Siege warfare in antiquity became an integral part of warfare at that time following the settlement of people in cities. One of the main reasons for the initial development of cities in antiquity was defense. This is evidenced by a significant number of early settlements in areas that provided natural protection, such as hilltops. Cities protected by walls appeared shortly after the establishment of large urban centers. It became nearly impossible to capture these places. For a long time, the only option was to besiege the city and wait until it starved. Greece developed in this way into a mixture of independent city-states protected by walls. It was not until Philip II of Macedon unified Greece that siege techniques were mastered. The Assyrians were the first to massively use siege engines and were able to capture a city by force. The Romans also developed siege techniques.
Origins of Siege Warfare Implements
The first known settlement enclosed by walls was the small city of Jericho, located just over 6 miles from the northern coast of the Dead Sea in the ancient region of Canaan in present-day Israel. The beginning of the walls at this site dates back to the early seventh millennium BC. Contemporary scholars have hypothesized that two main reasons led to the construction of fortifications around settlements. Firstly, the walls served as a defense against projectile weapons—primarily bows and arrows—during this historical period.
The second reason was the development of settled agriculture. Although Jericho was fortified in the seventh millennium BC, it was relatively small in size. The first large fortified cities appeared in Mesopotamia around 3000 BC. The city of Ur in modern-day Iraq represents one of the best and earliest examples. The city was renowned in its time for its perfect fortifications, which had a base thickness of 100 feet at some points. The towers were not spaced farther apart than the effective range of bowshot (around 100 feet at that time), so all areas where the enemy could attack could be covered by arrow fire.
In other cities in Mesopotamia, walls were constructed with several right angles, creating a zigzag arrangement of walls that maximized the size of the shooting angle. A similar fortification process was also taking place in Egypt at that time. During this period, ladders were extensively used in sieges. The ability to tear down stone walls was still several centuries away. The method of besieging remained essentially the same until the eighth century BC, resulting in the proliferation of fortifications throughout the entire Middle East. Previous siege battles could only be conducted as blockades or attacks. Warriors in Mesopotamia sought ways to capture enemy cities.
First Siege Engines
The first known use of siege machines dates from the time of the siege of the city of Nurrugum (location unknown) by Shamshi-Adad I, a warrior who conquered most of Assyria in northeastern Mesopotamia. Descriptions of the siege from that time mention the use of battering rams and towers. Although it is not known whether he invented these siege machines himself or rather employed the technology of others, his efforts, along with those of his contemporaries, were successful. Both archaeological and historical evidence indicate that many cities in the Middle East fell into the hands of attackers in the 18th century BC. However, siege engines during this period were considerably imperfect, and the main method of capturing enemy cities at that time was the encirclement and construction of siege ramps.
At the beginning of a siege, attackers often constructed siege works around the city, preventing defenders from escaping. By the end of the 19th century BC, these constructions became more sophisticated, including trenches, earthen walls, wooden palisades, and towers. Attackers could then begin building siege ramps—a large earthen ramp that progressed forward until it reached the same height as the enemy’s walls. Finally, using a tower, the defenders’ battlements could be cleared, and an infantry assault could commence, overcoming the walls with the help of the ramp.
The construction of all siege works, towers, and ramps required skilled specialists, marking the first appearance of engineers on the battlefield in history. These engineers did not offer their services only to attackers but also to defenders. By the end of the 18th century BC, more cities were surrounded by moats and double or even triple walls with numerous towers. In the 16th century BC, defenders once again dominated. Attackers mostly had no choice but to blockade the city. Although some well-organized powers managed to conquer cities, it was true only if they had numerical superiority and were well-supplied. In the 12th century BC, a power emerged that invented new siege machines, and no city was safe from it. It was the Assyrian Empire.
Assyrian Siege Warfare Implements
Assyrians are known in history as a people who used brute force along with strong military organization, significantly contributing to the development of military technology. They were also notorious for their extraordinary cruelty. The Assyrian state held together mainly for two reasons: their excellent skills in siege warfare and the application of absolute, merciless cruelty.
However, this officially declared cruelty had the opposite effect: although the Assyrians and their army were feared and respected, they were hated, and the subjects of their empire were practically in a constant state of rebellion. For most of Assyrian history, this situation had a positive effect because the core of their army consisted of highly experienced soldiers. However, once their empire reached its zenith, it was ruthlessly and rapidly destroyed. More than anything else, the Assyrian army excelled in siege warfare techniques and was probably the first army to have a separate corps of engineers. The exact time when the Assyrians started using siege engines is not known.
In the 8th century BC, however, the Assyrians became masters in the art of siege warfare, as evidenced by the increased occurrence of various celebratory reliefs and inscriptions throughout their empire. The Assyrians attacked heavily fortified cities in the Middle East and developed a variety of methods to destroy enemy walls. Sappers were used to undermine walls, igniting fires beneath wooden gates and constructing ramps, allowing men to get over the walls or attempt to breach them at the top, where the walls were weakest. Mobile ladders enabled attackers to cross moats and quickly assault any point of the defensive position.
These operations were covered by masses of archers, forming the core of the infantry. The pride of the Assyrian siege machinery, however, was their siege towers. These were multi-story towers with four wheels and a rotating tower at the top, featuring one or two battering rams on the lowest floor. The towers were covered with leather and fabrics to protect them from incendiary arrows. They were moved forward by either soldiers or draft animals and occasionally equipped with drawbridges. Assyrians often liked to combine siege towers with ramps. After piling up the ramp to about half the height of the walls, the Assyrians covered it with stone slabs, creating a smooth surface. Then, a siege tower was brought forward, and its battering rams destroyed the walls. The Romans later adopted and favored this tactic.
Beginnings of Greek Siege Techniques
In the period between the fall of Assyria in 612 BC and the rise of Dionysius I of Syracuse in 405 BC, there was only minimal development in the field of engineering and siege techniques. Assyrian knowledge mostly fell into oblivion during this period. Although the Persians partially adopted this knowledge, the new power in the Middle East did not fully realize its potential, using these machines only sporadically and not bringing significant improvements. As for the Greeks, they did not make extensive use of the available technology.
At least during the first half of this period, Greek science did not advance far enough to allow the construction of these large machines. The Carthaginians, a new force in the western Mediterranean, demonstrably had this technology, inheriting it from the Phoenicians. However, the art of siege warfare was mostly underutilized because the nature of their empire was primarily naval, and besides, the cities they encountered in Africa, Spain, and Sardinia were not heavily fortified. This situation changed only once when in the 6th and 7th centuries BC, they conducted serious raids into Greek territory in Sicily, where they had to contend with fortresses protected by walls (the city of Syracuse).
However, it was Syracuse, their main adversary in the southeast of the island, that contributed to the renaissance of offensive siege technology. In the late 5th century BC, they began using and significantly improving Punic machines. Over the centuries, they overshadowed everything that had preceded them, bringing siege technology back to the forefront of military means. However, Syracuse’s siege technology spread slowly, and many states adopted it only centuries later. Greece, in this regard, was conservative, and siege technology was introduced in Greece only by Philip II. An example is the siege of the Greek city of Plataea by Sparta.
Spartans and their Theban allies first built siege structures around the city, including fortifications, trenches, and wooden palisades. They then constructed a siege ramp from wood and stones and attacked the walls. Plataeans responded by raising the walls and building additional walls behind the original ones. Spartans then advanced their siege by battering rams, but defenders destroyed them by pulling their beams out using loops. When an attempt to set the city on fire with flaming fagots failed, the Spartans abandoned their attack and began to blockade the city. Over the next two years, most defenders managed to slip out of the city, and the remainder surrendered.
Peak of Greek Siege Technology
Unlike other nations, the Greeks did not gradually develop siege technology. A truly significant innovation occurred at the command of a single man: Dionysius I, the tyrant of Syracuse (405–367 BC). At the time of his rise to power, at the end of the 5th century BC, Carthage and Syracuse had been at war for over a hundred years. Neither side could inflict a decisive defeat on the other, but due to its larger human resources, Carthage often had the upper hand, and Syracuse regularly endured Punic sieges. Dionysius I was determined to break this cycle. His lifelong dream was to drive the Carthaginians out of Sicily. His preparations were meticulous. He trained an army, built a new fleet, and constructed siege machines and equipment.
Dionysius rebuilt Syracuse into a complete fortress. During the great Athenian siege (415–413 BC), it became clear that the key to defending Syracuse lay in the Epipolae Heights. For this reason, he built walls around them, extending about 17 miles. Towers and six fortified gates were constructed in the walls. One of them, known as the Epipolae Gate, was protected by the most perfect of fortresses called Euryalos (this fortress was reconstructed by Archimedes himself). Its final form represented a model of Hellenistic architecture that could only be matched by medieval castles in Europe. When Dionysius I completed the fortification of Syracuse, he invited experienced experts from across the Mediterranean to come to Syracuse.
Since he promised high salaries and substantial rewards, Dionysius managed to assemble a group of the best experts in the entire ancient world. From this synthesis of almost worldwide knowledge emerged the first artillery pieces, gastraphetes (literally belly bows), and oxybeles. The former was a handheld weapon, a precursor to the crossbow, while the latter was a larger standalone weapon. This weapon, like the gastraphetes, shot arrows and operated on the principle of torsional forces, with wooden arms bent and tensioned backward. Essentially, it was the precursor to the most successful Greek and Roman artillery pieces of the future.
Macedonian Siege Technology
Following Dionysius’s efforts toward technical improvement, Macedonian king Philip II (359–336 BC), the conqueror of Greece and father of Alexander the Great, continued this endeavor. Philip planned a grand invasion of the Persian Empire, which eventually occurred after his assassination by his son. Philip realized that his plan would first require dealing with heavily fortified cities on the Anatolian coast and later confronting large fortresses within the Persian Empire. Therefore, a siege train was essential. Lacking the ability to quickly breach city walls, he risked getting stuck in a blockade, where stronger Persian forces could surround him after a certain period. Philip called on technicians from across the Mediterranean to come to his palace in Pella.
This technical effort led to the development of offensive siege techniques, particularly in the field of catapults. Technicians in Macedonia developed a torsion system to propel the catapult, replacing the tension system. The innovation led to the improvement of the weapon oxybeles, a precursor to the lithobolos (stone thrower), the first artillery piece capable of destroying walls. This siege machine came in various sizes, with the largest being able to hurl stones weighing approximately 10 pounds to a distance of about 1480 feet. The precision of these weapons allowed them to target a small section of fortifications. The success was so impressive that, despite later minor enhancements, this system was used for another 800 years. Alexander the Great employed this new technique with devastating effects against cities in Anatolia. The Diadochi also utilized this technique, leading to frequent sieges.
Roman Siege Techniques
Regarding technology, the Romans contributed very little to the development of siege equipment. Their initial siege tactics were not sophisticated, as the cities in central and northern Italy that the Romans faced usually lacked extensive fortifications, making them susceptible to infantry assaults. However, this changed when the Romans, in the third century BC, turned against Greek cities in southern Italy and Sicily. Here, they encountered robust Greek fortifications capable of withstanding heavy projectile machines that were too tall to be conquered without the aid of machinery.
However, this did not deter the Romans. On the contrary, the Roman army excelled, particularly in two areas: the imitation of siege engine construction and city fortifications. In less than three decades from their first encounters with fortified Greek cities, the Romans adopted Greek siege technology and employed Greek machines. Although they continued to develop them, they never fundamentally altered their basic construction. The Romans were the greatest builders of fortifications in the ancient world. Every night, whether on their own or in enemy territory, legions constructed their fortified camps.
This provided them with operational bases, from which they could conduct campaigns and serve as supply depots and retreat points if needed. The extensive conquests were made possible by these fortifications along supply routes. Some of these camps eventually evolved into permanent fortresses that attracted traders and became medieval and modern cities (Manchester). This technique heavily relied on siege engines, making the Romans literal masters of siege warfare. The perfect execution of blockades was further conditioned by three factors.
Firstly, through certain construction methods, such as building night fortifications, legions gained the ability to completely encircle besieged cities with camps, watchtowers, and moats. The second key to Roman success was their impeccable logistic capabilities, human resources, and determination. These capabilities, along with Roman determination and ambition, gave them the strength to conduct sieges for a considerable duration (Romans waited outside the city of Lilybaion in Sicily from 250 to 241 BC). The final factor behind Roman success in siege warfare was their dominance at sea. This dominance allowed them to hermetically block any coastal city.
Roman Siege Technology Combined with Assault
As mentioned earlier, the Romans did not significantly alter Greek artillery until the fall of the Roman Empire, although some partial changes and improvements were made. The ballista was essentially a new version of the Greek stone-throwing machine called the lithobolos, featuring improved accuracy and the use of reconstructed heads and stronger springs. The scorpio was the Roman version of the Greek arrow-shooting weapon oxybeles; this weapon was scaled down to be lighter and more mobile while being able to simultaneously shoot larger arrows. Its metal-coated head and concavely shaped arms provided greater force. It was a popular machine with excellent accuracy, and its firepower allowed it to kill two enemies with one shot.
These changes implemented by the Romans in the second and first centuries BC led to the innovation of the cheiroballistra weapon in the first century AD. Although the weapon still retained its original Greek appearance and principles, its construction was revolutionary. The head is now almost entirely made of metal, and the springs are housed in bronze cylinders, protecting them from weathering and enemy fire.
The wooden arms of older machines were now replaced by their metal versions, allowing for increased power and precision. The cheiroballistra was further enhanced with a sighting mechanism on the head. The Romans used these machines with devastating effects, both for defense and offense. These innovations in the field of military science, coupled with their effective use in blockades, largely explain the success of their army and the maintenance of Roman dominance for five hundred years in the West and a thousand years in the East.
The combined use of blockade and assault, along with Roman determination, meant that there was no impregnable fortress for them. However, as the Roman Empire began to decline in the third century AD, siege technology also began to decline. Roman siege tactics were no longer as effective, and the technology was simplified, making it less efficient. Ultimately, this resulted in a reduction in the number of used double-armed torsion catapults and an increase in the number of single-armed devices such as onagers, or wild asses (this name was derived from the backward kick of a siege machine similar to a donkey’s). This catapult could throw stones of the same weight as the ballista but was far less accurate.
Roman Fortifications
The Romans excelled not only in offensive siege engines but also mastered the art of fortification. Urban fortifications mostly remained unchanged because the Romans did not improve the original Greek construction. However, they made progress in military architecture by using finely cut stone, fired bricks, and concrete. Many Roman legionary fortresses acquired a permanent character and began to attract traders and settlers who settled outside their walls, eventually evolving into medieval cities.
The Romans also built extensive walls of considerable length, representing some of the first artificial borders. The largest and most famous example of such a structure is Hadrian’s Wall in northern England. When establishing these fortresses, the Romans displayed exceptional ingenuity in building fortified gates. Earlier ancient techniques used overlapping walls and circular walls, but Roman gates now featured multiple levels, with loopholes and windows for artillery, heavy drop grilles, wooden gates, and drawbridges.
These architectural elements later influenced the construction of medieval watchtowers and castles. These fortifications served the Romans well, as the decline of their empire began in the third century. The fortifications managed to hold raiding tribes at bay for almost two centuries until the empire eventually fell apart. During this period, Roman capabilities in siege and fortification also diminished, primarily due to internal issues within the empire leading to the decline of experienced craftsmen and technicians.
