Archaeologists in Egypt have discovered 3,200-year-old ruins of military barracks containing numerous artifacts. Among them was a sword inscribed with the name of Pharaoh Ramses II the Great.
The blade, made of bronze, was found in a small armory, indicating its possible use in combat. However, it is not ruled out that it could have been a ceremonial piece, given doubts about whether the ruler himself left it. It is likely that the sword was intended for a high-ranking officer in the Egyptian army.
Scarabs unearthed at the archaeological site.
The ancient Egyptians placed these barracks along a military road in the northwestern Nile Delta, allowing troops to counter enemies arriving from the western desert or across the Mediterranean Sea.
It’s an important discovery for understanding the strategy and especially the logistics of Egypt’s military under Ramesses II. Other military sites built by Ramesses II, such as forts, have been found in northwest Egypt, but they are not as well preserved as this one.
Peter Brand, Professor of History at the University of Memphis (USA)
Archaeologists also uncovered granaries, bread ovens, ceramic remnants of dishes with animal bones, and numerous cow burials. In Ancient Egypt, these animals were revered as celestial deities and symbolized strength, abundance, and prosperity. However, in this case, they were used for food.
Their bones were found near kitchen utensils, confirming butchery and preservation through drying.
Additionally, two limestone blocks with inscriptions were discovered: one with hieroglyphs mentioning Ramses II and the other with the name of an official named Bay.
Archaeologists found two limestone blocks. Image: Courtesy of the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities
Ramses II is considered one of the most outstanding pharaohs of Ancient Egypt, known for his successful military campaigns and numerous construction projects, including the famous temple at Abu Simbel. He reigned for about 66 years, from 1279 to 1213 BCE.
Pharaoh Pepi II Smeared Slaves with Honey to Attract Flies
Jar with the cartouches of pharaoh Pepi II, from Egypt. Neues Museum, Berlin. Image: Wikimedia
Pharaoh Pepi II of the 6th Dynasty lived around 2300–2206 BCE. Officially, he was called Neferkara Piopi II, meaning “Beautiful is the spirit of the sun god,” in case you’re curious.
He reigned for about 64 years, during which he established trade with the Nubians and married at least five times. He was notorious for his lax attitude toward paperwork and his indifference to internal politics, which led to conflicts and feuds among the nobles (nomarchs) and contributed to the Old Kingdom’s subsequent crisis. However, Pepi became most famous for his hatred of flies.
It’s easy to sympathize. Flies are unpleasant insects.
Pepi invented his own method for dealing with them. Traditional fans were fine, but his solution was more radical. The pharaoh surrounded himself with naked slaves smeared with honey. Flies would land on them, get stuck, and then be killed. These slaves acted as living traps for the insects.
Pepi, of course, wasn’t concerned about the comfort of his slaves. They weren’t made of sugar, so they could endure it.
Ancient Egyptian Fly Swatters Were Made From Giraffe Tails
Giraffe tail attachment. A lion, symbolizing Pharaoh, devours a Nubian. Image: MET Museum
By the way, if you’re stingy with honey, here’s another method for dealing with flies that the Egyptians came up with. Take a giraffe tail, attach a stylish handle to it—like in the picture above—and there you go: a fashionable fan. You could swat a fly easily—just make sure it’s not sitting on the pharaoh’s forehead at the time.
Incidentally, even today, the people of South Sudan hunt giraffes for meat. And the brush made from the tail is used as part of a bridal dowry traditionally presented to the bride’s father.
Egyptians Used Baboons to Hunt Down Lawbreakers
Wall relief of Ramses III and baboons, mortuary temple of Ramses III, Medinet Habu, Theban Necropolis, Egypt. Image: Rémih/CC BY SA 3.0
When we think of police animals, dogs usually come to mind. But the Egyptians rarely opted for such ordinary solutions.
Instead, they used… baboons as guards and watch animals.
If you doubt that they were helpful to Egypt’s city watch, just look at the teeth of these monkeys. In addition, baboons can move quickly and are as good at parkour as Altair from *Assassin’s Creed*. The guards would unleash trained baboon troops on thieves, and the baboons would chase and capture them. This is documented in many Egyptian frescoes.
Particularly distinguished baboons could be mummified after death as a sign of gratitude, ensuring their passage to the afterlife.
Yes, the Egyptians did have dogs, too. But baboons were better. Better than dogs.
In addition to law enforcement duties, baboons had other roles. They were among the Egyptians’ favorite pets.
For example, they were trained to gather figs from trees and bring them to their owners. And due to their habit of screeching in the morning, baboons could serve as living alarm clocks.
There’s a theory that the word “baboon” has ancient roots and is connected with the name of the Egyptian god Babi (or Baba), the deity of baboons and scribes. Don’t ask why monkeys and calligraphy are related—just accept it as fact.
Court Physicians of the Pharaoh Had Strange Titles
The Egyptians had a peculiar yet advanced medical system. Particularly skilled doctors could expect high positions at court.
Since the pharaoh was considered a god, court physicians were also partly priests. Each one was responsible for treating only a specific disease or for the care of a particular organ. They held titles such as “Royal Keeper of the Pharaoh’s Left Eye” and “Royal Keeper of the Pharaoh’s Right Eye.”
However, the most fortunate physician was the one who served as both a proctologist and dietician, known as the “neru pakhut,” or “Shepherd of the King’s Anus.”
One of the most famous of these Shepherds was Ir-en-akhti, who lived during the First Intermediate Period of Egypt (roughly 2181–2040 BCE). He succeeded his predecessor, Shepherd Khui, in this honorable position.
The “neru pakhut” had the authority to administer enemas to the pharaoh, purge his system with emetics, prescribe his daily diet, and even impose fasting. Enemas were especially popular in Egypt, and the pharaoh, along with his court, performed them several times a month for preventive purposes.
Of course, this was accompanied by the recitation of prayers and incantations meant to maintain the pharaoh’s health.
Egyptian Medicine Was Advanced Overall
The Edwin Smith papyrus, the world’s oldest surviving surgical document. Image: Public Domain
Top-notch medical care was available not only to the pharaoh and his entourage but also to ordinary citizens. For example, it’s documented that peasants in ancient Egypt wore pouches around their necks filled with mouse bones, which were thought to prevent nighttime incontinence.
And if you rubbed your head with a mixture of fat from a mountain goat, cat, hippo, and crocodile, it was believed to cure baldness. Just be careful when explaining to the authorities how you got fat from sacred animals.
The ancient Egyptians also invented their own toothpaste. The recipe: powder from ox hooves, ash, burned eggshells, and pumice.
Even dog, donkey, and gazelle dung had medicinal properties. These were used by the priests of Khepri, the scarab god. Since scarabs are born from dung balls, dung must be a source of life force. Logical? Logical.
According to the Kahun Papyrus, honey and crocodile dung were excellent contraceptives. They were also good for women’s health in general. Apply externally.
Finally, the Egyptians suffered from diseases like schistosomiasis, which caused men to urinate blood. But this wasn’t considered bad—it was believed that they were simply menstruating like women. Egyptians even thought that such men might become pregnant.
Ramses the Great Had More Than 170 Children
After hearing all these curious facts about Egyptian medicine, you might think that poor pharaohs barely made it to 30 and died in agony—more from their treatments than from actual dangers.
But that wasn’t always the case. Some pharaohs lived quite well. For example, Ramses the Great was over 90 years old when he died.
The king lived a grand life. He had eight official wives, nearly 100 concubines, 111 sons, and 67 daughters. There’s also reason to believe he was left-handed and had red hair.
Both Men and Women Used Cosmetics
Egyptians, regardless of gender, applied eyeliner, painted their lips, and rouged their cheeks, as well as rubbed themselves with aromatic oils. This not only made them look very beautiful but also protected their skin from the scorching sun.
The weather certainly called for it, as you can imagine.
However, the usefulness of Egyptian skincare products is quite questionable, as they contained lead.
Egyptians Shaved Their Eyebrows in Mourning for Cats
Cats were highly revered in ancient Egypt. It was believed that they were protected by the goddess Bastet. Cats were useful in controlling rodents and snakes, and a whole cult formed around them.
It is documented that when a cat died, its owners would shave their eyebrows (which was a sign of mourning for Egyptians). The deceased pet was mourned for a full 70 days.
Moreover, cats were mummified like humans and buried with honors.
For the deliberate killing of a cat, the penalty was death. For an accidental killing, a large fine was paid to the priests of the nearest temple of Bastet, along with public repentance (if the person was lucky). There is a historical account by Diodorus Siculus that in 60 BCE, Egyptians lynched a Roman who accidentally ran over a cat with his chariot.
Pharaohs Had Stylish Footwear and Socks
Golden sandals and thimbles for the feet of Tutankhamun. Image: Public Domain
The soles of Tutankhamun’s sandals bore portraits of barbarian peoples. So, wherever he walked, he would trample his enemies. Additionally, the enemies of the kingdom were depicted on pharaonic thrones to symbolize that the king of Egypt trampled them with his throne.
And by the way, Tutankhamun wore socks with his sandals. If you have anything to say about that, remember that the royal crocodiles were purposefully not fed for two days.
The first socks were invented by Egyptians around 5000 BCE.
The oldest surviving pair of socks, however, is only 1,700 years old. These were made by Egyptians between 250 and 420 CE. Perfect for wearing with open-toed shoes.
The ancient Greek historian Herodotus believed that the Great Pyramid was built by 100,000 slaves. The image of unfortunate captives hauling massive stones under the blazing sun while being whipped by overseers is frightening. But in reality, nothing like that happened.
Archaeological evidence shows that the pyramid at Giza was built by 5,000 permanent workers, assisted at different stages of construction by up to 20,000 seasonal laborers. These were free people who worked for wages.
They worked in shifts: a farmer or craftsman would leave home for 3-4 months to earn extra money on the construction site and then return to his regular life.
They were provided with food, drink, and medical care, and were housed in a camp near the construction site. Those who died during construction were buried near the pyramid—an honor that slaves would not have received. Additionally, the workers were supplied with large quantities of meat—something slaves could only dream of.
Although the labor was tough, the workers believed that they were demonstrating their loyalty to the pharaoh and the gods. Plus, they were earning points for the afterlife.
Some Ancient Egyptian Tombs Had Toilets
The Egyptians wholeheartedly believed in the afterlife. So much so that they included bathtubs and even toilets in tombs. For example, such a toilet was found in the tomb of the Egyptian architect Kha, dating back to the 2nd millennium BCE.
Even the dead, the Egyptians thought, might need to relieve themselves from time to time.
The Egyptians had a distinctive cuisine. Most of their diet consisted of bread and beer. The latter, as is well known, is also bread, just in liquid form. However, the Egyptian version of this drink could only loosely be called a liquid.
It was made from crumbled wheat or barley underbaked bread and date juice, and this mixture was left to ferment in jars sealed with gypsum. The resulting “beer” was not only sipped through a straw but also scooped up, with people eating the porridge from the bottom. It was consumed daily—at home, while working in the fields, and even during meals.
The pyramid builders working for the pharaohs officially received part of their payment in beer. In some historical periods, it was even considered a form of currency.
Interestingly, children were also not forbidden to try it. “Eat your porridge and grow big” might have been a common refrain.
Hedgehogs for Breakfast
Egyptians ate much less meat than bread because raising livestock without large pastures was a challenging task. Studies of the remains of Pharaoh Akhenaten’s subjects, conducted by anthropologists from the University of Arkansas, show that most residents of Ancient Egypt suffered from clinical protein deficiency.
Only the wealthy could afford to indulge in beef, and pork was entirely off limits.
Pigs were considered sacred animals belonging to the god Set. Therefore, consuming pork (including bacon) was forbidden, as it was believed Set would punish those who did so.
However, it was acceptable to eat crocodiles, even though they were also sacred, as well as hippopotamuses and ostriches. All of these were considered very tasty and nutritious.
The main delicacy for Egyptians, however, was hedgehogs. They were rolled in clay and then baked in an oven. The top layer, along with the quills, was then removed, and the meat was eaten with dates and accompanied by beer.
Cleaning Teeth with Pepper and Salt
Residents of Ancient Egypt frequently experienced dental problems due to their environment and diet. Living in a land surrounded by deserts, their food contained numerous abrasives: sand from millstones mixed with flour during milling and stone particles from dishes that got into the dough. Consequently, their bread was gritty and harsh on their teeth.
Naturally, chewing food containing sand was detrimental to oral health.
The situation was even worse for wealthy Egyptians, who consumed very sweet foods. They mixed honey with many dishes, ate dates frequently, and washed their meals down with pomegranate juice. It was believed that food that puckered the mouth was a delicacy for affluent citizens. As a result, tooth decay became a common occurrence.
Of course, Egyptians sought to address this issue and cleaned their teeth as best they could. They even invented a form of toothpaste, or rather, a powder. It consisted of crushed rock salt, pepper, dried iris flower, and mint. This mixture was moistened with saliva and rubbed directly onto the teeth. They cleaned their teeth either with their fingers or a chewed stick.
An Austrian dentist, Dr. Heinz Neumann, once prepared this powder out of academic interest, following the Egyptian recipe. After using it, he stated, “The gums hurt a lot and the mouth bled, but the breath definitely became fresher and cleaner.”
If the combination of pepper and salt doesn’t appeal to you, there’s an alternative. Try another variant that has been preserved: a mixture of powdered ox hooves, ash, burned eggshells, and pumice. Afterward, you can freshen your breath with a lozenge made of frankincense, myrrh, and cinnamon boiled in honey.
Laxatives Three Times a Month
In general, medicine in Ancient Egypt was quite strange. Many peculiar recipes for various diseases have been preserved in the papyrus found by Egyptologist Edwin Smith.
According to the doctors of that time, the root cause of most health problems was related to the intestines. Egyptians were constantly troubled by two diseases of this most important organ in the human body.
Constipation and diarrhea. Both of these ailments were supposed to be treated with laxatives.
The remedy was made from castor oil. Healers recommended that patients take it three times a month. Why so often? Prevention. To cleanse the body.
If it is clear why it was used for constipation, then why was it used for diarrhea? Apparently, the Egyptians adhered to the principle of treating like with like. The sooner everything leaves the intestines, the sooner the diarrhea will end—obviously!
Enemas from Gourds
Besides castor oil, enemas were also used. According to Pliny the Elder, the Egyptians invented them by observing how the sacred ibis bird would take water into its beak and then insert it into its anus to wash out its intestines.
It is unclear whether ibises really do this, but the Egyptians decided that regularly injecting water into the bowels was an excellent idea. According to their mythology, enemas were the favorite tool of the god Thoth.
It was not only a medical but also a hygiene procedure, just like brushing teeth.
The use of enemas is described in the Ebers Papyrus. Enemas were made from the bladder of a bull, to which a wooden tube was attached, or from a gourd. A particular type of plant, specifically the bottle gourd or Lagenaria, was also used for these purposes. Look at its shape, and you’ll understand why.
Naturally, the frequent use of laxatives, obsession with enemas, and daily beer consumption led to numerous intestinal problems, but the Egyptians considered this normal.
Beatings of Witnesses During Interrogations
In Ancient Egypt, there was a fairly developed law enforcement system. This can be judged by the preserved records of court hearings from that time. However, investigators back then did not trouble themselves much with observing any human rights.
The papyri mention that the interrogations of suspects were conducted as follows: the subject would be tied to a post and beaten on the arms and legs with sticks until they revealed everything the honest executors of the Pharaoh’s will needed to know. A scribe present during this would make a note in the record: “was beaten with a double stick” or “was beaten with rods.” Everything was meticulously documented, leaving no room for doubt.
The strangest part is that the laws allowed for such punishment not only of the criminal but also of the witnesses—just in case.
There are records showing that sons, slaves, and wives of suspects, and even those who were simply passing by, could be beaten to make sure they were not lying.
Strange Laws
Egyptians disliked prolonging investigations and interrogated witnesses directly at the trial, not before it. Before giving testimony, an oath was taken, which could vary depending on the time or the judge’s wishes.
For example, a female witness swore: “If there is evidence against me, I will be punished with a hundred lashes.” Another man stated: “If I lie, all my servants and property will be taken from me.” Poor laborers who had nothing to confiscate were forced to tell the truth “under threat of injury.”
If a suspect declared themselves innocent even after being beaten with a stick, they were released. In one court record, a man named Amenhau was interrogated at a trial.
Despite the beatings, he continued to insist, “I saw nothing! Everything I have seen, you have already heard from my lips!”
Amenhau was released, but despite this, a note was left next to his name in the papyrus: “a great criminal.” Presumption of innocence? No, never heard of it.
Human Cat Toilets
It is well known that Ancient Egyptians loved cats. The goddess Bastet patronized the furry creatures, and she did not tolerate jokes. She could stop protecting them from evil spirits and, most importantly, from mice, which could eat the harvest—what would you do then? So, they cared for their cats so much that they even mourned after their death, shaving their eyebrows as a sign of grief.
However, it seems that the Egyptians did not come up with toilets for their beloved pets. At least, archaeologists have not discovered anything of the sort yet.
On the other hand, the Egyptians themselves used hygienic devices that we would now consider a cat litter box.
Boxes filled with sand and other, less pleasant, contents were emptied daily, and the filler was replaced with clean sand. Wealthy people had wooden or even stone seats installed over the containers, while the poor had to make do without them.
However, they never came up with a water-based sewage system to carry away waste. The Romans were the first to invent such a system.
Strange Wigs and Wax Hats
Many Egyptians, including women, shaved their heads bald. The reason was simple: to avoid lice. For priests and priestesses, the procedure was mandatory because the gods demanded not only moral but also physical cleanliness.
But walking with a bald head in the heat was not particularly pleasant—it could easily lead to sunstroke. So, the Egyptians wore a variety of wigs. The poorer wore wigs made from sheepskin and plant fibers, while the wealthy could afford luxurious wigs made of natural hair.
Making wigs was quite a profitable profession and was traditionally practiced by women.
Nevertheless, fashion for them would periodically fade away, and people would grow their own hair and create intricate hairstyles. For example, they would wrap curls around a stick, coat them with mud, and wait for it to dry. Then, they would remove it, shake off the mud, and get a (possibly) stunning curl.
Baldness and gray hair were considered a tragedy. But the Ebers Papyrus provided a reliable remedy for hair loss: one had to rub rotten donkey liver into the scalp, and everything would be fine. To prevent graying, a dye made from black calf’s blood with oil was highly effective. It smelled, of course, but lotus perfume was supposed to help.
But the strangest invention of the Egyptians was the aromatic cones. These were peculiar headpieces made of a mixture of oil, resin, fat, or wax with fragrant myrrh. They would melt in the heat and emit a strong aroma. Apparently, Egyptians wore them to demonstrate their status; they were worn by those close to the Pharaoh and priests.
Women especially fancied these items, but men could also wear a wax cone on occasion. After all, it is so pleasant and beautiful when wax and oil trickle down your head.
Battles with Hippos
Hippopotamus (“William”), Middle Kingdom. Image: MET Museum
These animals were a serious problem for the inhabitants of Ancient Egypt: they would devastate crops on the banks of the Nile, capsize fishing boats, and kill people who tried to drive them away.
A rampaging hippo is a monster beside which alligators are just a trifle. And such a beast could wander onto your land at any moment because they swam wherever they wanted, and no fences could stop them.
It’s no surprise that Egyptians considered hippos a symbol of chaos and one of the worst incarnations of the evil god Seth.
Therefore, hunting these animals and their extermination were considered highly useful deeds, often undertaken by wealthy Egyptians. Especially by Pharaohs, because a god-like king who personally destroyed a symbol of evil deserved the adoration of his people.
Egyptians did not have weapons that could kill a hippo from a distance: its skin was thick, a bow was unlikely to penetrate, and it was not easy to hit the eye. Therefore, they used spears.
The hippopotamus had to be provoked into aggression by shouting various Ancient Egyptian curses and wishing it misfortunes in the afterlife. And when it opened its mouth and roared in response, the weapon was thrown directly into it.
As you can imagine, this was no easy task, because a hippo bite had truly catastrophic consequences for the human body. And the hunt did not always end well. For instance, Pharaoh Menes died from injuries inflicted by this beast.
But if the giant could be felled, the feast was magnificent: these creatures had plenty of meat and fat. Pharaohs who did not want to hunt hippos would hunt ostriches instead. But that was far less honorable.
The simplest architectural structure, known since the Neolithic era. From ancient times to the present day, it has been used in all buildings covered with flat or gabled roofs. In the past, wooden or stone beams were laid on posts made of the same materia—today, natural stone is replaced with metal and reinforced concrete.
Around 2500 BC: The Beginning of Column Design
Poulnabrone Dolmen, County Clare, Ireland. Image: Jon Sullivan, Public Domain
Ancient Egyptian architects remained faithful to the post-and-lintel system but gave meaning to architectural forms. The columns in their temples began to depict a palm tree, a lotus, or a bundle of papyrus. These stone “thickets” symbolize the afterlife forest, through which the souls of the deceased must pass to a new life. Thus, architecture became a visual art. Later, in Mesopotamia, architecture was also used to create large sculptures, but they preferred to sculpt bulls, griffins, and other creatures of the animal world.
The Greeks made architecture itself the theme of architecture as an art form, specifically focusing on the work of its structures. From this point forward, the supports of the post-and-lintel system not only decorated buildings but also visually demonstrated that they were supporting weight. These elements sought to evoke sympathy from viewers and, for greater credibility, mimicked the structure and proportions of human figures—male, female, or maiden.
This strictly logical system of supporting elements is called an order. Typically, three main orders are distinguished: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian.
Additionally, two supplementary orders are recognized: Tuscan, Composite.
The development of these architectural orders marks the birth of European architecture.
Around 70 AD: The Beginning of the Widespread Use of Arched Structures
The Grange, nearby Northington, England, by William Wilkins, 1804, Europe’s first house designed with all external detail of a Greek temple. Image: Wikimedia
The Romans began to widely use arches and arched structures (vaults and domes). While a horizontal beam can crack if it is too long, the wedge-shaped parts in an arch under load do not break but compress, and stone is difficult to destroy by pressure. Consequently, arched structures can cover much larger spaces and bear significantly heavier loads.
However, despite mastering the arch, Roman architects did not invent a new architectural language to replace the ancient Greek one. The post-and-lintel system (i.e., columns and the elements they support) remained on the facades, but often it no longer served a structural purpose, instead functioning solely as decoration. In this way, the Romans transformed the classical order into mere decor.
318: The Return of Early Christian Architects to Wooden Roof Trusses
The Colosseum, from “Speculum Romanae Magnificentiae”. Image: Met Museum
The fall of the Western Roman Empire brought down the economy of those territories we today call Western Europe. There was not enough money for constructing stone roofs, although there was a need for large buildings, primarily churches. Therefore, Byzantine builders had to return to wood and, with it, to the post-and-lintel system. The rafters—the structures under the roof, where some elements (braces), according to geometric laws, work not on bending but on tension or compression—were made of wood.
532: The Beginning of the Use of Domes on Pendentives by Byzantine Architects
St. Peter’s Basilica in Romei The engraving by Stefan du Pérac was published in 1569, five years after the death of Michelangelo.
A technological breakthrough in Byzantine architecture was placing a dome, invented back in Ancient Rome, not on round walls enclosing the inner space but on four arches, with only four points of support. Between the arches and the dome ring, double-curved triangles—pendentives—were formed. (In churches, they often depict the evangelists Matthew, Luke, Mark, and John—the four pillars of the church.) In particular, thanks to this construction, Orthodox churches have the appearance we are familiar with.
Around 1030: The Return to Arched Vault Construction in Romanesque Architecture
The dome of St. Sophia Cathedral in Istanbul. Image: A.Savin, Wikipedia
By the beginning of the second millennium AD, powerful empires were emerging in Europe, each considering itself the heir of Rome. The traditions of Roman architecture were revived. Magnificent Romanesque cathedrals were again covered with arched structures, similar to ancient ones—stone and brick vaults.
1135: Gothic Architects Give Arched Structures a Pointed Shape
East front of Speyer Cathedral, Germany. Image: Immanuel Giel , CC BY-SA 3.0
Arches and arched structures have a serious drawback: they tend to “spread out.” Before Gothic architecture, architects combated this effect by building thick walls. Then, a new technique emerged: arches and vaults began to be made pointed. A structure of this shape exerts more downward force onto supports than sideways pressure. Furthermore, this system was supported on the sides by special “bridges”—flying buttresses—which extended from freestanding columns called buttresses. Consequently, the walls were freed from all loads, made lighter, or even eliminated entirely, giving way to glass paintings known as stained glass windows.
1419: During the Renaissance, Baroque, and Classicism, Styles Are Formed Regardless of New Structural Innovations
Orléans Cathedral: choir and nave seen from the choir. Image: Wikimedia, CC BY-SA 4.0
The Renaissance gave the world the greatest domes, but from this moment on, large styles no longer arose primarily due to construction innovations but rather as a result of changes in the worldview. Renaissance, Mannerism, Baroque, Rococo, Classicism, and Empire were born more due to philosophers, theologians, mathematicians, and historians (and to some extent those who introduced fashionable manners) than to inventors of new roof structures. Until the Industrial Revolution, innovations in construction technologies ceased to be the determining factor in changing styles.
1830: The Beginning of the “Railroad Fever” Led to the Widespread Use of Metal Structures in Construction
View of the Piazza Sancti Annunciatore. Painting by Giuseppe Zocchi
Rails, initially intended only for railroads, turned out to be an ideal building material from which strong metal structures are easily created. The rapid development of land steam transport contributed to the growth of rolled metal production capacities, ready to provide engineers with any number of channels and I-beams. The frames of high-rise buildings are still made from such parts today.
1850: Glass Becomes a Full-fledged Building Material
The Duke of Wellington’s train and other locomotives being readied for departure from Liverpool, 15 September 1830
The factory production of large-sized window glass made it possible to develop construction technologies first for large greenhouses and then for grandiose buildings for other purposes, in which either all the walls or roofs were made of glass. Fairy-tale “crystal palaces” began to come to life.
1861: The Beginning of Industrial Use of Reinforced Concrete
The Crystal Palace at Sydenham Hill, London. It was designed by Sir Joseph Paxton for the Great Exhibition of 1851 and rebuilt in 1852–54 at Sydenham Hill but was destroyed in 1936. Image: BBC Hulton Picture Library
Attempts to reinforce concrete date back to Ancient Rome. Metal rods for reinforcing roofs began to be actively used from the beginning of the 19th century. In the 1860s, a gardener named Joseph Monier, while searching for a way to make garden tubs more durable, accidentally discovered that embedding metal reinforcement in concrete significantly increased the strength of the resulting element. In 1867, the invention was patented and subsequently sold to professional engineers who developed methods for using this innovative technology.
However, the enterprising gardener was only one of several pioneers of this new construction technology. For instance, in 1853, French engineer François Coignet built a house entirely of reinforced concrete, and in 1861 he published a book on its application.
1919: The Integration of All Technological Capabilities in a New “Modern” Style
Le Corbusier’s Esprit Nouveau pavilion in Paris, 1925. Image: Public Domain
In his manifesto published in the magazine “L’Esprit Nouveau,” Le Corbusier, one of the leading modernist architects, formulated five principles of modern architecture. These principles returned architecture to ancient ideals—not externally but fundamentally. The image of the building once again truthfully reflected the work of structures and the functional purpose of volumes.
By the beginning of the 20th century, facade decoration was perceived as deceit. There was a need to return to the origins, drawing inspiration from ancient Greek temples that honestly depicted the work of structures. However, modern roofs were now made of reinforced concrete, whose significance lies in its ability to resist tearing where a part is subjected to bending, thanks to embedded reinforcement. Consequently, modern structures could span almost any width.
As a result, buildings could be entirely devoid of columns and decorations, featuring continuous glazing and thus acquiring the “modern look” familiar to us today.
Economic crises and political conflicts are not an invention of modern times. In ancient Egypt, too, there were repeated phases of economic and social problems. One of these occurred around 3,100 years ago at the end of the 20th Dynasty. Supply bottlenecks, a lack of grain deliveries, and a shortage of labor—these problems seem very familiar to us today, but they also affected the Egyptians around 1100 BC. Evidence of this ancient Egyptian crisis can be found not only in papyrus texts and other inscriptions but also in the necropolis of Dra’ Abu el-Naga, west of Thebes.
Scarcity and conflicts at the end of the New Kingdom
There is hardly any other period of ancient Egypt from which we have so many textual sources as the period of the 20th Dynasty, which lasted from 1185 to 1070 BC. During this time, Ramesses III, who is thought to be the last great pharaoh in Egyptian history, was king.
Supply and food shortages
The written evidence from this period includes monumental, primarily religious inscriptions from temples and tombs, as well as numerous papyri and inscribed pottery shards or limestone cuttings with administrative and economic texts. From them, it is clear that this period at the end of the New Kingdom was marked by political, social, and economic problems, which finally led to a severe crisis under the rulers Ramesses IX, X, and XI.
Already in the reign of Ramesses III, food shortages and supply bottlenecks became tangible. A telling document is the famous “Turin Strike Papyrus” from the 29th year of this king’s reign: Because the monthly grain deliveries to the Theban necropolis workers did not arrive, they stopped working at the construction site in the Valley of the Kings. Other strikes over unpaid food rations are also documented under Ramesses IX and X.
Too few workers and enemy attacks
In the late New Kingdom, the number of workers at the royal tombs also continued to decrease. Only 32 workers were involved in the construction of the tomb of Ramesses X, not even half as many as at the tomb of his predecessor. At the time of Ramesses XI, the last pharaoh of this dynasty, only 23 workers were documented.
Around 3,100 years ago, ancient Egypt experienced an economic and political crisis.
Despite the continuing crisis and reduced work crews, however, Ramesses X and Ramesses XI still had their tombs built in the Valley of the Kings. However, both sites were abandoned, presumably due to the uncertain situation in Thebes. The mummified bodies of Ramesses VIII, X, and XI may have been interred instead in the Ramesside residence city of Pi-Ramesses in the eastern Nile Delta, but their graves have not yet been found there.
Another constant challenge to the Egyptian empire at this time was the invasion of external enemies, especially from areas west of Egypt, which further destabilized the country. These attacks had already led to the cessation of work on the royal tomb at the end of Ramesses III’s reign and subsequently under Ramesses VI, IX, and X. The progressive shortage situation and growing security problems at Thebes are particularly well documented by the so-called “Tomb Robbery Papyrus,” in which necropolis inspections and trials of looters are recorded in writing.
Clear indications of a crisis
Together with other documents of the late Ramesside period, they reflect not only political instability and resource scarcity but also the growing impoverishment of the population. Thus, it is clear from various passages in the text that stolen burial goods and temple goods were exchanged for food.
The picture of economic decline and an increasingly dysfunctional central state conveyed by these sources is also confirmed by archaeological observations. As a result of a steadily increasing shortage of raw materials, older funerary inventories, especially wooden coffins, were increasingly reworked and reused at the end of the 20th and especially in the 21st dynasty. The prevailing lack of resources is also evident from the found material recovered from the tomb of the high priest Amenhotep at Dra’ Abu el-Naga.
What the tomb of the high priest Amenhotep reveals
The high priest of Amun, Amenhotep, had assumed his office in the first half of the reign of Ramesses IX and was one of the major players at the end of the 20th Dynasty. As the first worshipper in the Karnak temple and head of the Amun domain, whose economic power had grown steadily in the New Kingdom, Amenhotep was the highest political authority and holder of the greatest amount of power in Thebes.
Double tomb of high importance
His funerary temple and that of his father and predecessor in office, Ramessesnakht, are still being researched. In this ancient Egyptian necropolis west of Thebes, officials and high dignitaries from the New Kingdom—among them Amenhotep and his father—were buried alongside pharaohs and dignitaries from the 17th Dynasty.
The funerary temples of these two Amun high priests are located in the double tomb complex K93.11/K93.12. With a courtyard terrace of over 1,600 square meters, it is one of the largest rock-cut tomb complexes of the New Kingdom in Thebes-West.
Ceramic shard with the names of workers involved in the construction of the funerary temple of the high priest Amenhotep.
Archaeologists have been researching this double tomb complex since at least 1993. Among other things, they have discovered that the complex is integrated in a special way into the religious topography of the necropolis. From K93.11/K93.12, there is a direct line of sight to the main temple of Karnak on the east side of the Nile. In addition, the precisely measured main axis of the nearby temple of the royal couple Amenhotep I and Ahmose-Nefertari, called “Men-Set,” is apparently aligned with the double tomb complex.
Insight into the time of Ramesses XI
Early in the project, archaeologists came across relics of the ruined tomb temple of Ramessesnakht, which was decorated during the reign of Ramesses VI, in the open atria of K93.11. Among the finds were thousands of fragments of the relief-decorated wall covering, parts of columns, capitals, and friezes made of sandstone, and the remains of a monumental mud-brick architecture. However, the burial of Ramessesnakht was not found. For more than 16 years, researchers have been investigating the tomb temple of Amenhotep in the area to the south, K93.12. There, too, thousands of relief and architectural fragments made of sandstone were recovered.
The finds and features documented in the tombs of Amenhotep and Ramessesnakht have not only expanded our knowledge of the architecture and religious function of the monumental tomb of the late Ramesside period, but they also provide insights into the political and economic situation of the period from Ramesses IX to Ramesses XI. For example, the looted tomb furnishings of Amenhotep, recovered in his remains, contained reused inventory, even though the high priest was the highest representative of the local elite.
Priestly tomb with savings
Also conspicuous is the absence of a stone sarcophagus, which had been an integral part of elite burials in previous decades. Amenhotep was buried in a wooden coffin that imitates a sarcophagus made of rose granite in its design, from the color scheme to the style of its decoration and lettering—an indication that logistically costly quarry expeditions were no longer taking place in his time.
And something else is striking: If one compares the construction work and the wall relief in the complexes of Ramessesnakht and Amenhotep, a clear drop in the quality of the stonework is recognizable. There is a period of at least 25 years between the construction of the tomb temples of Ramessesnakht and Amenhotep. During this time, the availability of specialized and skilled labor, especially in stone carving, has apparently been drastically reduced. The “first guard” of the few remaining stone specialists was probably tied up at the construction site of the royal tomb in the Valley of the Kings.
Political conflict in the material findings
This wall fragment from the funerary temple shows Amenhotep, the text above mentions his names and titles as well as those of his father Ramessesnakht.
During the investigation of the high priest burial temples in the necropolis Dra’ Abu el-Naga, archaeologists came across another sign of political-religious upheaval: The burial temples of the Amun high priests Ramessesnakht and Amenhotep were deliberately destroyed at the end of the New Kingdom.
This is evidenced by the layer of sandstone debris that covers almost the entire area of both complexes and lies on the floor of the court at that time. It consists of thousands of fragments of shattered wall cladding and architectural elements, many of which show clear secondary chisel marks.
Evidence of the “war against the High Priest”
This finding can be linked to a historical sequence of events that at the same time marks the end of the New Kingdom, namely the so-called “war” or “transgression against the High Priest” around 1085 BC. This involved a violent conflict between Amenhotep and Panehsi, the commander of the troops and administrator of the Nubian provinces, during the 17th and 18th years of Ramesses XI’s reign. Exactly when this happened and how this conflict unfolded is unclear because this event is mentioned in only a few written sources.
With the material findings in tombs K93.11/K93.12, meaningful archaeological data could now be fed into the extensive discussion about the events during the transition from the 20th to the 21st dynasty. They form an important contribution to a better understanding of the historical situation that led to the complete dissolution of the local power structure with the death of Amenhotep and the end of the influential Ramessesnakht family.
A programmatic “rebirth” and the end of a dynasty
This deep break was the starting point of a new political beginning, which was also programmatically identified as such at the time: In year 19 of his reign, Pharaoh Ramesses XI let begin a new yearly count, the “repetition of birth.” This counting, in which the 19th year of Ramesses’ reign was counted as year one, was supposed to stand for the overcoming of the unstable state of emergency. It ended with the death of the king in his 29th year of reign.
The installation of a new dynasty of high priests under Ramesses XI also laid the foundations for the subsequent nationwide reorganization of the balance of power. Under his successor, Smendes, Egypt was divided into two political and administrative units: The southern part was ruled by the Theban high priest; in the northern part of the country, the Libyan-born kings of the 21st Dynasty ruled, who resided in Tanis.
The Late Bronze Age Collapse
Egypt was not the only empire affected. From archaeological finds and written evidence, it is clear that Egypt was affected by a widespread crisis around 1100 BCE. However, this must be viewed in the larger context of a development that affected the entire eastern Mediterranean and western Asia—the Late Bronze Age Collapse.
Comprehensive decline
Triggered by a range of stressors, many states and urban centers of the Aegean and Near East collapsed and lost power and economic influence over a period of about 200 years at that time. These included the advanced civilization of Mycenae, the empire of the Hittites, and also the city-states of Canaan in the Levant. The causes of this decline are unclear, but in addition to natural disasters and migration movements, a change in climate is suspected.
As part of the economic and diplomatic network, Egypt was also affected by this large-scale collapse. The flows of goods and raw materials that had been firmly established through trade dried up. As a result, a material decline could also be observed in Egypt due to the changed socio-economic and political conditions, recognizable, among other things, by the cessation of extensive tomb and temple construction or the material and spatial reduction of the burial effort in often unmarked collective tombs.
Adapted new beginning
Nevertheless, there can be no question of a cultural standstill in the 21st Dynasty. If one considers the minimized, newly configured burial inventories alone as indicators, they testify to a special cultural dynamism and intellectual productivity. In this context, the coffins with their condensed religious iconography have taken over the ritual or transformative function of the earlier decorated rock tomb. With them, an existing tradition of afterlife provision is continued, which was translated into a new material form of expression in response to changed external circumstances.
Without a doubt, Tutankhamun is one of the most well-known pharaohs in history. The king, who was likely born about 1340 B.C., only ruled for a decade at most. The British archaeologist Howard Carter and his colleagues discovered the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun in Egypt’s Valley of the Kings on November 4, 1922. With its four separate rooms along with an entry hall and stairs, the tomb is still regarded as one of the greatest archaeological finds ever discovered. The reason for this is the astonishing vast array of artifacts that the British explorer Howard Carter and his team discovered in the tomb. Over the course of three millennia, over 5,000 objects were preserved, providing a priceless look into the arts and culture of the pharaohs. As we celebrate 200 years since the discovery, here is a look at six artifacts unearthed from Tutankhamun’s tomb.
The mask of Tutankhamun
The burial mask of Tutankhamun is, without a doubt, the most well-known artifact in the world. Even though the tomb was initially discovered in November 1922, this artifact wasn’t discovered until October 1925, when investigators unsealed the last sarcophagus guarding the mummy of the king. The mask stands around 20 inches (50 cm) tall, 16 inches (40 cm) broad, and 20 inches (50 cm) deep, and it weighs just over 22 pounds (10 kg), making it a magnificent masterpiece of Egyptian goldsmithing.
It is composed of two gold plates that have been combined and adorned with several semiprecious stones, including lapis lazuli, quartz (for the eyes), and obsidian. Despite a reconstruction suggesting that Tutankhamun was not as handsome as this masterpiece claims, his face is shown on a headpiece that is topped by two significant animals: the vulture and the cobra.
More than that, there is a theory that the mask was not intended for the emperor who died so suddenly and abruptly, much like his grave.
The meteorite iron dagger
Tutankhamun’s meteorite-iron dagger.
A wide variety of weapons, such as arrows, shields, and swords are among the more than 5,000 items found in Tutankhamun’s tomb. A dagger with an iron blade and a gold sheath set with beautiful stones stood out among the weapons available. Experts paid attention to it since ironwork in Egypt was still in its infancy during the reign of Tutankhamun (during the 18th dynasty, between 1332 and 1323 BC), when the art was only being developed.
The unique history of the item, which would have begun outside the kingdom of the pharaohs, has been uncovered via studies, the most recent of which was published in February 2022.
It has been suggested that King Tushratta of Mitani (whose capital was located in modern-day Syria) presented the weapon to Amenhotep III (the father of Akhenaten and the grandfather of Tutankhamun) as a gift between 1380 and 1350 BC. The item is even more valuable since the investigation of its composition revealed that its metal was not of earthly origin; rather, it would have originated from an iron meteorite.
An Egyptian carrying the “mannequin” bust of Tutankhamun found in the tomb unearthed in 1922.
Among the many statues and paintings depicting the pharaoh found in his tomb, the one that was found half-hidden in the pre-chamber stood out. An unfinished wooden bust with a snake on its head. The face is identical to those seen in previous three-dimensional depictions of Tutankhamun, and the skin is painted dark red, the hue commonly employed by ancient Egyptian artists to portray males. The sculpture’s usefulness is its defining characteristic.
Howard Carter believes the statue to be a mannequin used to try on Tutankhamun’s attire and jewels. For instance, the bust has markings that are consistent with a corselet having been worn, much like the one discovered in the tomb. Gold sandals are only one example of the many articles of clothing and accessories that have been discovered in the different rooms, all of which point to the pharaoh having a sizable wardrobe to the end of time and beyond
A pair of trumpets
Put on display the silver trumpet and its wooden mute.
Musical instruments were among the hundreds of artifacts discovered in King Tut’s tomb, with a particularly impressive pair of trumpets being located in two separate chambers. The length of one silver one is around 20 inches or 50 cm. The second one is made of bronze and is a touch smaller. However, both have engravings of several deities, including Amun and Ra. These are the earliest known working trumpets and the only ones known from ancient Egypt.
A musician named James Tappern performed with one of them on a BBC broadcast in 1939, bringing their music back into the world after more than 3,000 years of obscurity. These days, it’s not acceptable to handle relics because of how delicate they are. While the bronze trumpet was taken from the Egyptian Museum in Cairo in 2011, it turned up missing just weeks later.
The sanctuary of Anubis
The Anubis figure on the shrine at Tutankhamun’s tomb.
The ancient Egyptian tombs often include depictions of the deity Anubis. Tutankhamun’s tomb was no different. Howard Carter and his crew, when investigating the tomb, came upon a statue of the god with a jackal’s body. The animal is lying down on a bed of black painted wood, and it has silver claws and gold ears.
It was located on top of a shrine that had suddenly materialized next to Tutankhamun’s tomb, just over a chest that held the King Tut’s canopic vases. Jewelry, amulets, and other trinkets were stored in the trapezoidal compartment. It has been acquired by the Egyptian Museum in Cairo and is on permanent exhibit.
The throne of Tutankhamun
Tutankhamun’s golden throne, included statues of both him and his queen.
Several artifacts unearthed inside the pharaoh’s tomb demonstrate the ancient Egyptians’ level of sophistication.
This is the situation with Tutankhamun’s golden throne. The royal chair is a work of art, crafted from wood and gilded with precious metals. Colored glass and semiprecious stones are used for ornamentation. In the shape of winged snakes adorned with the double crown of the pharaohs, two lion heads guard the ends of the armrests.
Tutankhamun and his wife, Ankhesenamun, are shown on the backrest. However, the throne’s inscriptions suggest it was created while the pair was still known as Tutankhaton and Ankhesenaton, after the deity Aten. In addition to its display in the Louvre, this object is also housed in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.
The hundreds of artifacts that were discovered in Tutankhamun’s tomb include a number of extraordinary items. Another is the king’s coffin and mummy, both of which have provided significant insight into the life and times of the young man who reigned from the ages of 9 to 19.
Tutankhamun’s tomb in the Valley of the Kings had the bulk of its contents initially removed, but the remaining items were later brought back and are currently kept within. Even yet, the pharaoh’s tomb still holds some mysteries despite the amazing burial collection. It keeps prompting more and more curiosity. A considerable portion of Tutankhamun’s wealth may not be his, as shown by objects that have displayed traces of re-engraving. After his tragic death, it was probably meant for someone else and credited to him.
The most pivotal moment in human history occurred around 11,000 years ago, when agriculture was first developed. It made space for novel ways of thinking and doing things, as well as for a reorganization of society. For what reasons did modern Homo sapiens first begin farming? Actually, nobody can say for sure. The emergence of agriculture, however, was crucial to the subsequent growth of urban centers, literacy, and ultimately, civilization.
Since the Neolithic Era forward, human sustenance has shifted away from hunting and gathering to agriculture and livestock raising. In the 10th millennium BC, this shift began in the Near East and spread to other population hubs throughout the globe. Population expansion, attesting to a change in lifestyle that resulted in higher food demands, explains this phenomenon.
Several key innovations have shaped the history of agriculture, including the plow, crop rotation, irrigation systems, and the use of fertilizers. These innovations improved crop yields and made agriculture more efficient.
Improvements in Farming
Several times during the 10th and 8th millennia B.C., people on all four continents “developed” agriculture on their own. The archaeological remnants of plants and animals are our only source of information, although their numbers were likely far larger in reality. Even before the first traces of agriculture, it’s likely that ancient hunter-gatherers had established a kind of proto-agricultural by dispersing seeds or tubers from the plants they had gathered from the wild to ensure that the plants would not be depleted.
Neolithic agricultural equipment.
Recent hunter-gatherer cultures apparently still engaged in this method, as shown by anthropological research. Under the right circumstances, it has even developed into a full-fledged manufacturing sector. Tools like the millstone for grinding, the knife for harvesting, and the digging stick were all creations of the hunter-gatherers. There was no need to develop brand-new technologies to facilitate the emergence of agriculture.
While humans have been around for at least 300,000 years, agriculture as a subsistence economy didn’t emerge until around 11,000 years ago and it took centuries to become widespread. This means that fewer than 5% of human history, or around 500 generations, has been spent as “farmers.” Accordingly, natural selection has led to our species’ development, notably in our forager ancestry. Natural selection, however, benefited those who engaged in agriculture. The evidence may be found in the decipherment of the human genome.
For instance, lactase, an enzyme that allows newborns to digest lactose, a milk protein, has persisted in adults thanks to a genetic mutation in the DNA of Central European herders 6,000 years ago. After the age of four, most people lose the ability to digest lactose because this enzyme stops being produced. This mutation is now widespread throughout Europe but is rare or nonexistent in regions such as the Far East and South America, where milk production from domesticated animals is not commercially exploited.
Early agricultural societies used various techniques, such as slash-and-burn agriculture, terracing, and the cultivation of staple crops like wheat, barley, and rice. These techniques varied depending on the region and available resources.
Agriculture Helps Increase the Population
Paleolithic village.
Thus, the descendants of settled farmers rose to prominence at the expense of their nomadic ancestors. Because of their low reproductive success, the latter were driven to the margins of the earth, if not eradicated altogether, while farmers came to rule the world. The number of Homo sapiens has increased from 2–5 million to 8 billion since the advent of agriculture. This agricultural production system has never ceased changing natural vegetation, with more alarming environmental repercussions, and this is directly responsible for the dramatic increase in the world’s population.
Despite the wide spread of agriculture, only a select few societies were able to develop under the influence of this economic model. To begin, have a look at South-West Asia. Due to the semi-arid environment, the ruins in this area are in remarkably good condition, making it one of the finest documented regions in the world by archaeologists. Cereals like wheat, barley, and rye, as well as legumes like peas, chickpeas, and lentils, grow wild in their native environment in the Fertile Crescent (seen on the map). The previous ice age occurred 23,000 years ago, and at that time, wheat and barley were already being cultivated.
About 14,000 years ago, in the southern Levant, people settled down thanks to the great yields and easy storage of these plants (Israel, Palestine, Jordan). Then, starting about 11,000 years ago, locals started growing and using grains commercially on a huge scale. Through Darwinian selection, the plants that were most suited to cultivation eventually became the dominant species, while their wild relatives were extinct over the course of the next millennium. Domestication (or cultivar improvement) began with natural selection and evolved into the intentional breeding used today.
Early Stages of Livestock Breeding
Agriculture of Ancient Egypt.
Animal husbandry, including the domestication of the cow, goat, sheep, and pig, also began in this period, around 10,500 years ago. Plants and animals provided the starch (a vast energy store!) that powered the subsequent flourishing of civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Europe beginning in the 4th millennium BC. This agricultural assemblage could adjust to many climates, allowing it to expand from northern Europe to the Americas, Africa, and even Australia. The urbanization, irrigation, animal traction, and literacy that followed the development of agriculture.
Further annual grain plants were domesticated elsewhere, giving birth to additional civilizations as well. These included rice and millet in China, maize in Central America, quinoa in South America, and millet and sorghum in Africa. In tropical regions like the Amazon and New Guinea, horticultural systems based on tubers have become the backbone of subsistence agriculture.
That begs the question: why did we develop agriculture? Scientists have long been intrigued by this subject, and they often discuss it by bringing up topics like population expansion, climate change, technical, mental, and social advancements, or the overexploitation of resources. However, it is common for us to mix the causes with the results. The habitat, climate, and civilization of each agricultural domestication site are distinct from one another. The “why” question has been replaced by a focus on the “how” and “by what procedures” of agriculture’s spread to new areas of the globe.
Bibliography
Melinda Zeder (2011). “The Origins of Agriculture in the Near East”. Current Anthropology.
