In Norse mythology, Hrungnir, also known as Hrugner (Old Norse, meaning “brawler”), is a giant who challenges Odin to a contest and is ultimately slain by Thor. The duel between Thor and Hrungnir holds significant importance in research, featuring the clash between the giant’s stone weapon (grindstone) and the god’s iron hammer, along with the noteworthy detail of Hrungnir having a heart made of stone.
Hrungnir is said to reside in Thrymheim, a giant’s dwelling in Jotunheim, one of the Nine Worlds in Norse cosmology.
In the encounter between Hrungnir and Odin, a dispute arises over who possesses the faster horse. Although Odin wins the race on Sleipnir, Hrungnir’s horse, Gullfaxi, is swift enough to storm into Asgard. Invited by the gods, Hrungnir attends a feast.
In his intoxicated state, the giant boasts of abducting Freyja and Sif, transporting Valhalla to Jotunheim, sinking Asgard, and killing all the Aesir. Tired of Hrungnir’s insults, the gods seek Thor’s assistance. Threatening Hrungnir, Thor proposes a duel, given the giant’s lack of weapons.
Thor, accompanied by his servant Thialfi, confronts Hrungnir with his three-pronged stone heart, assisted by the clay giant Mökkurkalfi with the heart of a mare. Thialfi cunningly warns Hrungnir that Thor will attack from below, prompting the giant to shield himself. Thor hurls his hammer, and Hrungnir throws a whetstone as a weapon, which shatters upon impact with the hammer. The hammer crushes Hrungnir’s head, causing him to fall. Thialfi slays the clay giant. However, Thor sustains a severe injury from a shard of the whetstone piercing his skull. Hrungnir meets his demise, but Thor is hindered by the fallen giant’s leg, unable to free himself.
His three-year-old son, Magni, comes to his aid and, in gratitude, receives Hrungnir’s horse.
The seeress Gróa attempts to free Thor from the shard in his head through spells. In the process, she forgets the necessary incantations due to her joy in recounting the tales of her husband, Aurvandill. As a result, Thor retains the shard in his head until the end of Ragnarök.
In the Prose Edda’s Skáldskaparmál, Snorri Sturluson recounts, in the form of a mythic narrative, the tale of Hrungnir. This is in contrast to earlier skaldic poems, notably Þjóðólfr’s Haustlöng, which presented the myth in a more concise form. The violent encounter with Thor, a theme resonating throughout the entire Scandinavian region, is well documented, attested not only in the Edda but also in skaldic poetry and the employed kennings. The Hárbarðslióð, Hymiskviða, and Lokasenna of the Poetic Edda make explicit references to Hrungnir.
Then Hrungnir shoved the shield beneath his feet and stood on it, and held the whetstone with both hands. Next he saw lightnings and heard great thunders.Then he saw Thor in an As-rage, he was travelling at an enormous rate and swung his hammer and threw it from a great distance at Hrungnir. Hrungnir raised the whetstone with both hands, threw it in return. It met the hammer in flight, the whetstone, and the whetstone broke in two. One piece fell to the ground, and from it have come all whetstone rocks. The other piece crashed into Thor’s head so that he fell forwards to the ground, but the hammer Miollnir hit the middle of Hrungnir’s head and shattered his skull into small fragments, and he fell forwards over Thor so that his leg lay across Thor’s neck.
Thialfi attacked Mokkurkalfi, and he fell with little glory. Then Thialfi went up to Thor and went to remove Hrungnir’s leg from him and was unable to manage it. Then all the Aesir came up when they found out that Thor had fallen, and went to remove the leg from him and could not move it at all. Then Magni, son of Thor and Járnsaxa, arrived. He was then three years old. He threw Hrungnir’s leg off Thor and said:
Isn’t it a terrible shame, father, that I arrived so late. I think I would have knocked this giant into Hel with my fist if I had come across him.’
Then Thor stood up and welcomed his son warmly and said he would grow up to be a powerful person.
‘And I have decided,’ he said, ‘to give you the horse Gullfaxi, which used to be Hrungnir’s.’
The Eddas are collections of Old Norse poems and prose that form the primary sources of Norse mythology. The two main Eddas are the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda.
The depiction of Hrungnir’s three-pronged heart on runestones emphasizes the deep-rooted nature of this myth within the population.
Due to the unmistakable older elements within the myth, predating consistent oral transmission and eventual transcription, early 20th-century research pursued various interpretative approaches. Wolfgang Golther, among others, interpreted it as a naturalistic mythological battle between the thunder god Thor and the mountain giant Hrungnir. Rudolf Simek, however, argues that this interpretation does not fully do justice to the archaic pre-literary elements. Georges Dumézil, a French mythologist, proposed a different perspective, viewing these pre-scriptural elements in Snorri’s account as remnants of an initiation rite. However, this interpretation poses challenges, particularly concerning the figure of the initiate Thjalfi. A clear parallel is drawn between the battle of Thor and Hrungnir and the one waged by the Indian god Indra against a three-headed monster.
In Scottish tradition, a female ghost known as the Bean Nighe is believed to be a portent of death or a contact with the Otherworld. She is seen washing the bloodstained garments of those who are due to die, and she is shown near bodies of water while doing that. Bean Nighe is said to be the soul of a lady who perished during delivery and is enchanted to continue her job until the day her real life would ordinarily come to an end, according to Scottish folklore. She is portrayed as a small, unattractive lady with a hooked nose, webbed feet, and long, drooping breasts.
Origin of the Bean Nighe
Along with the Irish Banshee (Bean Sidhe) and its French counterpart, Les Lavandières (“night washerwomen”), the Bean Nighe is also thought of as a banshee type. Banshee has a correlation with death across many cultures and it is the anglicized version of the Irish word ban-sìth. They are female ghosts that wail to announce a family member’s impending death.
An old Highland legend describes a Sunday morning stroll by a woman beside a lake near the town of Cromarty in Scotland. She watched as the bean-nighe washed thirty clothes in the loch, each one allegedly stained with blood. After her return to the town, the 96-foot-high Fearn Abbey’s ceiling gave apart during Sunday morning worship, killing 36 people in 1742.
The Legends of the Bean Nighe
Her Legend in the “Ulster Cycle”
In the Ulster Cycle, an ancient Celtic epic, Morrígan is cast in the role of a bean nighe. The Celtic hero Cúchulainn is on his way to war when he sees Morrígan by a river. Learning that the bloody clothes Morrígan washed belonged to him, Cúchulainn realizes that he will fight his last battle.
Her Legend in “Carmina Gadelica”
The book “Carmina Gadelica” contains Highland lore and it’s written by Alexander Carmichael. It was published in six volumes between 1900 and 1971. In his work, Alexander Carmichael describes a character named “Guille-cas-fliuch” who encountered the bean-nighe as she was washing and rubbing her clothing and lamenting and groaning.
The person asked for three wishes from the witch and when he asked her to identify the owner of the garment she was washing, she told him that the clothes belonged to the Great Clanranald of the Isles, to whom the Scottish clan man belonged. Before going to inform Clanranald, Gill-cas-fliuch promptly tossed the shroud into the river. Ultimately, he crossed the water to the mainland and never came back to the island.
Bean Nighe’s Story
Legend has it that she haunts lonely streams and that if captured, she tells you your destiny. On the other hand, if you approach her carefully, she can fulfill your requests as well. So, she is not that evil after all. According to popular belief, the bean-nighe are the souls of women who perished during childbirth and are obliged to carry out their duties until the age at which their bodies would have normally died if they had stayed alive.
However, it is believed that if the deceased woman’s entire belongings are cleansed, this destiny can be prevented. If that’s not the case, she would have to finish the cleansing in the afterlife. Her very long breasts were said to have gotten in the way of her washing on the Isles of Mull and Tiree, so she flung them over her shoulders.
Beliefs state that when people encounter the bean-nighe, they should not flee but rather approach stealthily from behind so as not to draw her attention. After that, the person should pretend to be her foster kid while grabbing one of her breasts and putting it in his or her mouth. She then promises to teach the person whatever he or she wants in exchange.
The washing may proceed if she reveals that the bloody garments were owned by an adversary but if they belong to the person or an associate, s/he should stop the washing right there to avoid the impending death. The bean-nighe can sing a lamenting dirge while washing the clothes and gets distracted.
At this point, if someone can sneak up on her and grab hold of her, she will grant three wishes and tell who is due to die, so the person can try to stop it from happening. However, the legend has it that she could amputate one of your limbs as a kind of retribution if she spots you first.
The Scottish Gaelic words “bean,” meaning “woman,” and “nighe,” meaning “washer,” translate to washerwoman or laundress. Her other name among the locals is “The Washer at the Ford,” and seeing her wash bloody clothes is a portent of death.
Alternate names for the bean-nighe include “little washerwoman” (ban-nigheachain) and “little washer at the ford” (nigheag na h-àtha).
Characters Similar to the Bean Nighe
The Banshee is one figure from Irish mythology that is very similar to the Bean Nighe but there are more similar characters from other cultures:
Les Lavandières
In French legend, these specters are called the “night washerwomen” and they have a commonality with the Bean Nighe: they are seen washing the garments of the dying. The one difference is that they are three old women instead of one, and their origin lies in Celtic mythology. They are called the kannerezed noz in Brittany.
Cyhyraeth
The Cyhyraeth, a Welsh mythology monster akin to the Bean Nighe, is said to wash the bloodstained garments or armor of people destined to die. Cyhyraeth has a moaning voice heard before a person’s death. Her origin lies around the River Tywi in Wales.
Baobhan Sith
A lovely young lady in a long, verdant gown is the appearance of the Baobhan Sith, a vampire-like monster from Scottish tradition. She is known as a fairy who seduces her victims, and she shares features with Bean Nighe on occultism and death; however, their similarities are limited.
Each Uisge
Scottish mythology tells of a water-horse called the Each Uisge that, in order to trick humans into falling into Highland lochs, assumes the form of a beautiful man or a lovely pony. Death and deceit are traits shared by the Each Uisge and the Bean Nighe.
Bean Nighe’s descriptions paint a picture of a little, hideous lady with a hooked nose and a single huge nostril. Along with red webbed feet and long drooping breasts, she allegedly has a huge tooth that sticks out. Her depiction is simply otherworldly. She is short, stocky, ugly and sometimes even childish. She always wears green clothes, and she throws her breasts over her shoulder while she’s doing the washing. This is because they interfere with her washing, and they hang down her back.
Variations
Isle of Skye
There are regional differences in the Bean Nighe’s look. For example, in Perthshire and the Isle of Skye, we have slightly different washerwomen of death.
On Skye Island in Scotland, the Bean Nighe is said to have the build of a “small pitiful child” due to its squat appearance.
She will tell the people their last destiny if someone catches her. Every one of your queries gets an honest response from her, but you have an obligation to do the same.
On the other hand, people risk paralysis if the Bean Nighe spots them first.
Perthshire
The Bean Nighe in Perthshire looks and behaves differently. She is again small but now she looks rotund and dresses in fully green clothes.
Interestingly, you can now actually capture Bean Nighe if you position yourself between the stream and her.
The story involves a giant named Hrungnir who challenges the gods, particularly Thor, to a duel. Thor agrees, and the two set up a meeting at the border of Midgard (the realm of humans) and Jotunheim (the realm of giants). The giant rides the mighty horse, Gullfaxi, to the meeting. Before the duel begins, Thor’s son, Magni, requests the giant’s horse, Gullfaxi, as a gift. Hrungnir, unaware of the horse’s loyalty to Thor, agrees, thinking it’s a small price to pay for such a powerful ally.
As the duel unfolds, Thor defeats Hrungnir with his mighty hammer, Mjolnir. However, during the battle, Hrungnir falls in such a way that his leg pins Thor to the ground. Thor’s son Magni, only three nights old but already strong, arrives and lifts the giant’s leg off his father, saving him. In gratitude, Thor grants the horse Gullfaxi to Magni as a reward for his assistance. Gullfaxi, known for its golden mane, becomes the steed of Magni, showcasing the bond between the gods and their loyal companions in Norse mythology.
Horses in Norse mythology are often symbols of strength, speed, and other virtues. They are important companions to several gods, aiding them in their quests and journeys.
The Clash of Thor and Hrungnir
The encounter between Thor and Hrungnir, the first owner of Gullfaxi, appears to have been a popular subject among scalds, with frequent references, but the comprehensive written record of this episode is found in Snorri’s Edda (Prose Edda).
According to Skáldskaparmál (17), Odin rides Sleipnir across the realm of Jötunheimr until he reaches Hrungnir, the jötunn. Seeing the god, Hrungnir wonders “what kind of person he might be” to wear a golden helmet, “ride the sky and water,” and comments to this stranger about his “wondrous horse.” Odin appreciates the compliment and bets his head that no horse as good could be found in all of Jötunheimr. Hrungnir admits that it is indeed a beautiful horse but claims ownership of a much faster animal named Gullfaxi. Enraged, the giant mounts Gullfaxi and challenges Odin to a race.
Odin has Sleipnir gallop on his eight legs as fast as possible before Hrungnir, who pursues with giant fury but fails to catch up, unaware that he is leaving his own realm. He finds himself rushed with his mount Gullfaxi to the gates of Ásgard, where Odin invites him to drink and introduces him to the Aesir while Thor is absent. In doing so, the giant begins to get drunk and insults the gods, claiming he could easily carry Valhalla until it sinks Ásgard into the sea and slays all the gods except Freyja and Sif, whom he would abduct and keep for himself.
The gods call on Thor for help. He challenges the giant, but Hrungnir is unarmed and demands the right to fetch his weapons and engage in a fair duel, which he does (probably riding Gullfaxi, though the text does not specify). The battle between Hrungnir and Thor is fierce. The god eventually manages to kill the giant. However, he receives a shard of a whetstone in his skull and collapses. The Aesir realize that Thor is trapped under one leg of the giant; they attempt to free him but without success. Only his son Magni (three days or three years old, according to Snorri Sturluson) manages to free him, stating that if he had faced the giant himself, a single punch would have sufficed to defeat him.
The animal initially held by Hrungnir is given to Magni by Thor as a reward for assisting him after his battle with the giant. However, Odin is disappointed because he apparently wanted this horse:
“And I will give you,” he said, “the ‘golden mane’ that Hrungnir possessed.
Then Odin spoke and told me that Thor had made a mistake by giving the good horse to the son of a giantess, and not to his father.”
The Nafnaþulur, which are a form of mnemonic enumeration in Snorri Sturluson’s Prose Edda, provide a considerable number of horse names, including that of Gullfaxi.
Symbolism and Attributes
In myths and legends, horses often serve as companions to gods and heroic figures, with their attributes and symbolism being highly variable. The ancient Scandinavian peoples constituted a civilization that was both equestrian and mystical, thus naturally attributing numerous powers to the horse—an animal of utmost importance in their culture.
Attributes and Powers of Gullfaxi
Gullfaxi is a giant’s mount that possesses, much like Sleipnir, the ability to fly overseas, move with speed and agility through the atmosphere, and, according to its legend, seems as swift on land and in the air as it is on water, nearly rivaling Sleipnir in speed and endurance. It can be assumed that Gullfaxi then remains the exclusive mount of Magni.
According to a Swedish study, Gullfaxi could be likened to a rainbow.
The golden mane of Gullfaxi does not appear to be a unique feature in myths and legends, as the horses of Indra, mentioned in the Rigveda of Hindu mythology, also possess the same attribute. In the Iliad of Greek mythology, some mounts associated with Zeus or Poseidon also have a golden mane.
Similarly, Sleipnir is also endowed with the ability to traverse the sky and water, much like Hófvarpnir, the mount of Gná in Norse mythology. Fabulous horses possessing these abilities are found in Celtic mythology through Enbarr, the mount of Manannán mac Lir and his daughter Niamh, and in Breton legend with Morvarc’h.
In Greek mythology, Europe is a Phoenician princess, the daughter of King Agenor of Tyre, and the lover of the king of the gods, Jupiter (Greek: Zeus). This classical figure, celebrated in Ovid’s Metamorphoses, is relatively unknown to the general public and often mistakenly labeled as a “goddess” by the media, reflecting a tendency toward materialism rather than adherence to mythological tradition.
In the early Roman era, the poet Ovid, approaching his forties, shifted from erotic poetry to compose his renowned Metamorphoses—fifteen chapters in verse exploring Greek and Roman mythologies. The second book delves into the myth of Europe, drawing from an even older legend.
Europe: A Mythical Princess
The Abduction of Europa by Rembrandt, 1632.
In Ovid’s poem, Europe is the daughter of Agenor, the king of Tyre, a Phoenician city in present-day Lebanon, situated 70 km south of Beirut. Intrigued by the young princess, Jupiter (Greek: Zeus), the king of gods, commands his son Mercury (Greek: Hermes, born of Jupiter’s affair with the nymph Maia) to graze his herds in the land of Sidon, the capital of Phoenicia, near the shore where the princess habitually plays with her friends. Transforming into a white bull, Jupiter blends into the herd to approach incognito the object of his desire.
With grandeur, showcasing his immaculate whiteness and robust animal musculature, the bull captivates the astonished young girls.
Princess Europe approaches, offering flowers; the bull displays affection, allowing her to caress and even climb onto its back. Subsequently, the bull charges into the sea, distancing itself from the shore with its captive.
Becoming the Cretan Queen
The Rape of Europa by Titian (1562).
Ovid doesn’t narrate the subsequent events, but in Greco-Roman tradition, it’s generally recounted that Europe was deposited on the island of Crete. There, Jupiter reassumes a human form and unites intimately with the young princess. Europe becomes pregnant with triplets: Minos, the future king of Crete, Rhadamanthus, and Sarpedon. As one of Jupiter’s many conquests, Europe doesn’t hold his attention for long. However, he arranges for her to marry King Asterion of Crete.
Months later, Minos, the legendary king of Crete (whose wife, Pasiphae, later mates with another white bull to give birth to the Minotaur), and Rhadamanthus, who both become judges of the Underworld, are born. The third triplet, Sarpedon, fights in the Trojan War and meets Patroclus’ death.
Devastated by their daughter’s disappearance, King Agenor commands his sons to find her and not return without her.
Cadmus, accompanied by his brothers Thasos and Cilix and his mother Telephassa, embarks on a long, fruitless search. Eventually, on the advice of the Oracle of Delphi, Cadmus found the city of Thebes. Thasos settles in the Thracian Islands, and Cilix establishes himself in Cilicia.
Queen Telephassa, consumed by grief, succumbs to death.
From Mythology to the European Legacy
The abduction of Europe has enjoyed significant success, manifesting in literature, the arts, and even astronomy (as the Taurus constellation). It holds a prominent place in the art of the European continent and plays a crucial role in the symbolism of the European Union, which consciously avoids references to Judeo-Christian culture in favor of Greco-Roman traditions.
Surprisingly, Europe, a princess from the Near East forcibly relocated to Crete, lies on the periphery of what is typically considered the European continent. So, why is the continent named after her?
The origin of the word “Europe” used to designate our continent is believed to be Semitic, originating from “ereb,” referring to the setting sun. While the etymology remains debated, this explanation suggests that the term “Europe” primarily denoted a geographical designation from a world centered around the East Mediterranean. The association of the continent’s name with the princess might be a later attempt to link it to Greek culture.
This coin depicts a scene from a mosaic in Sparta (third century AD), showing Europa being abducted by Zeus, who has taken the form of a bull. Europa is a figure from Greek mythology after whom Europe was named. Edge lettering of the €2 coin: EΛΛHNIKH ΔHMOKPATIA * (Hellenic Republic). Image: Greece (europa.eu).
The mythical Phoenician princess and her white bull had already made their mark on the euro coins, featuring on the Greek 2€ coins. Now, the iconic portrait of the princess graces the new 5€ banknotes, even though she is less recognizable without the bull and crown, elements present on the 2€ coin. Gradually, the entire “architecture” series of banknotes will be replaced by the “Europe” series, featuring the effigy of the princess.
Sleipnir, meaning “the slipper or slippy,” is the horse of the god Odin, the supreme Ase. Its coat is gray, supported by eight legs, and its runes are engraved on its teeth. No other horse is swifter than Sleipnir, capable of riding through the air and overseas. Primarily a shamanic creature, Sleipnir enables the supreme Ase to travel between different worlds.
Sleipnir’s parentage is unusual. According to the most well-known myth, the giant builder (jotunn or jötunheimr), disguised as a horse, offered to build the gods a protective wall around their realm, Asgard, in exchange for the sun, the moon, and the goddess Freyja. The gods agreed but required the wall to be completed in an impossibly short time. To fulfill this condition, Loki, the trickster god, transformed into a mare and distracted the giant’s horse, resulting in the birth of Sleipnir.
Sleipnir: Key Takeaways
Odin’s Steed: Sleipnir is most famously associated with Odin, the Allfather of the Norse pantheon. Odin is often depicted riding Sleipnir across the sky and into the realm of the dead, known as Hel.
Eight Legs: Sleipnir is distinctive for having eight legs, a unique feature among horses. This characteristic is often mentioned in various Old Norse texts, including the Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson.
Symbolism: The number eight was significant in Norse mythology, and Sleipnir’s eight legs are often interpreted as a symbol of strength and speed. The horse was renowned for its ability to traverse great distances and realms.
Role in the Prophesy of Ragnarok: Sleipnir is mentioned in the context of the prophesied events of Ragnarok, the apocalyptic battle in Norse mythology. It is said that during Ragnarok, Odin will ride Sleipnir to the battlefield.
Roles of Sleipnir
Depiction of Sleipnir in a detail on the Tjängvide image stone.
Sleipnir is also a psychopomp horse that carries fallen warriors to the Valhöll. In his company, Odin crosses Bifröst, the rainbow bridge that links Asgard and Midgard and whose guardianship is entrusted to the god Heimdall, who hears the grass grow and every leaf fall, who sees to the ends of the world and needs no sleep. They ride to the battlefields of men, and Sleipnir escorts the valiant, fallen warriors—the Einherjar—to his master’s prestigious hall, the Vallhöll. There, the Valkyries, Odin’s daughters, welcome them and offer them mead from the goat Heiđrún (Heidrun), who perched on the palace roof and grazed on the tender shoots of the Yggdrasil ash tree.
This psychopomp function is reflected in pagan aristocratic funeral customs, where one or more horses are buried or cremated near the deceased.
Sleipnir, along with his son Grani, serves as the mount of Sigurd, a legendary hero in Norse mythology and the Nibelungenlied. Sleipnir is the only horse in Norse mythology capable of reaching the realm of Hel, the guardian goddess of the dead. When Baldr dies, Hermod, another son of Odin, borrows Sleipnir to travel to Hel and plead with the goddess to allow Baldr’s return.
Sleipnir is closely tied to the world tree Yggdrasill, supporting the nine worlds of Viking cosmogony. Like the tree, Sleipnir can travel and connect the worlds. Every day, Odin rides him to the gods’ council held at the base of Yggdrasil, near the source of Urđr. When Odin hangs for nine days and nights on the tree to gain knowledge of the runes, Sleipnir is initially tethered to the ash.
During the winter solstice, Sleipnir leads the god’s wild hunt across the sky and woods, galloping ahead of the Valkyries and the Einherjars. On the day of the Twilight of the Gods, the fateful Ragnarök, Sleipnir, leads his master Odin into battle, adorned with a golden helmet.
Sleipnir is the son of Loki, the only one of his “monstrous” children that the gods keep with them. The other three children, born with the giantess Angrbođa (Angrboda) of Jötunheimr—Fenrir the wolf, the serpent of Midgard, and Hel, the goddess of death—are deemed dangerous and are cast away. The serpent is thrown into the sea, the wolf is chained, and Hel is relegated to the realm of the dead, becoming its guardian.
The Edda: A Collection of Norse Mythology
An illustration of the god Odin on his eight-legged horse Sleipnir, from an Icelandic 18th century manuscript.
The Edda is a comprehensive collection of Norse mythology, and it is one of the primary sources mentioning myths related to Sleipnir. In the 13th century, the Icelander Snorri Sturluson wrote it. Snorri, born in 1179 in Hvamm, in the region of Dalir, western Iceland, came from an ancient and influential family. He left his family at a young age to live with Jon Loftsson, one of the island’s most powerful leaders, in Oddi, one of Iceland’s main intellectual centers.
Snorri likely learned Latin and gained profound knowledge of Norse literary tradition while living with Jon Loftsson. As an adult, he married Herdis, Bersi’s daughter, a wealthy landowner. Snorri’s fortune grew rapidly, and he became a prominent political figure. In 1218, he responded to King Hakon of Norway’s invitation and stayed at the king’s court for two years. However, upon his return to Iceland, he became embroiled in the island’s clan conflicts over Norway’s attempt to extend its sovereignty over Iceland.
His situation in Iceland became perilous, prompting him to return to Norway, where he stayed for another two years amid difficult circumstances. Eventually, he returned to Iceland, defying King Hakon’s ban. Considered a traitor, he was assassinated on the king’s order on September 23, 1241.
Sleipnir is a crucial part of several myths, most notably the tale of how it was born due to a deal struck between Loki and a builder working on a fortification for the gods.
Snorri, a politician, aristocrat, and remarkable poet proficient in the art of skaldic poetry, wrote the Edda, probably during his first stay in Norway.
The Edda consists of four parts: the Prologue, Gylfaginning (“The Beguiling of Gylfi”), Skáldskaparmál (“Poetic Diction”), and Háttatal (“Enumeration of Meters”).
The first part, Gylfaginning, recounts King Gylfi’s visit to the gods in their realm of Asgard.
One day, King Gylfi offers a wandering woman who entertains him with a kingdom as large as four oxen could plow in a day and a night. However, the wanderer is actually an Ase goddess, and her oxen are the children she had with a giant. The territory plowed in the given time is immense. Surprised, King Gylfi decides to learn the origin of this power, and, taking the form of an old man, he goes to Asgard to question the gods themselves.
When he arrives at the hall of the Aesir, he claims to be a lost traveler named Gangleri and requests lodging for the night. He is welcomed and enters the hall, where many men drink, play, and fight. Then, he is brought before three hosts, the High One, the Equal of the High One, and the Third, who sit on thrones arranged one above the other.
“And stand now forth, while you ask; He who answers shall sit,” says the Most High.
Gylfi asks the High One, the Equal of the High One, and the Third Answer. The entire history of the world, from its origins to its final destruction, is recounted. The origin of time, the creation of the universe, the appearance of races, and the organization of the nine worlds around the ash tree Yggdrasill are described. Then, gods and goddesses are introduced, and for each of them comes the narrative of significant stories for the gods: the chaining of the wolf Fenrir, the conquest of the giantess Gerd by Skirir for his master Freyr, the role of Valhöll and the Einherjar who inhabit it, the origin of Odin’s steed…
Then said Gangleri: “Who owns that horse Sleipnir, or what is to be said of him?” Hárr answered: “Thou hast no knowledge of Sleipnir’s points, and thou knowest not the circumstances of his begetting; but it will seem to thee worth the telling.“
Sleipnir is associated with Asgard, which is one of the Nine Worlds in Norse cosmology and the realm of the Aesir, the principal group of gods.
Some Myths About Sleipnir
The Birth of Sleipnir
An illustration of Hermod riding to Baldr in Hel, from an Icelandic 18th century manuscript.
The main myth that has come down to us and is outlined in the Gylfaginning, the first part of the Edda, concerns the birth of Sleipnir.
As the gods have established themselves in their realm of Asgard and have built twelve magnificent palaces with roofs of gold and silver, a builder, accompanied by his only horse, comes to them. He then proposes to build a strong and impregnable enclosure to protect the palaces in three seasons (a Viking season lasting six months). In exchange for wages, he demands the moon Máni and his sister Sol, the sun, as well as the goddess Freyja.
Odin agrees to the proposal after consulting Loki and extending the deadline by one season. Furthermore, the builder can only use the horse that accompanies him and is named Svadilfari (Svaðilfari) to help him.
So, the builder gets to work. The days pass. The work progresses quickly and well, as the horse Svadilfari has prodigious strength that allows it to carry an enormous amount of rock. Also, when summer approaches and the allotted time is coming to an end, the fortress is almost complete.
Odin riding Sleipnir.
Three nights before the deadline expires, the Supreme Ase summons all the gods. They remember that it was Loki who advised and urged them to accept. The gods seize him and demand that he find a solution. Odin is the most vehement, and he promises Loki the worst torments if he does not get them out of the predicament where his advice has led them. Loki gets scared, gives in, and promises to ensure that the builder does not fulfill his contract.
The next night, Loki uses his power of metamorphosis and takes the form of a spirited mare in heat. Then, he places himself in the path of Svadilfari. In vain, the builder tries to restrain his horse. It tears off the harness and ties, then rushes towards the mare. They gallop into the forest and stay there all night.
The builder has lost. He cannot complete the fortification within the imposed time. Faced with this failure, his fury becomes such that he can no longer hide his true nature. As a man, he transforms into an impressive ice giant. The gods, alarmed, step back. Odin raises his spear (Gungnir) high in the sky and calls for Þórr. The god, who went to fight trolls and other creatures, appears and, with a blow of his hammer, Mjöllnir, mercilessly smashes the skull of the belligerent giant.
Sometime later, Loki, the hermaphrodite giant with a thousand appearances, gives birth to a splendid foal: Sleipnir.
Sleipnir’s eight legs and its ability to traverse different realms symbolize not only speed but also transcendence and the interconnectedness of the cosmos.
Other Myths
The Yggdrasil ash tree links the nine worlds of Norse mythology, as does Sleipnir.
Sleipnir also appears in other myths.
In the one that recounts the death of Baldr, Hermod, another son of Odin, rides Sleipnir to reach the realm of Hel. Hermod (Hermóðr) rides for nine nights and crosses increasingly dark and cold worlds until he reaches the edge of the Gjöll River, whose water is so icy that it seems to carry knives. Hermod then crosses Gjallarbrú, the golden-covered bridge that spans the river, and gallops until he reaches the gates of the realm of Hel. These are immense gates covered in gold. Hermod tightens the straps of Sleipnir and spurs his mount. Sleipnir leaps and jumps over the gates, not even brushing against them.
In a myth reported in the Skáldskaparmál, the second part of Snorri Sturluson’s Edda, Odin, wearing his golden helmet, rides Sleipnir and reaches the dwelling of the giant Hrungnir. He asks who this man is and what this marvelous horse is. Odin then bets his head that no horse as good as his can be found in all of Jötunheimr.
The giant retorts that his horse, Gullfaxi, is much faster. He mounts his horse in rage at Odin’s conceit and races Sleipnir, not realizing that he is entering the gates of Asgard because he is so focused on winning. Odin then invites his rival to drink; the giant gets drunk and begins to insult and threaten the gods. The Aesir then calls Thor for help. He kills the giant and entrusts his horse Gullfaxi to his son Magni.
As progenitors of both gods and mortal existence, the Titans occupy a unique space in the Hellenic narrative. Born from the primordial union of Gaia (Earth) and Uranus (Sky), these formidable beings wielded dominion over realms that spanned from the vastness of the heavens to the depths of the underworld. Their stories, characterized by the gravity of cosmic struggles and divine conflicts, provide insight into the relationships that governed the cosmos in antiquity.
Cronus (Kronos)
Titan of time and the ages, often depicted as the leader of the Titans.
The Fall of the Titans, oil painting by Cornelis Cornelisz van Haarlem, 1588–1590.
Kronos was a potent and renowned Titan in Greek mythology, acknowledged as both a creator and a destroyer. Born as the son of the Earth goddess Gaia and the sky god Uranus, he fathered six Olympian gods and goddesses: Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Hades, Demeter, and Hestia. Playing a pivotal role in the Greek gods’ saga, Kronos overthrew his father and ushered in the Golden Age, only to be later defeated by his son Zeus.
As the youngest of the twelve Titans born to Gaia and Uranus, Kronos had siblings like Oceanus, Hyperion, Coeus, Iapetus, Crius, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Theia, Themis, Tethys, and Rhea. Some of his siblings, despised by Uranus, were imprisoned in Tartarus, including the Cyclopes and the Hekatoncheires. Gaia, discontented with this, persuaded Kronos to rebel against his father. Armed with a sickle given to him by his mother, Kronos castrated Uranus as he sought union with Gaia. The blood and seed of Uranus gave rise to new beings, such as the Erinyes, the Giants, and the goddess Aphrodite.
Having dethroned Uranus, Kronos became the ruler of the world, marrying his sister Rhea. Initially, he governed as a benevolent and wise leader, initiating the Golden Age characterized by peace, harmony, and the absence of laws or suffering. Kronos was also revered as the god of harvest and time, equated with the Roman god Saturn.
Yet a prophecy haunted Kronos, foretelling his overthrow by one of his own children and mirroring his own actions against Uranus. Driven by fear, he devoured each child Rhea bore, unaware that she had deceived him by substituting a rock for Zeus. Rhea secretly gave birth to Zeus on the island of Crete, where he was nurtured by a goat named Amaltheia.
Upon reaching maturity, Zeus confronted Kronos, tricking him into regurgitating his siblings and the rock. Zeus also liberated the Cyclopes and the Hekatoncheires from Tartarus, forming an alliance with them and certain other Titans to wage war against Kronos and his loyalists. This conflict, known as the Titanomachy, endured for a decade until Zeus and his allies emerged victorious. Kronos and the defeated Titans were cast into Tartarus and imprisoned indefinitely.
However, Kronos did not remain in Tartarus forever. In some mythological versions, Zeus freed him after defeating the Giants and Typhon. Kronos then ruled over the Elysian Fields, the paradise for souls who led virtuous lives. In alternative versions, the Romans worshiped Kronos as Saturn, commemorating the Golden Age annually through the festival of Saturnalia.
Rhea
Titaness and mother of the gods, associated with fertility and motherhood.
Rhea giving the rock to Cronus, 19th-century painted frieze by Karl Friedrich Schinkel.
Rhea was one of the twelve Titans born to Gaia and Uranus. She was both the sister and wife of Kronos, the ruler of the Titans, and the mother of six Olympian gods and goddesses: Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Hades, Demeter, and Hestia. Revered as the mother of the gods and the goddess of nature, fertility, and motherhood, Rhea was often depicted with symbols such as a tower crown, cymbals, a chariot, or a tambourine. Her sacred animal was the lion, her sacred object was the cornucopia, and her sacred tree was the silver fir. The Romans identified her with the goddess Ops.
By preventing her son Zeus from becoming the prey of his father Kronos, Rhea played a crucial role in Greek mythology.
Rhea did not fade into obscurity. Zeus respected and revered her as the mother of the gods. She was equated with the Great Goddess or Earth Mother, assuming various names and forms across different cultures and eras, such as Gaia, Cybele, Demeter, or Hera. Considered the embodiment of nature, fertility, and motherhood—bestowing and taking life—Rhea became linked with different aspects of herself or her daughter, including Amaltheia (Zeus’s nurse), Io (Zeus’s lover), and Adrasteia or Nemesis (the avenging goddess). At times, she was regarded as the ruler of the Isles of the Blessed or Elysium, where the Golden Age, created with Kronos, endured.
In summary, Rhea emerges as a significant and multifaceted figure in Greek mythology, embodying both Titan and goddess. Born of Earth and Sky, she was the wife and sister of Kronos, mother to six Olympians whom she protected from her husband’s wrath. Revered as the mother of the gods and the goddess of nature, fertility, and motherhood, Rhea was identified with other goddesses or different aspects of herself. She embodied both creation and destruction, ultimately becoming a symbol of paradise.
Oceanus
Titan of the ocean, often depicted as a great river encircling the world.
Oceanus was the son of the primordial gods of the sky and earth, Uranus and Gaia. He was one of the twelve Titan offspring, also known as the Elder Gods. Oceanus married his sister Tethys, the goddess of freshwater. Together, they had 3000 children known as the Oceanids, who were the gods and goddesses associated with rivers, seas, streams, and estuaries on Earth.
Oceanus served as the Titan god of the river Oceanus, believed to encircle the world and connect Earth with the sky and the underworld. He was the father of all rivers and the Oceanids, occasionally even considered the father of the gods and the origin of the world. Initially, Oceanus ruled over the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. When the Olympians took control, Poseidon became the ruler of the Mediterranean.
Due to the prolific nature of Oceanus and Tethys, they feared that their rapid reproduction would lead to floods if it continued unchecked. Consequently, they chose to divorce to address this issue. Unlike his Titan brethren, Oceanus did not participate in the Titanomachy, the war between the Olympians and Titans for control of the cosmos. This spared him from the punishment the others later received, which was imprisonment in Tartarus, the underworld.
In summary, Oceanus is a central figure in Greek mythology, representing both the creation of the world and the natural phenomena associated with rivers and seas.
Hyperion
Titan of light, associated with the sun and wisdom.
Gustave Doré’s illustrations to Dante’s Inferno, Plate LXV: Canto XXXI: The titans and giants.
Hyperion was one of the twelve Titans, the offspring of Gaia (Earth) and Uranus (Sky) in Greek mythology. He was the god of heavenly light, and his name translates to “he that walks on high” or simply “the god above”. Hyperion married his sister Theia, the Titaness of the sun and sight, and together they had three children: Helios (Sun), Selene (Moon), and Eos (Dawn).
Hyperion, along with his son Helios, represented the sun, and the two were sometimes identified interchangeably. In Homer’s Odyssey, Hesiod’s Theogony, and the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, Hyperion is mentioned as Helios’ father. However, in the Iliad and other parts of the Odyssey, Helios is also referred to as “Helios Hyperion,” where “Hyperion” is used either as a paternal name or another epithet.
Hyperion was one of the Titans who fought against his father Uranus to elevate his brother Cronus to power. After Cronus castrated his father, he imprisoned the six younger siblings of the Titans, the Cyclopes and the Hecatoncheires, back into Tartarus. Up until the Olympians, who are the offspring of Cronus, overthrew Hyperion and the other Titans, they ruled the universe.
Following the Olympians’ victory, the Titans were banished to Tartarus, where Zeus tormented them with lightning bolts. However, Hyperion and his children were spared from this punishment as they did not actively participate in the war. They continued to fulfill their roles as celestial lights until they were later replaced by the Olympians.
Hyperion is one of the oldest deities in Greek mythology, symbolizing light and knowledge. He is the father of the three major celestial bodies that govern day, night, and twilight. However, he lacks his own myths or specific functions, serving primarily as a progenitor for the three heavenly deities.
Mnemosyne
Titaness of memory, mother of the Muses, and associated with the arts.
Jupiter, disguised as a shepherd, tempts Mnemosyne by Jacob de Wit (1727).
Mnemosyne is a captivating figure in Greek mythology, recognized as the goddess of memory and remembrance. The name Mnemosyne, derived from Ancient Greek, translates to “remembrance, memory.” She is a daughter of Uranus and Gaia, belonging to the Titans—divine offspring of the Earth goddess Gaia and the sky god Uranus.
Interestingly, Mnemosyne is not only a deity but also a river in the underworld. In contrast to the River Lethe, whose waters induce forgetfulness, the waters of the Mnemosyne river lead to remembrance.
Furthermore, Mnemosyne is acknowledged as the mother of the nine Muses, offspring she bore with her nephew Zeus. Legend has it that Zeus and Mnemosyne united for nine nights, giving rise to the nine Muses. These Muses are goddesses of the arts, representing various facets of culture and knowledge.
In summary, Mnemosyne holds a central role in Greek mythology. As the goddess of memory and remembrance, she significantly influences human culture and history. Her offspring, the Muses, serve as symbols for the diverse arts and sciences shaping human civilization. Through her association with the underworld’s river of memory, Mnemosyne also symbolizes the continuity of life and human experience beyond death.
Theia
Titaness associated with shining light and clear sight, often linked to the moon.
Theia fights against the giants. Altar of Pergamon. Image: Wikimedia.
Theia was one of the twelve Titans, the offspring of the Earth goddess Gaia and the sky god Uranus in Greek mythology. She was the goddess of sight and brilliance, bestowing radiance and value upon gold, silver, and gemstones through her role. Her name simply means “goddess” or “divine,” but she was also called Euryphaessa, meaning “far-shining.”
Theia was the sister of other Titans, the Cyclopes, the Hecatoncheires, the Giants, the Meliae, the Erinyes, and the half-sister of Aphrodite (in some versions), Typhon, Python, Pontus, Thaumas, Phorcys, Nereus, Eurybia, and Ceto.
Her brother-husband was Hyperion, a Titan and the god of the sun, and together they were the parents of Helios (the sun), Selene (the moon), and Eos (the dawn). She appears to be the same as Aethra, the wife of Hyperion and mother of his children, in some accounts.
Theia played a minor role in mythology, mainly notable for the children she bore, although she appears in some texts and rare traditions. For instance, Pindar praises Theia in his fifth Isthmian Ode: “Mother of the Sun, Theia of many names, for your sake men honor gold as more powerful than anything else; and through the value you bestow on them, O queen, ships contending on the sea and yoked teams of horses in swift-whirling contests become marvels.”
Theia is also associated with a hypothetical ancient planet in the early solar system, which, according to the giant impact hypothesis, collided with the early Earth about 4.5 billion years ago, with some of the ejected debris forming the Moon. Such a collision, where the cores and mantles of the two planets merged, could explain why the Earth’s core is larger than expected for a body of its size. Collision simulations support the idea that the large low-shear velocity provinces in the lower mantle could be remnants of Theia. Theia is thought to have been roughly the size of Mars and possibly contributed a significant amount of Earth’s water. Her name aligns with her mythological role as the mother of the moon goddess Selene.
In summary, Theia was a significant Titaness in Greek mythology associated with light and sight. She was the mother of the celestial luminaries and potentially the catalyst for the Moon’s formation through a colossal collision with Earth.
Themis
Titaness of divine law and order, associated with justice.
Painting of Themis with scales and sword by Marcello Bacciarelli.
In Greek mythology, Themis is one of the Titans, pre-Olympian deities who were the children of Uranus (Sky) and Gaia (Earth). Themis is often associated with divine order, law, and custom. She represents the concepts of natural law and justice. As the personification of order and justice, Themis was considered the divine counselor, mediator, and embodiment of fairness.
She is typically portrayed as the daughter of Uranus and Gaia, making her a sibling to other Titans like Cronus and Rhea.
Themis was married to her brother, the Titan of time, Cronus. Together, they had several children, including the three Horae (seasons) and the three Moirai (fates), emphasizing her connection to natural cycles and destiny. In some traditions, Themis was associated with the Oracle at Delphi before it became associated with Apollo. She was believed to provide prophecies and guidance.
After the Titanomachy, the war between the Titans and the Olympian gods, Themis continued to play a role in the new order. She was often depicted attending the gatherings of the gods on Mount Olympus. Themis is often depicted holding scales, symbolizing the balance of justice, and a cornucopia, symbolizing abundance. Her representations emphasize the importance of maintaining order and balance in both natural and human affairs.
Crius (Krios)
Titan of constellations, celestial bodies, and heavenly constellations.
Crius is often associated with the concept of mastery or leadership, although his specific role and characteristics are not as extensively detailed as some other Titans. He is sometimes referred to as the Titan of Constellations or Starry Heaven, linking him to celestial realms.
Crius is the son of Uranus and Gaia, making him a sibling to Titans such as Cronus, Rhea, Oceanus, and Themis. He is typically portrayed as the husband of his sister Eurybia, with whom he had several children, including Astraeus (associated with astrology and the dusk), Pallas (associated with war), and Perses (associated with destruction).
Like other Titans, Crius took part in the titanomachy, the epic conflict between the Titans and the Olympian gods under Zeus’ leadership. The Titans were defeated, leading to the establishment of the Olympian order. After the Titanomachy, Crius and his fellow defeated Titans were cast into Tartarus, the deepest part of the Underworld, as a punishment for their rebellion against the Olympians.
Compared to some other Titans, Crius does not appear as frequently in mythology, and as a result, Cronus, Zeus, and Prometheus frequently take on a larger role and exhibit characteristics that are more prominent.
While Crius may not have a highly detailed mythological narrative, his association with celestial elements and his role as a Titan contribute to a broader understanding of Greek cosmogony and the transition from the rule of the Titans to that of the Olympian gods.
Coeus (Koios)
Titan of intelligence and farsight. While he’s not as extensively mentioned in myths as some other Titans, he is often associated with wisdom and the inquisitive mind.
Coeus is one of the Titans in Greek mythology, a generation of deities that preceded the Olympian gods. Coeus is the Titan of intelligence and is often referred to as the “Pillar of the North.” He is the son of Uranus (Sky) and Gaia (Earth).
Coeus is one of the twelve Titans, and his siblings include Cronus, Rhea, Oceanus, Hyperion, Theia, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Tethys, and Crius. Coeus married his sister Phoebe, and together they had two notable children: Leto and Asteria.
Coeus doesn’t play as prominent a role in mythology as some other Titans. His name, which means “query” or “questioning,” suggests a connection to intellect and knowledge. While he doesn’t have many myths centered around him, his descendants, particularly Leto and Asteria, played significant roles.
Leto became the mother of Apollo and Artemis, major Olympian deities. Asteria, another daughter of Coeus and Phoebe, transformed into the island of Delos to escape the advances of Zeus
Coeus, like other Titans, participated in the Titanomachy, the war between the Titans and the Olympian gods. In the end, Zeus-led Olympians defeated the Titans. After the Titanomachy, Coeus, along with many other Titans, was cast into Tartarus, a deep abyss in the underworld.
Coeus, while not as prominently featured in myths as some other Titans, represents an aspect of cosmic order and knowledge in Greek mythology. His lineage, particularly through Leto, connects him to the Olympian pantheon and the subsequent narratives of classical Greek mythology.
Tethys
Titaness of freshwater and the mother of the river gods.
Tethys, a Titaness in Greek mythology, holds a prominent role associated primarily with water and motherhood. Born as the daughter of Uranus (Sky) and Gaia (Earth), Tethys stands among the Titans, alongside siblings such as Cronus, Oceanus, and Themis.
She entered matrimony with her brother, Oceanus, jointly reigning over freshwater sources, including rivers, streams, and subterranean waters. Together, they are recognized as the progenitors of numerous river gods (Potamoi) and ocean nymphs (Oceanids).
Tethys embodies a nurturing and maternal archetype, symbolizing the life-sustaining properties inherent in water. Her significance extends to the rulership of freshwater sources, underscoring their vital role in the natural world.
The union of Tethys and Oceanus bore fruit in the form of vast offspring, including the 3,000 Oceanids and the Potamoi. The Oceanids, nymphs linked to diverse water bodies, coexisted with the Potamoi, river gods.
While Tethys does not occupy a central role in major Greek myths, her presence is recurrent in genealogies and lists of Titans.
Unlike certain Titans, Tethys and Oceanus refrained from direct involvement in the Titanomachy, the clash between Titans and Olympian gods. Consequently, they endured through the Olympian rule, albeit with diminished significance.
References to Tethys surface in various ancient Greek texts, notably Hesiod’s “Theogony,” spotlighting her as a Titaness associated with water and maternal attributes. Although Tethys may not enjoy the same widespread recognition as some Titans, her importance emanates from her connection to the vital forces of water and her role as a maternal figure within the divine genealogy of Greek mythology.
Phoebe
Titaness associated with the moon and intellect, grandmother of Apollo and Artemis.
In Greek mythology, Phoebe, a Titaness, is renowned for her connection with the moon and oracles. Daughter to Uranus (Sky) and Gaia (Earth), she stands among siblings such as Cronus, Iapetus, and Themis.
Phoebe is often acknowledged as the consort of her brother, Coeus, and together, they parented Leto (Latona) and Asteria. Notably, Leto became the mother of the twin gods Apollo and Artemis.
Active in the Titanomachy, the conflict between Titans and Olympian gods, Phoebe, like her peers, faced defeat and subsequent allocation to various roles or domains. While Phoebe is sometimes linked to the moon, her name, signifying “bright” or “pure,” distinguishes her from the more prominent moon goddess Selene.
Her connection to the Oracle at Delphi is noteworthy. Some traditions suggest that she passed on the Oracle to her grandson Apollo after he defeated the Python, a monstrous serpent associated with the Oracle.
References to Phoebe can be found in various ancient Greek texts, including Hesiod’s “Theogony” and Aeschylus’ “Prometheus Bound.” William Shakespeare also incorporated Phoebe’s name into one of the characters in his play “As You Like It.” Phoebe’s significance lies in her familial ties, association with the moon, and her role in the genealogy leading to key figures such as Apollo and Artemis.
Iapetus
Titan associated with mortality and father of Prometheus, Epimetheus, Atlas, and Menoetius.
Iapetus is a Titan in Greek mythology, known for his role as a primordial deity and his lineage. Iapetus is one of the Titans, the offspring of Uranus (Sky) and Gaia (Earth), making him a sibling to Cronus, Rhea, Themis, and others. He married his sister Clymene, and together they had several children, including Atlas, Prometheus, Epimetheus, and Menoetius.
Atlas is the most famous of Iapetus’ sons. He was condemned to hold up the sky on his shoulders as a punishment for his role in the Titanomachy, the war between the Titans and the Olympian gods. Prometheus, another son of Iapetus, is renowned for creating humanity and later stealing fire from the gods to benefit humans.
The name “Iapetus” is often associated with the meaning “the piercer” or “the one who wounds.” This etymology is linked to his connection with mortality and his role in the Titanomachy. Iapetus fought against the Olympian gods in the Titanomachy. After their defeat, he was cast into Tartarus along with other Titans who rebelled against the Olympians.
After the Titanomachy, Iapetus and his fellow Titans faced imprisonment in Tartarus. Zeus later released the Titans to take control of the Underworld. Iapetus is referenced in various ancient Greek texts, including Hesiod’s “Theogony” and Aeschylus’ “Prometheus Bound.” His name and legacy are woven into the rich tapestry of Greek mythology, symbolizing aspects of creation, rebellion, and divine punishment.
Mictlan, formed from the Nahuatl terms “micqui” (death) and “tlan” (place), translates to “place of the dead” in Aztec mythology. It is the underground regions where the dead must go to free their teyolia (soul, one of the three components forming a person according to the Nahuas people) and vital energy, tonalli. It is also known as Chicunauhmictlan or Ximoayan (“place of the disembodied”). Only those who die of natural causes are allowed to reach this realm, which is commonly referred to as the underworld by anthropologists and is called “tlalmiqui” (from Nahuatl “tlalli” meaning earth and “micqui” meaning to die).
What Exactly is Mictlan?
The eight levels of the Mictlan, described on a sheet of the Codex Vaticanus A or Codex Rios.
Mictlan is the underworld of Aztec mythology, and it serves as the last destination for most departed souls, consisting of nine diverse levels, each posing severe difficulties. The dead travel with the psychopomp Xolotl for four years, facing dangerous terrain including smashing mountains, flesh-scraping winds, and blood rivers full of jaguars.
Mictlantecuhtli, lord of the underworld, had a vital part in the Aztec creation story, which makes Mictlan especially significant. In Nahua belief, the realm is an integral element of a cosmos ruled by living forces. Mictlan, controlled by Mictlantecuhtli and his wife Mictecacihuatl, is the last resting place within this cosmological framework.
Those who died for reasons associated with the rain deity Tlaloc still travel to a different afterlife place in Aztec theology called Tlalocan (a paradise). The significance of Mictlan resides in the difficulty of its trip, which reflects the Aztec conception of the afterlife and the interaction of cosmic forces.
Mictlantecuhtli and his wife, Mictecacihuatl, are the de facto rulers of this underworld.
The Funeral Rite for Mictlan
Upon a person’s passing, if they are destined for Mictlan, their limbs are carefully folded and secured, allowing the body to be enveloped in a cotton shroud for the nobility, or ixtle for common individuals which is a resilient plant fiber derived from agave.
The ritual begins with a prayer and the pouring of water over the head, during which it is said, “This is the water you enjoyed while living in the world (Tlalticpac).” A green stone is used as a vessel for the deceased’s tonalli (life energy) during this ceremony by being put in their mouth.
The dead will have the “papers” they need to confront the perils of Mictlan, as indicated by Bernardino de Sahagun. In the Codex of Florence’s Book III appendix, it is detailed how the dead are spoken to and their journey through death is described.
For the last voyage through Mictlan, a dog is sacrificed before the cremation of the burial bundle and the offered gifts. According to Bernardino de Sahagun, the red dog was intended to transport the dead over the Chignahuapan River. Anthropological research consistently reveals this fact.
Although Sahagun explained that only white dogs were capable of facilitating the crossing, later stories often depict a black dog in this role.
The Mexicas used the Xoloitzcuintle dog breed in ritual sacrifices. They maintained them as pets, giving them plenty of love and care, and hoping that someone in Mictlan would identify them by the cotton cords they wore around their necks.
According to Aztec mythology, the afterlife journey of the departed lasts four years and takes them through eight or nine levels of Mictlan’s underworld. There are many perils and tests in store for them on their voyage. The departed go through a series of transformations as they become immaterial and disembodied on their way to freeing their tonalli and teyolia.
Only those who die of old age or common diseases, regardless of their social rank (lords or commoners; macehuales), are allowed passage to Mictlan.
Tonatiuhichan (Thirteen Heavens) and Ilhucatl-Tonatiuhtl (the Sky Where the Sun Is”) receive ceremonial offerings,
Macuiltonaleque (the five Aztec gods of excess and pleasure) and Cihuateteo (the Aztec mythology spirits) get soldiers who have died in combat, prisoners who have been slaughtered by their foes, and women who have died giving birth.
Tlalocan (the Aztec paradise) is the afterlife destination for those who die in water-related accidents or illnesses, or who are devoted to the god Tlaloc.
Chichihuacuauhco serves as a temporary home for young children as they wait for a second opportunity on Earth.
There is an idiom that mulls over the mystery of death: “Tocenchan, tocenpolpolihuiyan” (variously translated as “our common house,” “our common region where we will go to get lost,” or “the place where all will go”), which implies that all souls, without exception, make their way through Mictlan upon death. According to the 16th-century Florentine Codex, some people’s stays in Mictlan are permanent, while others are only passing through.
Mesoamericanist Christian Duverger suggested the idea that the trip to Mictlan was a “reverse migration,” with the dead following in the footsteps of their northern-bound Mexica ancestors.
Origins of the Mictlan
Cipactli described in the Borgia Codex.
According to the Aztec founding myth of the world, as told in the Aztec tale of the Five Suns, the universe was organized using the severed corpse of Cipactli, a hungry chimerical crocodile beast that floated in the primordial emptiness and symbolized the earth in the primeval waters.
Its head is utilized to build the heavenly planes of the Thirteen Heavens; its body becomes the earthly space of Tlalticpac (“earth place”); and its tail and extremities are employed to make the realms of the underworld, Mictlan. Nighttime on Earth is inextricably linked to the afterlife because the sun deity Tonatiuh passes through Mictlan at night to shine light on it (a similar story is found in Egyptian mythology with Ra, his solar barque, and his travel to the underworld to raise the sun again).
The Aztec wind deity Quetzalcoatl journeys into Mictlan, gathering the bones of people from earlier incarnations and exploiting them to build the current mankind. But in Gerónimo de Mendieta’s “Historia eclesiástica indiana” (Indiana Ecclesiastical History), the god of fire and lightning, Xolotl, disguised as a Xoloitzcuintle dog, not Quetzalcoatl, travels to Mictlan to get the bones the gods would use to create a new human race. When the gods are sacrificed at the birth of the Fifth Sun, Xolotl, according to Mendieta, plays the role of the priest, not the victim.
The Levels and the Dead’s Trip to Mictlan
Only two primary sources, Bernardino de Sahagun’s “General History of the Things of New Spain,” also known as the Codex Florentine, and the Codex Vaticanus A, also known as the Codex Rios, partially written by Pedro de los Rios, provide substantial information about the journey of the deceased to Mictlan. They have certain things in common but also have some key differences.
The picture in Codex Vaticanus A is the clearest we have. The first two pages make reference to Latin script and artistically show the travel through eight different levels. Ana Guadalupe Diaz Alvarez, in her analysis of this codex, points out that the artist decided to depict Mictlan as a succession of decedents carrying out various tasks, each of which stands as a discrete time in the story.
When the same artist depicts the heavens, however, everything is clear as day. The “place where flags fly” and the “place where people are signposted,” both of which are referenced in this codex, remain mysteries. According to Nathalie Ragot, we still don’t understand these two sections of Mictlan.
The Spanish mesoamericanist Sahagun also talks about eight layers of Mictlan, although his description and arrangement are different. There are Nahuatl proper nouns in the Codex Florentine. Christian Aboytes presents a nine-tiered Mictlan in “Amoxaltepetl, El Popol Vuh Azteca,” with descriptions of each tier.
The Location of the Mictlan
Mictlampa, north of Mictlan, Codex Borgia, page 52.
Mictlan, ruled by Mictlantecuhtli and his consort Mictecacihuatl, is a dark and foul place at the center of the earth (in Nahuatl, “Tlalxicco,” derived from “tlalli” meaning “earth” and “xicco,” the locative form of “xitli” meaning “navel“), located on a vertical plane where the world consists of Thirteen Heavens and the realms of the afterlife.
Mictlan’s horizontal position is less often discussed. In Molina’s lexicon, “Mictlampa” (which means “on the side of Mictlan”) designates the geographic north. Humanity’s home on Earth, called “Tlalticpac,” expands laterally in comparison to the vertical realms of the heavens and the afterlife in Mictlan.
Mictlan is consistently linked to “topan” (on, above) in Nahua oral ritual practices, as analyzed by Ana Diaz in “Cielos e inframundos” (Heavens and Underworlds). As in the phrase “in topan in mictlan in ilhuicac” (above us, in Mictlan, in the sky). The author underlines the lack of connection between the name Mictlan and a space lying below or beneath the earth. This raises the possibility that Mictlan was seen as belonging to the cosmos.
Given its reciprocal connection with regions plainly indicated as superior by the word “ilhuicac” (heaven, paradise), it is difficult to associate Mictlan with a definite and tangible place. It’s a realm of imagination and choice, where things may be imagined and decided just as they are. It’s less about describing the underworld and more about describing the otherworld or the beyond.
Ana Diaz claims that the images on pages 29 and 30 of the Codex Borgia show how the four gods of creation view the upper and lower worlds as fundamentally similar, but that their differences are due to the ritual action of words and offerings that precede and direct their creation.
Codex Borgia, page 30.
In her article on the Nahuatl concept of “ilhuicac” (heaven), which she applies to an examination of Mictlan’s location, Katarzyna Mikulska argues that the vertical axis is not so clearly divided between day and night but rather between the diurnal and nocturnal aspects of vertical spaces. She claims this is supported by the artistic depictions of the night sky and Mictlan underneath the ground seen in ancient codices. Colors, which may also symbolize directions in space, are used to show the differences between the nighttime sky and the daily sky. The north is represented by black, the south by blue, the east by red, and the west by white.
Terminology
Mictlan was not the exclusive word utilized in early Aztec and Spanish sources. In addition to Mictlan, indigenous people also employed a number of additional terms to describe various elements of this underworld.
This level is also known as “Ximoayan” (or “Ximoan”), which translates to “place of the skeletal ones.” This idiom refers to how the departed feel after making it to Mictlan from wherever they passed on earth. “Chicnauhmictlan” (also known as “ninth place of the dead”) is a geographical phrase that places Mictlan on the ninth and last tier of the underworld. It is sometimes called “tlalli inepantla,” which literally translates to “at the center of the earth.” If you ask Nathalie Ragot, it means “more in the heart of the earth than at the center, in the sense of depth.”
In their lack of understanding, Spanish chroniclers incorrectly linked Mictlan to the Christian concept of “hell,” using the Spanish word “infierno,” which was translated as “inframundo” in subsequent translations and further contributed to geographical misunderstanding. Even though these two views of the underworld occasionally have parallels, as occurs with other faiths, this relationship is actually inaccurate.
Banshees are solitary beings, often portrayed as hideous old women.
Their mournful wails signify an impending tragic demise.
Banshees bridge ancient Gaelic beliefs with modern European folklore.
Irish Celtic mythology has magical female characters such as banshees, banshies, and bean sí who are either sorceresses or messengers from the Otherworld (sidh, an original spelling of the Irish word sí). It’s related to other European mythical creatures including those from the Welsh and Norse traditions. Banshee in mythology is a solitary, old woman with loose, unkempt, and flowing gray hair. She wears a long, tattered robe and is often depicted barefoot. Her skin is deathly pale, and her features are gaunt and mournful. Her eyes are hollow, emitting an eerie, otherworldly glow.
The banshee goes by many distinct names across languages and time periods. Its most common form in English, “banshee”, comes from a 1771 text and it is a phonetic borrowing from Irish Gaelic.
“Woman of the sidh” translates directly from Irish Gaelic as “bean sidhe” (or “bean sí,” originally “ben síd”) and from Scottish Gaelic as “bean sith.” In Gaelic Celtic mythology, the name “sidh” (or “sí,” “síd,” “sith,” “sidhe”) referred to the Otherworld.
The word subsequently came to signify “hill, mound” (a portal to the realm of gods or death) and then “sidhe/sith” (sometimes mistaken with Aos sidhe) and, finally, “hill people” or “fairy” in English.
In Ireland, the banshee is known as “bean chaointe” (Scottish: “caointeach,” English: “keening woman“), which literally translates as “woman who wails funeral dirges.”
In southeast Ireland, the banshee is also known by a number of dialectal variations of the word “badhbh,” a phrase derived from “Badh” (formerly “Bodhb”), the name of a protective (or warrior) goddess in Celtic or medieval mythology, Bodb Derg.
Banshee in the Celtic Mythology of the Gaels
The Banshee (1897), watercolor by Henry Meynell Rheam.
Although much of the sources originate from medieval Irish literature (written after the Christianization of Ireland), it is believed that the bean sí has Celtic roots.
The mixture of pagan and Christian notions in medieval writings makes it difficult to ascertain the original meaning of “bean sí.” Bean sí may have originally meant some kind of female-related “mystical or magical quality” (sí). Not until the eighth century did the term “bean sí” in writings come to mean “woman from the Otherworld.”
Occasionally, the Sidh shower their blessings upon deserving men, such as Conn and Bran Mac Febail, and transport them to the “Delightful Plain,” Mag Mell. Sometimes their apparition brings about disease that no medicine can treat, and without divine intervention, death follows.
The death of Muirchertach Mac Muiredaig features a banshee and her abilities in a story that has been Christianized on the surface. The lady in this narrative develops her powers outside of the sidh, before she is converted.
The queen from the Otherworld, Sin, has captivated the king with her beauty. She insists that he get a divorce and send his wife packing. If he so much as mentions her name (geas), he will be killed. With the might of her sorcery, the stones become lambs, water turns into wine, plants become pigs, and armies are created at her command. She also has the ability to create precious metals.
Banshee in the British Isles Mythology
All the folklore and beliefs of the British Isles (Ireland and Great Britain) center on the banshee. These myths were mostly transmitted orally (via stories, accounts, songs, and ceremonies) from one generation to the next. Scholars in the early 20th century compiled traditional stories and folklore about banshees, which had been subjects of belief since the Middle Ages (5th–15th centuries).
The association of banshees in folklore with the proclamation or portent of death is a defining feature of this mythical creature. The presence of a banshee was associated with death and combat in medieval stories and legends, serving as a portent of the afterlife in both Christian and pagan faiths. In today’s culture, the banshee is still a portent of death inside the home, usually due to natural reasons.
According to the most common belief, the position of the goddesses in Irish and Celtic mythology as bringers of death is where the traditions of banshees first arose. The ancient Irish custom and practice of funeral keening (vocal lament for the dead), Anglo-Saxon beliefs in fairies, medieval and modern beliefs in haunting female spirits (with ties to a particular family), and aos sidhe (the “people of the mounds”) legends are all frequently cited as possible sources for banshees.
Guardian of the Family
There was a banshee for every powerful Irish household. This mysterious entity would stick with the family no matter where they went.
“One of the most beautiful superstitions of Irish fiction is to assign to certain families of ancient lineage and distinguished rank, the privilege of a banshee, or domestic fairy, whose office is to appear in mourning to announce the approaching death of a member of that race.”
— Letters on Demonology and Witchcraft (1830) by Walter Scott, a Scottish historian and poet
A dark-clothed coachman led by a headless ghost often precedes the appearance of a banshee connected to a long-dead family. The dead person’s soul is retrieved by this coachman. Two Coldstream Regiment troops witnessed such a vehicle in London in January 1804. They were so shaken up by the sight of a headless lady walking up Birdcage Walk on the coach that they had to spend some time recovering there.
The lares of ancient Rome, with their roots in Etruscan mythology, were similar to the banshee in that they were worshiped as protection deities for individual households such as the Lar familiaris (“lar” from the Etruscan for “lord”).
Laundress
Yan’ Dargent, The Washerwomen of the Night, oil canvas, 1861.
In County Galway and the surrounding areas in the west of Ireland, the banshee was said to purify clothing in a river in the 20th century. Like the death omen of the bean-nighe spirit in Scottish Gaelic mythology and the kannerezed noz in Brittany, this is a fable about a laundress who works at night (also known as Les Lavandières or Midnight Washerwomen).
There is a clear line between this current tradition and ancient Irish tales about the Celtic goddess Badb wiping the bloodstained robes of those doomed to die in battle.
Mourner
According to legend, the banshee may occasionally cry out the news of a death with a series of mournful chants, or “funeral chants.” Bean chaointe in Irish, caointeach (or caoineag) in Scottish Gaelic, and keening woman in English all describe banshee for this conduct.
These spontaneous vocal lamentations paid honor to the departed and their family in ancient Gaelic culture via the practice of mourners, which is where the term “funeral chants” comes from. This funeral custom, which may be seen in many different parts of the globe, is attested in medieval Ireland and Scotland. The Catholic Church in Ireland outlawed the practice, and it eventually died out. These (occasionally compensated) mourners would dress like the famous banshee, donning a long robe and displaying unbraided hair.
Screamer of Tragic Ends
In later legend, especially the oral tradition of the 20th century, the banshee foretells death with a shrill shriek or howl that jolts even the soundest sleeper up. This contemporary practice seems to be especially widespread in parts of Ireland, Scotland, and Wales that have been affected by non-Gaelic civilizations.
The banshee’s wail is unlike any other kind of human or animal scream and is more akin to a death rattle or the sounds of a woman giving birth. When heard in the home, this scream is a portent of a tragic end.
The banshee’s wailing is reminiscent of the screams of other revenant characters from medieval European tradition, who also presage death.
From these many reports, it is possible to infer a few defining traits of the banshee’s physical appearance.
Solitary Being: In all depictions, the banshee seems to be alone.
Hideous Old Woman: Unlike the historical Irish custom, in which ladies covered their long hair with a scarf, she is often portrayed as a horrible old lady who is extremely skinny and has hair that is loose and exposed. There are tales of banshees who comb their hair, or whose combs are taken by humans.
Long Robe: The banshee is easily recognizable by her long gown, which is often of an antique design. The banshee is often seen without shoes. Legendary ghostly characteristics, such as her deathly white complexion or gruesome features, are occasionally included in descriptions.
Other Myths Related to the Banshee
There are some mythical creatures with similar features to the banshee.
Sluagh: The sluagh are wandering ghosts that appear in Irish and Scottish legends. Because of their destructive nature, mankind is warned not to let them into the Otherworld (including heaven).
Dame Blanche (White Lady): The White Lady in French mythology and the banshee have several characteristics, and their legends often intertwine. The present tale of the White Lady seems to have evolved from the older banshee myth. References to the White Lady and banshees appear in the mythology of England, Ireland, and Wales, suggesting that the tale of the White Lady had an impact on these countries. The Lady of the Bourbons’ palace, for instance, who arrived on the eve of the death of a noble family member, is often cited as an example of a White Lady who has been likened to a banshee in the country.
Other Characters: More similarities between the banshee and other beings may be drawn, such as those between Melusine (a mythic water sprite), Áine (the Irish goddess of summer), Aibell (an Irish guardian spirit), and Saint Brigid of Ireland.
References to Banshee in Modern Culture
Literature
In Keeper of the Lost Cities by Shannon Messenger, elven healers can have banshees with them, which tell them if their patient is dying or in critical condition.
Marigold (Elven Chronicles, #1) by Marya Ashworth, the protagonist, Marigold, encounters a boy being attacked by banshees in the forest.
Comics
One of the X-Men in Marvel Comics can unleash a devastating scream. Banshee was his name and he debuted in 1967.
Silver Banshee is a DC Comics supervillain and an adversary of Superman. She first appeared in 1987 and is known for her skeleton appearance and deathly cry.
When the JAM infiltrates the flying aircraft carrier Banshee IV (depicted in the manga Yukikaze), the Fairy Air Force will shoot it down.
Silky, a minor character in Kore Yamazaki’s manga The Ancient Magus’ Bride (2013), was formerly a banshee.
The banshee first appears in the fourth volume of Touya Mikanagi’s manga Karneval (2009).
Paper-Based Role-Playing
It’s a monstrosity from the Dungeons & Dragons 3.5 Monster Handbook II. In the original Dungeons & Dragons game, she is a wicked elf turned undead whose scream killed anybody who heard it. A “howling spirit” was another name for this beast. Games Workshop adopted this being and made it into an elf warrior in their games years later.
Banshees are Eldar fighters in the Warhammer 40,000 world, introduced by Games Workshop in 1987. Their screams have the power to doom souls.
Banshees are a kind of vampire kin in Warhammer.
Music
Red Hot Chili Peppers‘ “do me like a banshee” is a line from their song “Suck My Kiss.”
“Well, call of the banshee, hey hey” appears in Green Day‘s song “Peacemaker” off of their album 21st Century Breakdown.
The Cranberries‘ “The Glory” lyrics sang: “Do you remember? Late in September, the banshee cry, when someone dies.”
The Vision Bleak‘s song “The Call of the Banshee” references the legend of the banshee.
Siouxsie and the Banshees are a band from London, England, who started making music together in 1976.
One song by Brocas Helm includes “Cry of the Banshee,” and Pagan Altar has a song called “The Cry of the Banshee.”
Canadian composer John Hawkins wrote some songs under the moniker “Banshee.”
The line “But she sings of greed / Like a young banshee” is from Iggy Pop‘s song Tiny Girls.
Henry Cowell composed the string piano composition The Banshee.
An LP by Bones is known as Banshee.
Danny Elfman composed a song for the movie The Nightmare Before Christmas, directed by Henry Selick which sang: “Skeleton Jack might catch you in the back, and scream like a banshee.”
The Agonist‘s 2009 album Lullabies of the Dormant Mind has the song “The Tempest” (also known as “The Siren’s Song” and “The Banshee’s Cry”).
Animal Collective has a song called “Banshee Beat.”
‘I heard the banshees calling your name,’ Lights sings in New Fears.
Movies
David Collins’ mother is a banshee in Tim Burton’s Dark Shadows (2012) featuring Johnny Depp.
Martin McDonagh’s film The Banshees of Inisherin (2022) features her.
Humans refer to the Ikrans (a kind of dragon ridden by the Na’vi) in James Cameron’s Avatar as banshees.
TV Series
In the Gargoyles (TV series) the Banshee is one of the Gargoyles, the nighttime angels, and one of Oberon’s Children.
After much investigation, Holland Roden’s character Lydia Martin on the MTV series Teen Wolf is revealed to be a banshee. This is also true of his grandma Lorraine Martin and a character introduced in Season 4, Meredith Walker.
One banshee (the “Grand Banshee”) represents Mother Nature in the mini TV series The Magical Legend of the Leprechauns (1999). Whoopi Goldberg portrays this character.
The Banshee, a TV show written and directed by Steven C. Miller, follows a professor and his pupils as they encounter a banshee.
Episode 21 of season 3 of Charmed has a visual representation of the banshee. There are various deviations from tradition in this episode, but the look of the exiled women (white skin and hair) and their piercing cries are in keeping with what the tales describe.
Misery is a banshee in Ruby Gloom, who perpetually wails and brings bad luck upon herself and her family.
Video Games
Banshees are playable enemies in Lionhead Studios’s Fable II, appearing both on Knothole Island and in the Moors. These screams are unique to the individual and reveal the agony he may have brought upon his loved ones in order to torment them.
Both banshees and the Death School’s level 10 spell can be encountered and fought against in Wizard101.
The “Banshee’s Scream” is the most powerful spell in Baldur’s Gate II: Shadows of Amn. It is the greatest level of spells, level 9.
Banshees are dangerous creatures that may be encountered in Brusthonin, inhabited by the Asmodians, in Aion: The Tower of Eternity. Their signature “horrifying scream” assault is designed to frighten off the player character.
The Bainshee is a playable class in the kingdom of Hibernia in Dark Age of Camelot. This person, who can only be female, takes the form of a ghost in white curtains.
The Banshee is only one of many spirits your group might detect in Phasmophobia. She can give forth a gut-wrenching scream that can be picked up by a parabolic microphone and serve to identify it from other ghosts. However, the Banshee, unlike her role model, may be either a man or a woman—the ghost forms are produced at random for each game.
Banshees are nocturnal creatures that must be defeated in Final Fantasy XI.
The Necromancer race in Heroes of Might and Magic V has a special ability called “Banshee Howl” that may lower the morale and initiative of enemy creatures.
The banshee is a female ghostly entity who serves the Scourge and the Forsaken in Warcraft III and World of Warcraft. The banshee Queen Sylvanas Windrunner directs them in the WoW.
The banshee is the evolved form of the haunter (which evolved from the ghost) in Tales of Symphonia: Dawn of the New World.
Zombies known as banshees populate the Deadlands of Nabreus in Final Fantasy XII.
The banshee appears as a minor boss in Crypt of the NecroDancer. Her scream silences the game’s soundtrack and makes room for the wind whenever she takes damage. As soon as it is vanquished, music is once again heard.
The banshee is one of the playable monsters in the Blood and Wine add-on for The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt.
The “Witch,” a particular zombie in Left 4 Dead and Left 4 Dead 2, seems to be very obviously influenced by this mythology; she is a sobbing lady sitting in a corner, and if you disturb her, she will inflict very lethal wounds on you every time.
Outside of contemporary popular culture, the Banshee is an American single-seat, twin-engine fighter jet that entered service after World War II.
Hermod is depicted as the messenger of the gods in Norse mythology.
His name, Hermóðr, means “as courageous as an army” or “the one with the spirit of an army” in Old Norse.
Hermod embarks on a journey to Helheim to negotiate for Baldr’s return to Asgard.
Hermod (Hermóðr, in Old Norse) is the son of Odin and the brother of Baldr in Norse mythology. He is depicted as the messenger of the gods and plays a role in the myth of Baldr’s death, where he embarks on a journey to Helheim to negotiate for Baldr’s return to Asgard. Whether Hermod is divine or heroic is up for debate. In Snorri Sturluson’s Prose Edda, a 13th-century work based on even earlier sources, Hermod is portrayed as a god and his role in this text is that of a messenger. In the myth, he appears after Baldr is killed and offers to go to Helheim, the realm of the dead, to plead for his brother’s freedom from the realm’s guardian, Hel.
In the same way that Hermes is to Greek mythology and Mercury is to Roman mythology, Hermod is to Norse mythology.
Hermod is mentioned briefly in the Skaldic poem Hákonarmál and the Eddic poem Hyndluljóð, both written in the 10th and 11th centuries, but in these texts he is treated more like a legendary hero or king.
King Heremod of Denmark is mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon epic poem Beowulf, written around 700–1000 AD in Old English. In the poem, Heremod defeats monsters and dragons, and this king may be the same person as Hermod.
According to Snorri Sturluson, the god Hermod likely descended from a legendary hero like those mentioned in earlier sources. However, academics are still split on this issue.
What Does “Hermod” Mean?
The name Hermod is originally Hermóðr in Old Norse and Herimot in Old High German. Both of these are derived from the elements hari, meaning army, and mot, meaning spirit, courage, and soul. Thus, it means something like “as courageous as an army” or “the one with the spirit of an army.”
Several Norman place names around Europe bear the name of this Norse god or the Norse king Heremod:
For instance, Hermeville in the Seine-Maritime in France was known as Hermodi villa in the late 12th century, which means “countryside estate of Hermod.”
Another French commune is called Hermanville, which was Hermodivilla before 1115.
English place names like Harmondsworth (Hermodesworthe in the late 11th century, Middlesex) and Harmston (Hermodestuna in the late 11th century, Lincolnshire).
The Story of Hermod
In the Hákonarmál
In the 10th century, the Skaldic poem Hákonarmál was written as a tribute to the late Christian king of Norway, Haakon the Good. It describes Haakon’s arrival in Valhalla, where the gods greet him with open arms. Odin, in stanza 14 of the poem, assigns Hermod and Bragi the task of greeting the king (Bragi, Hoder, Tyr, and Heimdall are described as Odin’s sons).
There’s nothing in the poem to suggest the characters depicted here are anything more than heroic mortals. Later mythological texts give the god of poetry the name Bragi, who is almost certainly a deification of the celebrated skald Bragi Boddason from the 9th century. The Bragi in the poem is almost certainly the skald himself, and Hermod is almost certainly a legendary figure who died before his time.
In the Hyndluljóð
Hermod is mentioned briefly and only once in the Poetic Edda, in stanza 2 of the early 11th-century poem Hyndluljóð. Like the hero Sigmund in the Sigurðr cycle, Hermod is depicted in this poem as a figure from the Edda epic cycle.
“Let us pray to Herjafödr, To keep in good spirits; He who bestows and gives Gold to warriors; He gave to Hermod Helmet and byrnie, And to Sigmund A sword as a gift.”
Hermod and Sigmund are mentioned in the same breath in Beowulf.
In the Prose Edda
Loki disguises himself as giantess Thökk to be the only person not to cry for Baldr’s release.
Chapter 49 of Gylfaginning details the death of the god Baldr at the hands of Loki, the god of trickery. To achieve his goal, Loki disguises himself as a giantess called Thökk.
In this story, Helheim, the realm of the dead, is guarded by the goddess Hel, and Baldr’s mother Frigg offers her favor to anyone who will ride there and negotiate with Hel to release Baldr’s freedom. In response, “Hermod the Bold, son of Odin” volunteers and is bestowed with Odin’s steed Sleipnir for the journey.
Before reaching the golden bridge Gjallarbru, which spans the river Gjöll, Hermod rides through nine nights of pitch blackness. Modgud, the young girl who watches over the bridge, has seen that Hermod is not pale like the dead. He reveals that his mission in Helheim is to retrieve Baldr.
Hermod and Sleipnir before Hel in Helheim. H. A. Guerber, 1908.
The female guardian says that Baldr has crossed the bridge, and she tells Hermod the way to Helheim. He rides up to the entrance to Helheim and urges his horse to make the jump. When he enters the hall, he sees his older brother Baldr and Hel atop her throne.
After spending the night in the underworld, Hermod begs Hel, the goddess of death, to let Baldr go free. She agrees, but only on the condition that all creatures, living and dead, weep for him.
Baldr gives Hermod the ring Draupnir, the same ring that Odin had previously placed on Baldr’s funeral pyre. Frigg receives a linen cloth and other gifts from Baldr’s wife, Nanna, and Fulla, Frigg’s maid, receives a golden ring.
Hermod farewells to Baldr and his wife Nanna. Pitt, Ruth J., 1892.
After hearing Hermod’s account of his travels, the gods dispatched messengers worldwide to urge mourners to shed tears for Baldr. A giantess by the name of Thokk, however, refused to weep for Baldr; she was, in fact, the crafty god Loki. This meant that Baldr would spend eternity in the underworld.
When the gods learned the damage Loki caused to Aesir by preventing Baldr from being released from Helheim, they harshly punished him, setting in motion the events that led to Ragnarök.
Possible Origin of Hermod’s Myth
Snorri’s Prose Edda’s remarkably detailed account of Hermod’s expedition to Helheim has led many to speculate that the author relied on a long-lost mythological song recounting the whole adventure, along with the story of Baldr’s death.
The afterlife is frequently the destination of Norse mythological stories. Poems by Saxo Grammaticus and legendary sagas feature it frequently, and it can also be found in the Eddic poems Baldrs draumar and Helreið Brynhildar.
But since Snorri attributes divine status to Hermod, he is probably based on a real-life heroic figure in Nordic or Germanic history. In addition, Hermod is not included in Snorri’s list of the Aesir gods known as the Nafnaþulur.
References to Hermod Today
Hermod is a minor character in Norse mythology but he has been popularized through comic books.
“Hermod’s Ride to Hel” from the Swedish death metal band Amon Amarth’s 2006 album “With Oden on Our Side” is a melodic death metal retelling of the Hermod myth.
The Marvel Comics character Hermod (debuting in Thor #274 in 1978) was created in honor of this god. He is one of the young members of the Norse pantheon and he possesses the ability to move at hyperspeed.
Several video games feature Hermod. For example, the 2018 video game “God of War” makes frequent allusions to various mythological texts, including those that describe Hermod as the messenger of the gods.
