rich Was Adolf Hitler?

  • Did People Live to an Average Age of 35 in the Middle Ages?

    Did People Live to an Average Age of 35 in the Middle Ages?

    It’s a common saying or tale that’s told over and over again: “People died young in the Middle Ages!” Alternately: “You would be an old man in the Middle Ages at the age of 40!” The average life expectancy of a medieval man is often mentioned in both popular and academic works, as well as in schoolbooks and pedagogical materials on medieval life. Somewhere between 33 and 50 years for males and 25 and 40 years for women is often cited as the average lifespan for Middle Age people; however, this range may vary greatly, as seen by a cursory examination of the available data.

    It is unclear not only how these numbers were compiled but also whether they apply to the early, high, or late Middle Ages, to a certain location, or to a specific socioeconomic group.

    How Long Did People Live in the Middle Ages?

    Monks and nuns of the Middle Ages had far higher life expectancy statistics.
    Monks and nuns in the Middle Ages had much longer life expectancies. Medieval monks in a beer cellar, by Joseph Haier (1873). Source: Wikimedia.

    The “Middle Ages” are now to be interpreted as “the dark, backward, unhygienic, unenlightened period before modernity,” when people’s lives were short and difficult, full of sickness and filth, and dominated by a foreign church and ruler. But this cliche has been disproven many times. What can we say with certainty about the average lifespan in the Middle Ages?

    No, you did not suddenly begin getting gray hair at the age of 20. A person who made it to maturity could expect to live for a long time beyond the age of 35 during the Middle Ages.

    In the 15th century, the median age of the French infantry was 32, and 51 percent were 31 or older. As usual, we know very little about the lives of the poor and working classes in the Middle Ages. Their birth and death dates, as well as the number of children they produced, are unknown. Only by chance do things about people’s lives in the Middle Ages come out in directories of landlords, chronicles, and other written sources.

    But famous names are an exception to this norm. To give a rather arbitrary example, Charlemagne lived to be 66 or 67 years old, while his biographer Einhard lived to be about 70. The Flemish poet Jacob van Maerlant lived for approximately 60 years.

    It is estimated that the Holy Roman Empire bishop and scholar Albertus Magnus lived to be 80, the saint Hildegard von Bingen to be 81, the author Christine de Pizan to be at least 65, Eleanor of Aquitaine to have perhaps died at 82, and the Nuremberg master builder Endres Tucher to have died soon after his 84th birthday.

    On the other hand, it is also easy to name instances of renowned people’s children who died at a young age themselves, whether in puberty or youth. So, what do these numbers suggest? Did people really die young or only live to an average age of 35 in the Middle Ages?

    Life Expectancy From the 13th to the 18th Centuries

    A 21-year-old in the 15th century had a minimum life expectancy of 69 years. Henry VIII in the Battle of Spurs.
    A 21-year-old in the 15th century had a minimum life expectancy of 69 years. Henry VIII in the Battle of Spurs. (Image: Enhanced from a public image on Gutenberg.org)

    The Australian mathematical statistician Henry Oliver Lancaster looked into the lifespan of English aristocrats from 1200 to 1745. He determined the life expectancy of individuals who died of old age or sickness by omitting those who died through violence, accidents, or poison.

    A 21-year-old in the 15th century had a minimum life expectancy of 69 years. Citizens between the ages of 16 and 60 were eligible to serve in the militia, meaning that all adults up to that age were deemed physically and mentally capable of participating in military service.

    Henry Lancaster compares how long people have lived across different time periods:

    1200–1300: 43 years; 1300–1400: 24.5 years; 1400–1500: 48 years; 1500–1550: 50 years; 1550–1600: 47 years; 1600–1650: 43 years; 1650–1700: 41.5 years; 1700–1745: 43 years.

    Factors That Affected Lifespan in the Middle Ages

    During the Middle Ages, most deaths occurred in three age groups: Young children (0–5) from childhood diseases; young adults from war or childbirth; and the elderly (60+), who lived to an age that was considered old according to the Bible’s lifespan of 70 years. The medieval people who lived to the age of 25 were not old, but they were a group affected by the most unpredictable factors: war and childbirth deaths.

    In common with other pre-modern nations, medieval people had little medical expertise and a high mortality rate overall. In adolescence, life expectancy started to differ between the sexes, despite continuing to rise with age.

    When boys reached the ages of 15 and 16, life expectancy was estimated at 60 to 80 years. However, mothers (especially the girl-mothers) were at increased risk for difficulties during delivery. The future King Edward I was born to Henry III (1207–1272) and his 16-year-old bride Eleanor.

    Painting by Rita Greer, depicting the Great Plague of 1665 in London.
    Painting by Rita Greer, depicting the Great Plague of 1665 in London. (Image, FAL)

    Natural calamities and illnesses like the Black Death significantly reduced the life expectancy of the medieval people, yet certain individuals, like the Doge of Venice, Enrico Dandolo (1107–1205), lived to be 90 years old and commanded the Venetian navy.

    In the Middle Ages, a person’s lifespan depended on a variety of factors, including their environment, genetics, diet, health, and access to medical care, as well as their socioeconomic status (same as today).

    According to the Nuremberg City Library archives, a medieval citizen, a stonemason, lived in central Europe from the time he was 68 until his death in 1595.

    Monks and nuns of the Middle Ages, for example, had far higher life expectancy statistics than the general population since they did not rely on landlords for hard physical work. So, they were able to live much longer than other citizens.

    Reasons for the Short Lifespan Estimates in the Middle Ages

    The truth is that the average life expectancy in the Middle Ages actually says little about the actual age of death of a large portion of the population, the expected or achievable age, or the distribution of the average age.

    Because child mortality rates in medieval times were quite high, they dragged down the overall life expectancy average. 

    This calls for statistics, but due to a lack of data, accurate statistics cannot be generated. In principle, most medieval individuals could indeed pass away by age 40, given that this is the median lifespan (give or take a few years). In reality, however, there is a much wider variation. While many medieval children died as infants due to illness, malnutrition, accidents, and other causes, another not insignificant number lived to a ripe old age at this time.

    The high infant mortality rate, which was mostly attributable to illnesses or a lack of medical knowledge and treatment, an improper or insufficient diet, poor cleanliness, delivery problems, and sudden infant death syndrome, was a key factor in the fabrication of these short lifespan statistics for the Middle Ages.

    According to the estimations, up to 40 percent of children died before they reached puberty during the medieval period, and another 10 to 20 percent died within their first year.

    However, if one made it through their youth unscathed in the Middle Ages, their chances of living to be 50, 60, or even older were not terrible. But threats to human safety from things like violence, war, disease, starvation, and accidents persisted.

    Medieval women had to deal with the added stress of having many children, while males had to contend with the risks of strenuous manual work, both of which might drastically reduce their lifespans relative to modern times. Today, smoking, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes are only a few examples of the many contemporary risk factors that either have little impact or none at all on our lifespan.

    When Was Someone Considered Old in the Middle Ages?

    People living all the way to retirement age or a greater old age were not uncommon in the Middle Ages. Depending on the time period and the historian, the phases of medieval life were defined in various ways. However, in general, a person was regarded as an adult (adultus) from the ages of 21 to 40, a “mature” (maturus) from the ages of 41 to 60, and an elderly man from 61 and beyond (senectus).

    Thus, the perception of old age and young age was pretty similar in the Middle Ages to what it is today.

    Many teenagers commonly took the lead in combat throughout the Middle Ages, and 25 was considered a mature adult, typically with a family and responsibilities. It was no surprise at the time that William the Conqueror invaded England in his late 30s.

    Since it does not take into account things like deaths from sickness, the average life expectancy might be deceptive. A longer life expectancy of 60 years includes more elderly individuals but also more children who live beyond the age of 5.

    Due to the lengthy apprenticeship and journeyman’s time required, few urban craftsmen would have been able to earn the master’s title and open their own workshop before the age of 30 or 40. Ages 40 and up were traditionally seen as the cutoff for serious consideration for public office because of the inherent “maturity” that comes with them.

    However, the exception proves the rule, as typically only those who were considered “worthy” were granted any office role.

    So, in the Middle Ages, people who were 40 were not considered “old,” even though a hardworking farmer, craftsman, or day laborer might have thought otherwise.

    References

  • Hitler’s IQ Level: How Intelligent Was Adolf Hitler?

    Hitler’s IQ Level: How Intelligent Was Adolf Hitler?

  • Augustus Caesar Net Worth: How Rich Was Augustus?

    Augustus Caesar Net Worth: How Rich Was Augustus?

    How rich was Augustus Caesar? Many ancient rulers had more money than today’s billionaires do together. Since Augustus Caesar ruled over several of the world’s most powerful empires, including Egypt, historians estimate that he amassed a fortune worth trillions of dollars in today’s money. Augustus Caesar (63 BC–14 AD) amassed legendary fortunes via cunning and ruthlessness. In 2023 dollars, Augustus Caesar’s net worth was around $5.8 trillion.

    In 2014, Stanford professor of history Ian Morris claimed that Augustus was the sole owner of Egypt and that he was also in charge of the Roman Empire which accounted for around 25% to 30% of the world’s economic output. According to Morris, at one time, Augustus was so wealthy that he owned 20% of the Roman Empire’s economic output. Augustus Caesar’s calculated net worth in 2014 was $4.6 trillion, which equates to $5.8 trillion or €5.3 trillion in 2023 dollars.

    How Augustus Became the Man With the Highest Net Worth

    The provinces of the Roman Empire, 15 years later in the reign of Augustus.
    The provinces of the Roman Empire, 15 years later in the reign of Augustus.

    Augustus was a wealthy man beyond description, the wealthiest in Roman history and one of the richest of all time. At the time of his elevation to the rank of “princeps,” or “first citizen,” Augustus dominated most of the known world, including Egypt and much of Europe. To put Augustus’ extreme net worth in context, consider that the Roman General Marcus Licinius Crassus, a contemporary of Augustus Caesar, amassed a famous fortune from the sale of slaves and profits from his family’s silver mines, which is only worth around $350 billion in today’s currency.

    Despite being born into a senatorial family with a rich uncle in Julius Caesar, Augustus was not affluent himself until Caesar died and gave him his great inheritance. Caesar had taken half of Europe and depleted the imperial coffers, making Augustus the wealthiest man in the empire.

    Later, Augustus became the first emperor of Rome after conquering Mark Antony and Cleopatra (the Battle of Actium) and adding Egypt’s vast riches to his own. His net worth increased tenfold as a direct result of the overpowering of Egypt alone. This sum, believed to be at least 1/3 of the Roman Empire’s GDP, enabled Augustus to pay for the whole Roman military and other grand projects, leaving a comfortable bequest for his descendants.

    Augustus Caesar Net Worth: A Roman coin depicting Augustus Caesar (27--18 BC).
    A Roman coin depicting Augustus Caesar (27–18 BC).

    This level of net worth that Augustus had makes him 30 to 45 times richer than Jeff Bezos ($125 billion) and Elon Musk ($180 billion) respectively. For comparison, according to the economist Angus Maddison the total GDP of the Roman Empire was $57 billion in 2023 dollars. It’s impossible to fathom the size of his fortune. The total wealth of the world’s 10 wealthiest people is only $1.2 trillion today.

    Because Augustus’s fortune significantly outstripped that of the current richest people. Almost 30 legions and the grain dole, ancient Rome’s welfare system, were all paid for personally by Augustus. Considering how much the United States spends each year on defense, infrastructure, and social programs, Augustus would make at least $2.5 trillion a year if he were alive today. Augustus Caesar was richer than many modern countries.

    Historical Clues Regarding Augustus’ Net Worth

    augustus caesar as a wealthy figure
    An Augustus bust at Munich’s Glyptothek crowned with the Civic Crown. (Credit: Dan Mihai Pitea, CC BY-SA 4.0)

    As Caesar’s adoptive son and heir, Augustus was to receive 75% of his father’s fortune, as Suetonius mentioned. Caesar had several estates and a lot of money from his conquests. We don’t exactly know his net worth when he died but he was probably the wealthiest Roman.

    But, considering that Caesar left 300 Sestertii to each freeborn Roman citizen, it is safe to assume that this fortune was quite a lot. The freeborn citizens in the city of Rome were around 250,000 at that time and it is estimated that one Sestertius was around $4.25 in today’s currency. Thus, Caesar left 75 million Sestertii or around $320 million to the citizens alone.

    Marc Anthony, who considered Augustus a danger, had to provide his consent for the fortune to be transferred. With the help of Caesar’s former soldiers, Augustus formed a private army and made a bargain with the Senate. As a result, he joined Anthony and Lepidus in the Second Triumvirate and shared in their patrimony. When the Roman triumvirate collapsed, Augustus took over as dictator and instituted a system to consolidate his authority.

    Augustus ran Egypt as if it were his own private domain, shifting funds between the public and private sectors as he saw fit. The public benefited from Augustus’ personal wealth. For instance, Augustus disbursed more over 600,000,000 Sestertii from his “private” assets for public enterprises, as documented in Res Gestae Divi Augusti.

    This equates to approximately $2.6 billion in 2023 dollars. The inverse flow of funds is mysterious. Moreover, the wealthy Roman citizens could use the option of leaving a portion of their land to the emperor Augustus as political cover which the general Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa or the rich political advisor Gaius Maecenas were famous for doing.

    Augustus Owed His Net Worth to Julius Caesar

    An artwork depicts Julius Caesar in front of Alexander's monument.
    An artwork depicts Julius Caesar in front of Alexander’s monument. (Federico Godoy Castro, 1894)

    Augustus owed his success in becoming one of the world’s wealthiest men to the assassination of Julius Caesar, his adopted father and great uncle. Soon after, Octavian, as he was still known at the time, rallied the troops to his side and brutally put down his enemies.

    But it wasn’t until the Senate bestowed upon him the honorary name Augustus, stripped the old aristocratic families of their authority, and ended the civil war that he gained widespread acclaim and support from the general public. There was finally peace in the Roman capital and the provinces.

    Octavius was born into a wealthy family, although they were not among Rome’s elite. By the time he was 40, he was the absolute ruler of the Roman Empire, thanks to his political savvy, the power he gained through his relationship with Julius Caesar, and a state loan of around $40 billion (in today’s currency). While he did share some authority with the Senate, he was mostly in charge of the Empire’s provinces (called “Imperial Provinces”).

    The Roman Empire accounted for one-third of the world’s GDP at the time, and Augustus owned a quarter of it, which is worth an estimated $5.8 trillion in today’s dollars, or the GDP of five of the fifty states in the United States.

    Augustus was often portrayed as Jupiter, the most revered god in the Roman pantheon. No present billionaire can claim to be as wealthy as Augustus Caesar unless they control five US states and have a god status.

    The most beautiful month of the year for many is named after Augustus, and even religious people who care less about politics are familiar with his name. In the biblical tale, Mary and Joseph had to go to Bethlehem because of a census ordered by Augustus Caesar (even though Augustus never ordered a census for the whole Roman Empire in the historical records).

    The Roman Economy Thrived While Augustus Was in Charge

    Under Augustus Caesar, business boomed, cities expanded, and creative people rejoiced. During this period, Rome was responsible for more than a quarter of global GDP, and Augustus, if traditional history is to be believed, was either shrewd or unscrupulous enough to appropriate a fifth for himself. In today’s terms, that equates to an incredible $5.8 trillion or €5.3 trillion.

    Famous for his conquests, Augustus Caesar is often mentioned in the same breath as Napoleon Bonaparte. Augustus may have made life peaceful for his subjects inside the empire, but it was definitely unbearable on the outside.

    The Roman Republic’s first emperor, Augustus raised the already unflinching conquering missions to new heights as he took an example from his adoptive father, Julius Caesar. He conquered all of Egypt and Cantabria and marched his soldiers even farther north, into Germania.

    Augustus Caesar was never in a hurry to celebrate his victories. He was 76 years old when he passed away, making him an absolute Methuselah for that time when the life expectancy at birth was 25 years. Even more impressively, Augustus successfully set up his stepson Tiberius as his successor, and he received a large portion of Augustus’ net worth.

  • How Tall Was Abraham Lincoln with His Hat?

    How Tall Was Abraham Lincoln with His Hat?

    The towering height of Abraham Lincoln is one of the most recognizable features associated with him. Despite the fact that he was 6 feet 4 inches tall without the top hat, his hat made him appear even more towering at almost 7 feet in height. The “stovepipe hat” he sported was a common fashion choice for men at the time since it was meant to be worn high on the head and give the wearer the illusion of greater stature.

    Despite the lack of known head-to-toe dimensions on how tall Abraham Lincoln was with his hat, we can deduce from archival sources that his top hats were between 7 and 8 inches in height which means Lincoln was 6 feet 11 inches tall with his hat. Lincoln’s towering black hat has become a recognizable symbol of him in paintings, photographs, and other historical representations.

    Abraham Lincoln’s Height With His Hat

    How Tall Was Abraham Lincoln With His Hat
    Image: uc.edu.

    We know for a fact that all of Abraham Lincoln’s stovepipe hats were between 7 and 8 inches in height. Thus, Abraham Lincoln’s height with his hat was between 6 feet 11 inches and 7 feet (211–213 cm) tall. Considering the likelihood that most of his hats were probably only 7 inches tall, the most likely measurement for Lincoln’s height with his hat is 6 feet 11 inches.

    For instance, the National Museum of American History reportedly has one of Lincoln’s hats, also measuring 7 inches in height. Washington hatmaker J. Y. Davis sold Lincoln this silk stovepipe. Lincoln’s hat was a black silk top hat with a broad brim, stiffened felt, beaver fur, and a fur crest. One of Lincoln’s top hats had an official head circumference of 7-1/8 inches, and that is the only thing known about it regarding its measurement.

    Did Lincoln Try to Look Taller With His Hat?

    At Almost 7 feet tall with his top hat, Abraham Lincoln was taller than everybody else around him.
    At Almost 7 feet tall with his top hat, Abraham Lincoln was taller than everybody else around him.

    During his early days in politics, Lincoln simply favored top hats without any specific motivation. But President Abraham Lincoln’s massive top hat was more than just a stylish accessory. Lincoln, who was 6 feet 4 inches tall, really seemed much more towering in his big hat. In an era when physical stature was still associated with status, Lincoln’s 7-inch-tall hat likely contributed to his public perception as a confident and strong leader. But there is also more to that:

    Abolitionists at Lincoln’s time often wore tall hats; therefore, Lincoln’s choice of this style may be seen as evidence of his commitment to the abolitionist cause. The fact that Lincoln wore a tall hat also indicated his humble beginnings in the expanding 19th-century middle class, when such headwear was popular among them. Lincoln’s almost 7-foot stature with his hat always made him stand out and appear taller than those around him.

    Assessing the Height of 19th-Century Top Hats

    Lincoln with his famous top hat stood around 6 feet 11 inches tall.
    Lincoln with his famous top hat stood around 6 feet 11 inches tall.

    During the Victorian Era (1837–1901), a top hat would typically sit at a height of 6.3 to 6.7 inches. Abraham Lincoln wore a hat that was at least 7 inches tall during this time period. In fact, by the turn of the 19th century, it had become usual to sport a hat that was 7 or 8 inches in height. So, Lincoln’s top hat was not particularly remarkable. Around 1890, the crown of the top hat was widened to give it a more refined, tailored look. The height of the top hat was reduced to 4.7–5.0 inches by the 1920s.

    In Lincoln’s day, precise height measurement was not as common as it is now. Abraham Lincoln’s autobiographies, rather than real measurements, are used in many of the earliest biographies and reports of Lincoln’s height. Wearing top hats was also widespread in the 19th century, and the increased height they provided would have varied according to the hat style. Abraham Lincoln’s hat was designed to always sit upright while worn, emphasizing his already slender physique.

    How Lincoln’s Tall Stature and His Hat Risked His Life

    abraham lincoln with his tall hat next to a little girl

    The high stovepipe hats Lincoln favored made him a target for assassination. A sniper’s bullet pierced the top of his hat as he rode his horse to his summer retreat (“Soldiers’ Home”) a few miles from the White House in 1864. Many also think that Lincoln’s survival was due to his hat hiding his head.

    Once again, Lincoln’s life was in jeopardy due to his massive stovepipe: During the Battle of Fort Stevens in July 1864, Lincoln wore a hat that made him a perfect target for Confederate fire as he surveyed Union positions. Captain Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. shouted at Lincoln, “Get down, you stupid idiot!” as he rescued the president. And Lincoln did not wear his tall hat on the night he was murdered. To this day, there is no other president more intimately linked to a piece of clothing than Abraham Lincoln.

  • How Tall Was Abraham Lincoln?

    How Tall Was Abraham Lincoln?

    How tall was Abraham Lincoln? Lincoln’s height is one of the most distinctive physical characteristics of the 16th President of the United States. Many historians assume that, at 6 feet 4 inches (193 cm), he is the tallest U.S. president. As a result of his height, he was able to command respect and attention in debates and public speeches. Lincoln’s height and weight are clearly defied in his biographies and other historical texts. Thus, there is no controversy or disagreement about how tall Lincoln was, and his stature still lives on as a symbol of power and dominance.

    Young Abe Lincoln with his enormous hands.
    Abe Lincoln with his enormous hands.

    Abraham Lincoln, at 6’4″ (193 cm), was not only the tallest US president but also had the largest hands among world leaders other than Maximinus Thrax, who was allegedly 8 feet, one finger (2.4 meters) tall. Lincoln’s enormous hands often made him self-conscious, so he would hide them in his coat or pockets to avoid intimidating others. Despite this, a few photographs have captured their size. According to the Lincoln Lore bulletin from 1936, the circumference of his hands is determined to be ten inches and his bare feet measured 12 inches (30.5 cm).

    Historical Records on Abraham Lincoln’s Height

    His autobiographies

    Abraham Lincoln full body portrait.

    Due to the diversity of sources, we do know for sure how tall Abraham Lincoln was. Since the United States was preoccupied with the Civil War, there was never an official height measurement of Lincoln taken during his lifetime. However, we know from his autobiographies and other references that Abraham Lincoln stood at a height of 6 feet 4 inches (193 cm).

    “If any personal description of me is thought desirable, it maybe said, I am in height, six feet, four inches, nearly; lean in flesh, weighing, on an average, one hundred and eighty pounds; dark complexion, with coarse black hair, and gray eyes. No other marks or brands recollected.”

    Abraham Lincoln, in his autobiography.
    Abraham Lincoln with his 7-inch-tall stovepipe hat.
    Abraham Lincoln with his 7-inch-tall stovepipe hat.

    Unlike many other public speakers of the time, Lincoln didn’t use raised platforms when he spoke to large crowds. Instead, he used his height to his advantage. Diet has a significant role in determining a person’s final stature, and even a century or two ago, the average American had access to superior nutrition than the average European.

    The fire in the White House

    white house stable 1864
    A fire broke out at the White House stable (right) on February 10, 1864.

    In February 1864, during a fire in the White House, President Lincoln attempted to enter a burning White House stable to rescue six trapped horses, including two belonging to his sons Willie and Tad. Despite being restrained by those nearby, Lincoln personally broke open the stable door but was stopped by the guards. The loss of Willie’s pony was an especially great source of pain for him.

    According to the Lehrman Institute, the president was spotted at the fire by William P. Bogardus, who was part of the guard team selected to serve as Lincoln’s mounted escort, and Bogardus remarked: “As we stood watching the burning building someone put a hand on the tight board fence that surrounded the barn and vaulted over. The fence was over six feet high.“

    Was Abraham Lincoln Unusually Tall for His Time?

    With his towering stature, Abraham Lincoln stands alongside his officers.
    With his towering stature, Abraham Lincoln stands alongside his officers.

    Abraham Lincoln stood at a height that was uncommon for his day. He often used the fact that he was the tallest person in the room as a conversation opener. According to the standard percentile scale, his height placed him in the 99th or 98th percentile. Lincoln is shown above alongside around 15 other men, all of whom are noticeably shorter than he is (only one of whom reaches his jaw).

    In 1950, American men typically stood at a height of 5 feet, 5 inches (165 cm). Lincoln towered above this by 11 inches. The average height of a contemporary American male is roughly 5 feet 9 inches (175 cm).

    "Lincoln Was the Tallest President", 1929.
    “Lincoln Was the Tallest President”, 1929.

    In 1850, the average height of an American soldier was 5’7″ (170 cm). From the Revolutionary War to World War II, Americans were taller than Europeans on average. This height advantage was likely due to the abundance of resources, including diverse nutrition and a better diet, in America’s largely privately-owned agricultural society.

    Coming from a family with tall people, such as his 6 feet (183 cm) tall father, Abraham Lincoln was indeed too tall for his time. He was 9 inches (23 cm) taller than the average American soldier during the Civil War and an inch shorter than the current average height for males in the country. His height was also especially unusual due to the fact that the standard deviation of height at the time was 3 inches instead of 4 inches (7.6 cm instead of 10 cm) today.

    When Did Lincoln Reach a Height of 6 Feet 4 Inches?

    Abraham Lincoln sitting

    According to the myth, Abraham Lincoln was already 5’5 (165 cm) tall when he was only 9 years old. According to “The Life of Abraham Lincoln; From His Birth to His Inauguration as President” by Ward H. Lamon, at the age of 15, Abraham Lincoln rapidly grew, and by the time he was 17 years old, he had already attained his full height of 6 feet 4 inches (193 cm).

    As a teenager, Lincoln was known for his long, wiry build and disproportionate extremities. He had a small torso and a small head in comparison to his long and powerful limbs.

    At a towering height of 6 feet 4 inches (193 cm), Abraham Lincoln stood out even among the giants of the pioneering family he belonged to. Thomas Lincoln, Abraham’s father, was also a big, burly man himself, standing at six feet tall and weighing in at about two hundred pounds; he was sluggish in both speech and movement.

    Did Lincoln Have Marfan’s Syndrome?

    Historians speculate that Lincoln may have had Marfan’s syndrome, a condition that causes increased height and hand size, along with possible low muscle tone. However, this is uncertain. His height, long, lanky limbs, long, narrow face, etc. are all characteristics of Marfan Syndrome, which has been proposed as a possible cause of his physical features. A rare genetic ailment that wasn’t understood until long after his passing, the discovery of Marfan syndrome only happened in 1896.

    Connective tissue, which serves as the “glue” between cells, is disrupted in Marfan syndrome, a hereditary condition. Some of the most often reported symptoms are unusually long fingers and toes, a long, narrow face, heart murmurs, an enlarged aorta; other cardiovascular concerns, impaired eyesight, and abdominal and limb discomfort. As reported by the National Institutes of Health (NIH), people with Marfan syndrome tend to be tall, slender, and loose-jointed.

    The Personal Appearance of Lincoln

    abraham lincoln

    According to “The Life of Abraham Lincoln” from 1872, Lincoln’s skin was dark, shriveled, and yellow in color. He dressed in simple clothing, including low shoes, buckskin pants, a rough shirt, and an opossum or raccoon skin top hat. Lincoln was described in great detail by a gentleman who knew him well in Springfield. Standing 6’4″ (193 cm) he had a gaunt and wiry frame with a short torse, long arms relative to his height, and legs in proportion to his body. Lincoln was slow in movement with a deliberate, firm gait, often with his head tilted forward and hands clasped behind his back.

    In attire, Lincoln was clean but not fashionable, except for his famous tall hat, and in manners, he was cordial and simple. He greeted friends warmly with a handshake and a smile. Narrow in the shoulders, Lincoln’s features were not conventionally handsome at rest, but his dark gray eyes often showed great emotion. Lincoln had black, wiry hair and a relatively small head. He had a slightly Roman nose, a wide mouth, and a weather-beaten complexion.

    As a US president, Lincoln was never strict in his ideas and was open to hearing out people like Frederick Douglas, a prominent abolitionist and black philosopher.

    Abraham Lincoln’s Height with His Hat

    Abraham Lincoln

    His head measured eight inches from front to back and six and a half inches from ear to ear. His hat measured seven and one-eighth inches.

    Abraham Lincoln had numerous top hats in his lifetime, and the height of all of his top hats varied between seven and eight inches. When Abraham Lincoln wore his famous 7-inch-tall stovepipe hat, he seemed much taller than his natural height of 6 feet, 4 inches (193 cm). The addition of the hat made Abe almost 7 feet tall, bringing his total height to 6 feet 11 inches (211 cm).

    At 6’4″, How Strong Was Abraham Lincoln?

    Despite his towering stature and thin frame, narrow shoulders and waist, Abraham Lincoln had extraordinary power in his arms and hands. When he was younger, he made a name for himself as a skilled worker and wrestler. Wrestling was one of the few sports in which Lincoln excelled. The advantages he had from his stature and the size of his hands were substantial. Before he entered politics, he had a successful career as a wrestler, where he lost just once in more than 300 fights. When it came to splitting rails, he was a formidable figure.

    During the Civil War, when he was over 52 years old and not too healthy, he would still shake hundreds of hands in a day, carry a large axe with one hand while keeping his arm stretched for many minutes, and ferociously chop wood to keep his injured men warm, all while never exceeding a weight of 190 pounds. Lincoln had the biggest size 14 boots of any president, and his physicians remarked on his extraordinary muscular structure after his death. Abraham Lincoln was a powerful orator and a towering personality in the 19th century.

    He once engaged in a duel with a man named James Shields in 1842, and during the course of the fight, he swung his broadsword through the air and struck a neighboring tree limb, slicing it clean off.

    How Tall is Abraham Lincoln’s Statue?

    The Lincoln Statue at the Lincoln Memorial is 19 feet (5.8 m) tall, despite its initial design of about 10 feet (3 m). The end product is a statue of Abraham Lincoln that would stand 28 feet (8.5 m) tall. The statue also measures 19 feet in width, which is what makes it appear more impressive.

    The Tallest US Presidential Candidate Ever

    Lincoln stands half an inch higher than the second-tallest US president, Lyndon B. Johnson, who is 6 feet, 3.5 inches (1.92 meters). On the other hand, Winfield Scott (6 ft 5 in, or 1.96 m), was an inch taller than Lincoln, and he is still the tallest US presidential candidate in history. George Washington was 6 feet 0 (1.83 m) and the shortest US president was James Madison at 5 feet 4.2 inches (1.63 m).

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  • How Tall Was Abraham Lincoln’s Hat?

    How Tall Was Abraham Lincoln’s Hat?

    How tall was Abraham Lincoln’s hat? The 16th President of the United States, Abraham Lincoln, is remembered for many things, including his towering top hat, his role in maintaining the Union, and the Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln was often photographed wearing this distinctive stovepipe hat, which has come to symbolize him and his legacy. However, how tall was Lincoln’s hat, exactly? There has been a lot of discussion and guesswork about this, with most historians estimating the hat’s height as 7 or 8 inches (18 or 20.3 cm). Let’s take a look at Lincoln’s hat in all its physical glory, compare the many sizes that have been given, and settle the debate once and for all.

    The Height of Lincoln’s Hat

    How Tall Was Abraham Lincoln’s Hat

    Until his death in 1865, Lincoln wore a big top hat that became instantly recognizable by everyone else. The tall top hats were invented at the end of the 1700s, and in the middle of the 1800s, they became so tall that they were called “stovepipe hats. Top hats of the past were originally fashioned from felted fur. Next, a fur-like silk fabric was utilized, and this was bonded to a cardboard hat form. On April 14th, 1865, he wore it for the final time on the way to Ford’s Theatre.

    While no one knows for certain, Lincoln’s hat is said to have been around 7 inches in height. This can be confirmed using historical records and photographs taken at the time. One of Lincoln’s hats, likewise 7 inches in height, is said to be on display in the National Museum of American History. Lincoln purchased this silk stovepipe from J. Y. Davis, a hat maker in Washington.

    This is one of Abraham Lincoln's many top hats, all measuring 7 to 8 inches tall.
    This is one of Abraham Lincoln’s many top hats, all measuring 7 to 8 inches tall. Smithsonian Institution.

    The only recorded measurement of Lincoln’s original top hat was a head circumference of 7-1/8 or 57 centimeters. Lincoln wore a black silk top hat with stiffened felt, beaver fur, and a wide brim. When worn, the hat always leaned vertically, giving Abraham Lincoln an even more elongated profile.

    The standard top hat height during the Victorian period (1837–1901) was 6.3–6.7 inches. This era corresponds with Lincoln’s 7-inch-tall hat. In fact, wearing seven or even eight-inch-tall hats was the norm at the beginning of the 19th century. So, Lincoln’s tall hat was not that extraordinary. The top hat’s crown was expanded in about 1890 to provide a more elegant and fitted appearance. By the 1920s, the top hat’s height had been lowered to 4.7–5.0 inches.

    Why Did Lincoln Wear a Tall Top Hat?

    The towering top hat Abraham Lincoln wore was more than simply a fashion statement. Ironically, the height of the hat made Lincoln, who stood at 6 feet 4 inches, seem even taller. Lincoln’s 7-inch-tall hat helped portray an image of confidence and strength in a period when height was still considered a symbol of power and authority.

    abraham lincoln with hat

    Abraham Lincoln’s tall top hat served more than just aesthetic or functional objectives. Lincoln’s preference for the tall hat, which was often worn by abolitionists, could be seen as a sign of his dedication to the abolitionist cause. Lincoln’s tall hat was also a mark of his place in the growing 19th-century middle class, since wearing tall hats was a common accessory at the time.

    How Tall Was Abraham Lincoln With His Hat?

    Abraham Lincoln was already tall at 6 feet 4 inches without his hat, and he appeared even taller with the height of his 7-inch-tall stovepipe hat. With the hat, his overall height was 6 feet 11 inches, which means he was almost 7 feet tall!

    When Did Lincoln Begin to Wear Top Hats?

    The origins of Lincoln’s affinity for top hats remain a mystery. It is believed that during his early days in politics, he simply favored the style without any specific motivation. The trend persisted well after his passing. Lincoln had a preference for top hats that appeared well-worn rather than pristine. However, the height of his hat always made him stand out and appear taller than those around him.

    The Risk of Wearing a Tall Hat

    Lincoln’s tall stovepipe hats made him easily recognizable and a target for assassins. In 1864, while on horseback to a summer cottage (“Soldiers’ Home”) a few miles from the White House, a sniper shot at him and hit his hat, piercing through the crown. People believed that the hat saved Lincoln’s life.

    Because of his towering stovepipe, Lincoln was once again in danger of being murdered: In July 1864, when surveying Union lines, Lincoln was a prime target for Confederate fire during the Battle of Fort Stevens because of the hat he was wearing. “Get down, you damn fool!” captain Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., yelled as he pulled Lincoln to safety.

    Since the death of his son, Willie, Lincoln had also added a black mourning band to his hats. Though the hat was said to have saved his life, it was again with him during his tragic end, as he wore it the night of his assassination. Abraham Lincoln remains the only president closely associated with a specific item of clothing.

    In conclusion, most historians agree that Abraham Lincoln’s top hat was around 7 inches in height. The hat’s functional aim was to make Lincoln seem taller, but it also had a deeper symbolic meaning. Lincoln’s tall hat remained one of his most recognizable and memorable features.

  • What Authors and Books Did Hitler Read?

    What Authors and Books Did Hitler Read?

    • Hitler had an extensive personal library with over 16,000 books.
    • Hitler’s reading interests were diverse, including military books and philosophical works.
    • Hitler was influenced by esoteric and obscure writings, not just mainstream literature.

    Adolf Hitler had a voracious reading habit. While still a young man, he would often read every book in the library. In Vienna, he spent much of his time reading. He read thousands of books, and he memorized large portions of his favorites. Odd enough, Hitler probably read more books than anybody else in history. Adolf Hitler even neglected Eva Braun because of his reading obsession. More than 16,000 books lined the shelves of the dictator’s personal library. In 2003, Timothy W. Ryback, a historian, analyzed the books Hitler read. Hitler read the writings of Karl May, Wilhelm Busch, Karl Marx, and many more.

    Adolf Hitler was a bookworm. Even as a World War I soldier, he chose to spend what little money he had on books rather than on hookers and cigarettes. While stationed in the trenches, Hitler read the tract of an architectural critic who railed against the “over-alienation” of Berlin by non-Prussian structures.

    Hitler, the mass murderer, was either unaware or unconcerned that this German nationalist architecture critic was Jewish. His reading binge had a meticulous quality to it; he read the books diligently, sometimes till the small hours of the morning. Even after Hitler became dictator of the German Reich, he continued to be a bookworm.

    adolf hitler reading
    Hitler’s holidays in early August 1933. (Attribution: Bundesarchiv, Bild 183-2004-1202-502 / CC-BY-SA 3.0)

    Hitler wasn’t concerned about illiteracy, which plays a major part in Bernhard Schlink‘s international blockbuster “The Reader.” Once, as Hitler was enjoying a cup of tea and some books in the “Berghof” in the Berchtesgadener Land, he was suddenly interrupted by Eva Braun. After he sent her out with a scathing monologue, Eva stumbled down the steps outside his room as her face flushed with anger.

    After spending the night buried in a book, Hitler would come out the next morning and give a comprehensive explanation of what he had read. As a reader, Hitler favored books with reference sources and encyclopedias. As the story goes, there was a time when a debate arose about just how magnificent Napoleon Bonaparte really was as a leader. Hitler mysteriously walked into the next room, retrieved the “Großer Brockhaus,” and then returned with the right answer he was looking for.

    Some of the books that Hitler is believed to have read:

    1. “The Protocols of the Elders of Zion”
    2. “The Will to Power” by Friedrich Nietzsche
    3. “The Decline of the West” by Oswald Spengler
    4. “The World as Will and Representation” by Arthur Schopenhauer
    5. “Thus Spoke Zarathustra” by Friedrich Nietzsche
    6. “The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century” by Houston Stewart Chamberlain.

    How Many Books Did Hitler Have?

    However, Hitler was not only an avid reader but also a collector. In 1935, Janet Flanner of the “New Yorker” reported that Hitler had 6,000 books in his personal collection. A decade later, there were 16,300 books in his library collection. In the end, only around 1,200 volumes were recovered from Hitler’s private collection that was dispersed among homes in Munich, Berlin, and Berchtesgaden. Hitler’s books are stored today at the Library of Congress in Washington, DC, on standard steel shelving.

    Timothy W. Ryback, a historian, paid Hitler’s library a visit. He has cleaned off the book spines, combed through the pages for notes and drawings, and later written a literary biography of Hitler: “Hitler’s Private Library: The Books That Shaped His Life.“

    We know from Dante that anybody attempting to go into the Inferno must be accompanied by a guide, a Cicerone. Timothy Ryback’s guide down into the monster’s head was a German-Jewish scholar named Walter Benjamin. He killed himself at Portbou, France, in 1940, with the Gestapo on his heels and an impassable border in front of him.

    Even Hitler’s love of books couldn’t compete with that of German philosopher Walter Benjamin. He believed that someone’s personal library was like a window into her or his whole being, and a person’s personality could be “read” by the collection of books he or she amasses over the course of a lifetime.

    But just as Hegel claims that the owl of Minerva doesn’t take to the air until nightfall, one can only accurately assess the spirit of a given era once it has passed into obsolescence, so too can the soul of a bookworm be understood only after he has passed away. And this is the case with Hitler.

    In What Ways is Hitler Portrayed in the Books He Read?

    Hitler read anything that caught his eye, which made him an extremely diverse reader. Unsurprisingly, there are a lot of mundane details too, including the fact that half of Hitler’s book was devoted to military books. It has also long been known that Hitler adored Karl May‘s Native American works. As the tides of battle turned against him, Hitler sought solace in May’s Wild West fancies, perhaps hoping that at the last minute, battalions of Old Shatterhands would rescue his Nazi Germany with a cunning plan of attack against the red Comanches and Yankee bombers.

    Adolf Hitler read the books of the Jew-hater Paul de Lagarde with great perseverance. The film director Leni Riefenstahl suggested to Hitler the philosopher Johann Gottlieb Fichte’s volume of books, who taught Völkisch socialism (a German ethno-nationalist movement) and was a fanatical Jew-hater. While the German philosopher Nietzsche was also more often linked with the Nazis, he was a Jewish critic but not a Jew-hater.

    Hitler liked Johann Gottlieb Fichte's books, which were full of hatred for Jews and taught Völkisch socialism, a German ethno-nationalist movement.
    Hitler liked Johann Gottlieb Fichte’s books, which were full of hatred for Jews and taught Völkisch socialism, a German ethno-nationalist movement.

    The book “Thus Spoke Zarathustra,” written by Nietzsche, enthralled Hitler immensely. The ideals of self-mastery, self-cultivation, self-direction, and self-overcoming, as well as the idea of the “Übermensch” or “superman,” inspired him in particular. Hitler was particularly taken by the book’s repeating themes of accepting one’s destiny by embracing all of life’s tragedies and joys and perpetual recurrence—the belief that all events in one’s life would happen again and again, indefinitely. Also, the book “God is Dead,” the prediction of the Übermensch, and another of his books, “The Will to Power,” which is essential to human nature, all inspired Hitler’s thoughts.

    Among the books Hitler owned is a beautifully bound copy of the “Words of Christ,” but it is hard to interpret from this that Hitler was a devout Bible reader. He cherished the books, not only “Robinson Crusoe,” but also “Don Quixote” and “Gulliver’s Travels.” It’s true that Shakespeare was one of Hitler’s favorite authors, as he often quoted the poet. The 1925 edition of Shakespeare’s works, translated by Georg Müller, was found in his possession. Shakespeare was responsible for several turning points in his country’s history. On the other hand, the possible books of Goethe, Schiller, Dante, and Schopenhauer were probably destroyed during the Allied bombardment.

    Hitler often recited lines from “Julius Caesar” and “Hamlet,” such as “Thou shalt see me at Philippi” or “To be, or not to be, that is the question.”

    This all can be quite humiliating to find out. Because Adolf Hitler is not the kind of person you want to share a love of Shakespeare, Miguel de Cervantes, or even Jonathan Swift‘s Gulliver’s Travels with.

    But Thomas Mann’s famous article “Bruder Hitler” is one antidote that does calm our annoyance about the books Hitler read and liked. Timothy Rybeck probably did not know about this article, otherwise he would certainly have cited it. Before World War II broke out, author Thomas Mann saw something of a kindred artist in Hitler, whom he both despised and was captivated by.

    He writes, “It’s all there, in a shameful way: the difficulty, laziness, and miserable indefinability of childhood; the inability to be accommodated; the half-stupid vegetating in deepest social and mental bohemia; the fundamentally haughty; the fundamentally thinking oneself too good; the rejection of any reasonable and honorable activity.”

    Many Obscure and Occult Writings

    It is sad that this avid reader turned out to be a murderer. Many of the books in Hitler’s collection have esoteric or otherwise hard-to-find subjects. An obscure author called Ernst Schertel reflects Hitler’s mind better than Friedrich Nietzsche, Arthur Schopenhauer, or Gottlieb Fichte.

    Riedel, in his work titled “The Law of the World: The Coming Religion,” criticizes the materialism and goal-orientedness of the average European by pointing out that they base their beliefs on facts rather than on anything internal to themselves. According to the book, the real genius is “ectropic” in the sense that it can create an entire universe from nothing via the application of its devilish will.

    Hitler put several thick and passionate pencil notes of approval on the book. The “ectropic” was the term that defined his leadership.

    Hitler’s ideas were influenced by an after theory from a cheap, sensationalized booklet rather than Martin Luther or German idealism. For years, it has been known that the “Ostara” series booklets, written by Austrian “racial theorist” Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels, had a significant impact on young Adolf Hitler. This information was revealed in Wilfried Daim’s book “Der Mann, der Hitler die Ideen gab,” (The Man Who Gave Hitler The Ideas) which also highlights the pornographic elements of these booklets.

    At the end of reading Timothy Rybeck’s thorough investigation, one is left feeling unsatisfied. Even with Walter Benjamin as a guide, it is impossible to fully understand the mind of the mass murderer, and this is likely because there is no real mystery to uncover.

    Hitler, in his core, was empty and void. Attempting to comprehend him leads to nothingness. He was a blank slate who enjoyed reading.

  • How Tall Was Hitler? Documents and Pictures on His Height

    How Tall Was Hitler? Documents and Pictures on His Height

    • Adolf Hitler is believed to be around 5 feet 9 inches (175 cm) tall.
    • He appeared shorter in some photographs due to the taller stature of his generals and the Reichsführer-SS.
    • Hitler’s official records and photographs with Heinrich Himmler support his alleged height figure.

    The exact height of Adolf Hitler is debated. However, Hitler was 5 feet 9 inches (1.75 m) tall, according to various sources. Still, eyewitnesses at the 1936 Summer Olympics believe that Hitler was around 1.65 m (5 ft 5 in) tall, which was short even for the time. Photos from the 1938 Munich Conference, when four countries discussed Germany’s annexation of Sudetenland in advance of its invasion of Poland, show Hitler’s height around the same level as the other world leaders. However, considering how short Neville Chamberlain appears in the picture, the perspective is deceiving.

    The below picture shows Hitler’s height next to other leaders:

    1938 Munich Conference. The picture shows the heights of the leaders in comparison: Neville Chamberlain, Édouard Daladier, Adolf Hitler, and Benito Mussolini, from left to right.
    1938 Munich Conference. Neville Chamberlain, Édouard Daladier, Adolf Hitler, and Benito Mussolini, from left to right. (Image: Derived from public domain)

    Why Hitler Appeared Shorter in Pictures

    Hitler was not a small individual at the time; he was of average height. So why did he occasionally appear shorter in photographs? Hitler looked dwarfed in images with his generals and the rest of the Reichsführer-SS because they were generally taller people. Even though Hitler was similar in height to Julius Caesar, Caesar’s Roman army usually consisted of individuals of average height, which is why he was never perceived as short as Alexander the Great, Joseph Stalin, or Napoleon Bonaparte.

    The below photograph of Hitler with Heinrich Himmler attests to Hitler’s height as another solid piece of evidence. Himmler was the Reichsführer of the SS, and he stood 5 ft 8.5 in (1.74 m) tall. In the picture, Himmler and Hitler are of comparable stature, but Hitler actually stands a bit taller, which again supports that his height was 5’9″ (175 cm). Taking into account the average height of Austrian soldiers in WWII, which was 5’8″ (1.73 m), Hitler’s height was perfectly normal for the time.

    Hitler full body portrait, standing next to Heinrich Himmler who is 1.74 m or 5 ft 8.5 in. in height.
    Hitler standing next to Heinrich Himmler who is 5 ft 8.5 in or 1.74 m. (Colorized from Bundesarchiv, Bild 183-C05557 / CC-BY-SA 3.0)

    Official Records on Hitler’s Height

    In the below photograph of Adolf Hitler with his Fields Marshals during the German attack on Britain, Hitler appears to be the same height as Hermann Göring, 5’10” (1.78 m), despite standing in front of him. This again supports the claims regarding his height.

    Hitler next to Hermann Göring and his other Field Marshals.
    Hitler next to Hermann Göring and his other Field Marshals. (Image: Public Domain, colorized)

    Records from Landsberg Prison, where Hitler was imprisoned during the Beer Hall Putsch, also indicate this same height figure, with guards and those around him witnessing this measurement. Hitler was significantly shorter in comparison to his bodyguard Rochus Misch who stood at 6 ft 1 in (1.85 m) tall.

    Hitler and his bodyguard Rochus Misch.
    Hitler and his bodyguard Rochus Misch.

    In some pictures of Hitler with his partner Eva Braun, who stood at 5 ft 4.2 in (1.63 m), the height difference is less pronounced because she wore shoes with higher heels. But in other pictures, it is easy to see that Hitler was much taller.

    Unlike Stalin, Hitler is not known for using platform shoes to appear taller. Stalin even did that during the signing of the Hitler-Stalin non-aggression pact. Because even though Stalin stood at 5’4″ (1.62 m), he was known to wear platform shoes to appear at least 4 inches (10 cm) taller, just like Vladimir Putin does today.

    eva braun and hitler stands next to each other, full body portrait, eva braun is 1.63 m (5 ft 4.2 in) tall.
    Eva Braun and Adolf Hitler. (Bundesarchiv, CC BY-SA 3.0)

    Hitler’s Other Physical Characteristics

    Standing at a height of 5 ft 9 in, Hitler maintained a healthy weight of 154 pounds (70 kg). He did not smoke, drank alcohol only on rare occasions, and was an ardent vegetarian. Hitler’s blood and urine tests, according to his doctor Theodor Morell, were often clean. Other than some mild colds, he generally had a robust immune system and a strong physicality due to his peasant family background. He also handled the stresses of warfare efficiently.

    Hitler's full body height portrait, in NSDAP uniform with jackboots, 1932.
    Hitler in NSDAP uniform with jackboots, 1932. (Colorized from Bundesarchiv, Bild 146-1982-159-22A / CC-BY-SA 3.0)

    There are interesting stories about Hitler’s physical appearance; for example, it’s been reported that Hitler only had one testicle. Hitler was diagnosed with “right-side cryptorchidism,” a disorder in which a testicle fails to descend into the scrotum. This medical report originates from the time he was incarcerated after the failed Munich beer hall putsch in 1923.

    hitler and mussolini side by side, full body portraits. Their heights can be compared clearly.
    Mussolini (5 ft 6.5 in) and Hitler (5 ft 9 in), August 1941. (Public Domain)

    A Leader’s Height Does Matter

    A leader’s physical traits, like height and weight, can shape a nation’s destiny. This is because it’s always hard to tell at first glance how smart or moral a leader is, but it’s usually easier to see how strong and powerful they are.

    This is why symbols of authority, such as the crowns of European monarchs or the headdresses of Native American chiefs, not only signify wealth and power but also compensate for any perceived lack of height. An example of this is Louis XIV, who stood at only 5 feet 4 inches (1.62 m) tall but often wore high heels and a fluffy wig to enhance his image.

    Mussolini (5ft 6.5 in) and Hitler (5 ft 9 in) walking next to each other, full body photograph. September 1937.
    Mussolini (5 ft 6.5 in; 169 cm) and Hitler (5 ft 9 in; 175 cm), September 1937. (Public Domain)

    While physical strength and power may be components of the ideal leader image, the reality is much more complex. Hitler was able to successfully overthrow the much taller Paul von Hindenburg (6’6″; 1.98 m) through his skill and strategy.

    But Was He Tall Enough?

    According to Hitler’s doctrines, the ideal males were those with tall stature, fair skin, blue eyes, and blond hair—the Aryan race. The irony, however, is that contrary to Hitler’s own image of an Aryan, he did not meet this criterion. He was not tall in stature or superior in physique, nor did he have blonde hair. But he had blue eyes, so he was “half-Aryan” at best.

    Not only that, but Hitler was also not eligible to join the SS (Schutzstaffel) organization he created. Their height requirements varied annually. In 1937, SS applicants needed to be at least 6 feet (1.83 m) tall; by 1941, that requirement had been lowered to 5 feet, 9.3 inches (1.76 m).

    Hitler's full body photograph according to the US Army's official picture.
    Hitler, 1933. Image: U.S. Army.

    It is ironic that a man cannot satisfy the rules he has set for all other people. But is there a point to this? After all, rule-makers like tyrants rarely obey their own rules, preferring instead to consider themselves above the law they’ve enacted.

    Adolf Hitler is one of the most infamous leaders in world history. It’s easy to find all sorts of things to discuss about this man, and he’s the subject of more anecdotes than any other World War II leader. The question of his height has been a popular one, and we tried to answer that in this article.

    References

    1. Featured Image: Colorized from Bundesarchiv, Bild 183-R99057 / Unknown / CC-BY-SA 3.0
    2. The Life and Death of Adolf Hitler – Google Books
    3. Lifestyle, health, and health promotion in Nazi Germany – PMC (nih.gov)
    4. PDF. HITLER, ADOLF MEDICAL ASSESSMENT (cia.gov)