The Poena cullei was a form of execution used in the Roman Empire. In this punishment, the condemned person was first whipped, then sewn into a sack with a snake and a scorpion, and thrown into a river or the sea, causing them to drown. The practice of Poena cullei was regularly applied in cases of parricide, which is the killing of a close relative, according to Roman law, regardless of the social status of the convicted individual. The origins of this punishment are based on traditions that cannot be dated or interpreted in detail.
Emperor Claudius is said to have had a particular fondness for this form of punishment, which is why he ordered it more frequently than in any previous centuries, even more often than the widely practiced crucifixion. Even late antique legal collections mention Poena cullei as a regular form of punishment. Emperor Constantine renewed a corresponding law regarding this. Poena cullei as a form of the death penalty is also known from the medieval period, and it was considered a subcategory of drowning.
At times, animals such as dogs, roosters, snakes, or monkeys were also placed in the sack to intensify the suffering. Poena Cullei was predominantly employed for crimes against religion or the state, such as temple theft, parricide, or insulting the majesty of the ruler. This method was usually carried out in the Tiber River or the sea.
Types of Crimes Punished by Poena Cullei
The punishment of Poena Cullei, though deeply rooted in Roman tradition, was typically reserved for specific types of crimes. These crimes often involved acts considered heinous or damaging to society. While the exact legal framework and interpretations may have varied over time, the following are some common types of crimes punished by Poena Cullei:
- Parricide: Among the most severe crimes, parricide, the act of killing one’s parent or close relative, often warranted the punishment of Poena Cullei. This punishment symbolized the ultimate betrayal of family bonds and societal norms.
- Treason: Those who engaged in acts of betrayal against the Roman state, such as espionage, rebellion, or conspiracies against the government, could face the punishment of Poena Cullei. It served as a gruesome warning against disloyalty.
- Infanticide: The act of killing one’s own child was another crime that could lead to the application of Poena Cullei. This punishment aimed to deter individuals from committing such a grave offense.
- Parricide of a Roman Citizen: The killing of a Roman citizen, especially one’s parent, was considered a heinous crime that not only harmed the individual but also violated the principles of Roman citizenship. As a result, Poena Cullei was a potential consequence of this crime.
- Other Grave Offenses: In some instances, Poena Cullei was used as a punishment for other serious crimes that threatened Roman society or its values. These might include acts of extreme violence, acts that disrupted social order, or offenses that were seen as morally reprehensible.
Poena Cullei in Historical Memory
In Roman literature, the punishment of Poena Cullei is referenced in various texts, offering insights into society’s perceptions of justice and cruelty. Writers like Seneca, Marcus Tullius Cicero, and Livy have documented instances of this punishment, often with a mix of fascination and horror. These accounts provide valuable historical context and shed light on the attitudes of the time.
Influenced by the reception of Roman law, in the Middle Ages, a somewhat modified version of it was adopted in several European countries.
For instance, in the French compilation of customary law “Livres de jostice et de plet” (1260 AD), created based on Justinian’s Digest, there is mention of “punishment in a sack” with a rooster, a dog, and a snake (the monkey is not mentioned, probably due to its rarity in medieval Europe).
A bit later, a punishment based on poena cullei appeared in Germany, where the criminal (thief) was hanged upside down (sometimes by one leg) along with a dog (or two dogs, hanged on the right and left of the person being executed) on the same gallows. This form of execution was called the “Jewish punishment” because over time, it was exclusively applied to Jewish criminals (it was applied to Christians in rare cases in the 16th-17th centuries).
The “Jewish punishment” was used in Germany until modern times. In this case, a Jewish person sentenced to this punishment could avoid it by converting to Christianity. In such a case, they were either pardoned or the painful “Jewish punishment” was replaced with beheading.
Medieval glossators, while commenting on the corresponding provisions of Roman law, explained the symbolism of poena cullei as follows:
- The dog symbolized that the criminal had not shown proper respect to their parents (as a dog is blind for the first nine days of its life).
- The rooster symbolized the crime itself.
- The snake represented the grief of the executed person’s parents.
- The monkey symbolized the criminal himself (external resemblance to a human but lacking the right to be called one due to the heinousness of the crime).
The dog acquired additional symbolic significance in the context of the “Jewish punishment” since both in Jewish and Christian traditions, the dog was considered an unclean animal representing the sin of envy. Additionally, the dog (along with the donkey, cat, pig, and some other animals) was included by medieval theologians in the so-called “Devil’s Bestiary,” a list of living creatures believed to be assistants of the Devil in the earthly world.