The Silk Road is the name given to a network of trade routes, primarily overland but also maritime, connecting parts of Asia to Europe. It is named after the primary good that was transported between the two continents. Historians estimate that this route dates back to the Paleolithic era, over 2,000 years before our era. It is therefore one of the oldest trade routes in history. Beyond material goods, the Silk Road facilitated the exchange of religions, techniques, and inventions, contributing to the evolution of both Eastern and Western continents.
This network of trade routes continued to evolve under various Chinese dynasties, which were at the center of these exchanges, before gradually disappearing in the 15th century due to diverse dangers, new economic stakes, and the establishment of new trade routes between Europe and East Africa.
What is the Silk Road?
The Silk Road dates back to the Paleolithic era. By the 2nd century BCE, it emerged as a dynamic and active trading space, highly sought after by European and Asian merchants and traders. The Silk Road is the heir to the ancient Jade Road, whose remnants date back 7,000 years BCE, establishing trade links between the Xinjiang region in western China and Burma. In China, the cultivation of silk was a unique art form as early as the 3rd century BCE. This material, combining softness and durability, became a luxury trade item coveted by Europe, especially for European nobility. In the 2nd century BCE, thanks notably to the Chinese explorer Zhang Qian, China opened itself to trade with the West and reinvested in the Jade Road.
China opened to trade with the West mainly for war-related economic reasons, as the country faced regular attacks from nomadic tribes it sought to pacify. Chang’an, the Chinese capital at the time, became both the center and the starting point of the trade route. A network of trade routes began to form between East and West, gradually extending westward until reaching the Roman Empire, then in full expansion. It wasn’t until the late 2nd century BCE that the main overland trade routes between Asia and Europe were firmly established.
However, these routes remained winding, insecure, and passed through areas with harsh climates, with frequent attacks by marauders and brigands eager to seize the wealth being transported between the two continents. These difficulties led Europe and Asia to explore other trade networks, notably maritime routes. By the 1st century BCE, the Silk Road was nearly completed, combining both overland and maritime routes.
Where and When Was the Silk Road Used?
The Silk Road was used as early as the Neolithic period. It starts in Xi’an, in northwestern China. It contributed to China’s expansion, particularly with the Qijia culture, one of the first Asian cultures to enter the Bronze Age. The major phase of expansion and use of the Silk Road occurred during the Middle Ages. It was primarily used at the height of the Tang dynasty, between the 7th and 10th centuries CE. During this period, the capital Chang’an was one of the most densely populated cities, with nearly two million inhabitants – a world record at the time.
China’s prosperity, particularly due to its many resources and rare goods (ceramics, silver, etc.) and its manufacturing techniques, revived close trade relations between Europe and Asia. It thus extended through the Gansu Corridor, bypassing the Taklamakan Desert to reach India and Persia. The Silk Road then crossed the deserts of Syria through Palmyra, where goods were shipped from the ports of Tyre and Antioch to Rome. Oases became privileged trading locations, due to favorable climatic conditions and water sources, leading to the formation of true merchant cities during various periods of the Middle Ages.
How Did Marco Polo Discover the Silk Road?
In 1271, Marco Polo sought to follow in the footsteps of his father and uncle, Niccolo and Matteo Polo, two Venetian merchants who had made their fortune through trade. Emissaries of Pope Gregory X due to their knowledge of the Silk Road, the two brothers were tasked with meeting Kublai Khan, the Mongol emperor of the time. The young Marco, only seventeen years old, joined the journey and discovered the Silk Road for the first time. Beyond the diplomatic mission entrusted to the Polo family, Marco also dreamed of enriching himself with exotic cultures and the goods he could acquire along the way.
Their journey began in Israel, then continued to the Persian Gulf before reaching the Mongol Empire. Marco Polo was quickly appreciated by Emperor Kublai, who made him his personal envoy. In this new role, he traveled through the provinces of China on diplomatic missions. These various voyages would be recounted in the explorer and diplomat’s writings, The Travels of Marco Polo, published in 1298 in the Franco-Venetian language. He detailed his explorations, journeys, and discoveries. Marco Polo would not return to Italy until seventeen years later, becoming the first European to travel such a long distance and for such a long period in history.
Which Countries Are Crossed by the Silk Road?
The Silk Road extends over nearly 4,000 miles (more than 6,400 km), passing through countries in Europe, Central Asia, and Asia. Initially, it begins in China and reaches Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul, Turkey). To connect the two main trading hubs, the Silk Road traverses Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Armenia, Iran, and finally Turkey. From Turkey, particularly Constantinople, European merchants—mainly Romans and Greeks—cross the Mediterranean to trade and import various goods into Europe.
By the 5th century, new maritime routes opened up, expanding the Silk Road. Ports were established on China’s eastern coast, in Fuzhou and Quanzhou, where ships would sail through Malaysia and Indonesia, then to Sri Lanka, and along the East African coast to reach the Suez Canal in Egypt.
Why Was the Silk Road Abandoned?
The nearly 8,000 kilometers of the Silk Road were fraught with various dangers, including bandits and extremely harsh climate conditions. These challenges gradually led to the decline of the route. Several events during the 15th century accelerated its abandonment. First, after the fall of the Mongol Empire in the previous century—the 14th century—the end of the Pax Mongolica marked the loss of security and protection for merchants in Central Asia and Eurasia. The Ming dynasty in China adopted an isolationist policy, severing the country from the rest of the world and halting the export of its resources to the West.
Beginning in the 11th century, the Byzantine-Turkish wars (Byzantine–Ottoman wars) also weakened the security of Asia Minor, although Constantinople, a global trading hub, remained secure until 1453. The fall of Constantinople in 1453, when it was conquered by the Turks, marked the end of the Eastern Roman Empire and greatly hindered East-West trade. Europe was then forced to find new trading partners and establish new routes.
The Age of Discovery, with the exploration of the Americas by Christopher Columbus and later Amerigo Vespucci, opened new areas for exploitation. The riches of the Indies were quickly sought after by explorers and traders, who soon established new maritime trade routes that enriched Europe and created new commercial zones. Similarly, the early stages of colonization in African countries offered new opportunities for Europeans, particularly with the emergence of triangular trade. It’s worth noting that the threat posed by land-based bandits was replaced by the menace of pirates, particularly English ones, who began invading the waters of the Atlantic and the Caribbean in the 16th century.
What Is the New Silk Road?
In 2013, Xi Jinping’s China launched a new economic strategy aimed at economically connecting the country to Europe by re-exploiting routes and corridors, and creating maritime and railway links. This is known as the new Silk Road, described by the Chinese Communist Party as the project of the century. Xi Jinping introduced the “One Belt One Road” (OBOR) economic policy, known in France as the “Belt and Road Initiative” (BRI). This policy involves long corridors that cross both Central Asia and Africa, creating new trade opportunities after centuries of isolationism.
This project, which involves Chinese banks and financial institutions, encompasses about 68 countries with around 4.5 billion inhabitants. The commercial opportunity is vast: these countries represent nearly 40% of the world’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). By focusing on increasing its exports, China will find new markets favorable to its economic growth, particularly for the export of raw materials, which has already helped it transition from an emerging economy to a developed one.
China’s expansion also requires new technologies. For this, the country has been working since the early 2010s on the infrastructure of roads, railways, and maritime corridors to encourage countries to become key trade partners. The Chinese Communist Party also seeks to rival the United States, currently the world’s leading trading partner. This new Silk Road retraces the main routes established in the past while extending into the Indian Ocean and incorporating East Africa, including countries such as Tanzania, Kenya, and Somalia.