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Tag: ancient history

  • Persian Empire: From the Achaemenids to the Sasanians

    Persian Empire: From the Achaemenids to the Sasanians

    The Achaemenid dynasty’s Persian Empire, also known as the Achaemenid Empire, was one of the largest ancient states. The dynasties succeeded one another, and the conquests connected a landmass far greater than that held by modern-day Iran (or Persia) until the empire faded away gradually under the Sasanians. Decades of history, including encounters with luminaries like Cyrus II and Alexander the Great, encompass the Persian Empire. Persia defined both antiquity and modern history. Delve deep into this empire, from the Achaemenids to the Sasanians, from Muslim rule to the founding of Iran.

    Who was the founder of the Persian Empire?

    The Persian Empire and the Achaemenid dynasty may trace their origins back to Cyrus II, often known as Cyrus the Great. In the beginning, Cyrus II defeated the Medes, and then he went on to capture the Kingdom of Lydia. The Persian Empire continued to expand with further victories on the Iranian Plateau and in Central Asia. Cyrus II, a person in myths and stories from antiquity and the modern day, died in combat around 530 BC.

    Who were the kings of the Achaemenid Persian Empire?

    After Cyrus II’s death, numerous kings took his place as leaders of the Achaemenid Empire. Cambyses II, Cyrus II’s first heir apparent, made a name for himself by conquering Egypt. Darius I, who dethroned Bardiya, used his newfound power to launch an invasion of Macedonia and the Cyclades. It was his son Xerxes I who lost the Second Persian War against the Greeks. The subsequent Achaemenid monarchs, like Sogdianos, Darius II, and Arses, had varying degrees of success.

    How was the Achaemenid Persian Empire organized?

    The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent, c. 500 BC.
    The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent, c. 500 BC.

    By 550 BC, under King Cyrus II, the Achaemenid Persian Empire had emerged after his conquest of the Medes, and by 330 BC, the Empire had been wiped out by Alexander the Great’s conquests. During this time, the Achaemenid Persian Empire was run on a system of satrapies, with the general populace submitting to the authority of the Persian monarch. Justice and the pursuit of virtue were central tenets of Mazdaism, the religion of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Lydia, now a part of western Turkey, was where the first coins in history were originally created, and from there they spread over the Persian Empire.

    What was the capital of the Persian Empire?

    A general view of the ruins at Persepolis.
    A general view of the ruins at Persepolis.

    Ancient Pasargadae, in what is now Iran’s Fars Province, served as the initial capital of the Persian Empire. Various towns in Persia had succeeded as the country’s capital throughout the years. The Achaemenid Persian Empire’s most famous capital was Persepolis, whose name in Greek meant “the city of the Persians” and was built by Darius I. Even lesser-known cities like Ecbatana, Susa, and Babylon had their share of fame throughout history.

    How did the Persian Empire become Seleucid?

    Alexander the Great
    Alexander the Great.

    After defeating Darius III at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC, Alexander the Great was widely recognized as the last ruler of the Achaemenid Empire. In the next 20 years, Seleucus I established the Seleucid Dynasty. By the 1st century BC, the Seleucid dynasty—including Seleucus I, Antiochus I, Demetrios I, etc.—had ruled over Babylonia and Mesopotamia for many centuries. These people gained notoriety for their roles in the Syrian Wars (168 BC–274 BC) and the establishment of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom.

    How did the Parthians conquer the Persian Empire?

    The Parthians, once a nomadic tribe, established a kingdom in approximately 250 BC under the leadership of Arsace I. The Parthians, led by Mithridates I, took advantage of the Seleucids’ defeat to the Romans to declare their independence and establish themselves as the lords of Bactria and Mesopotamia. What they founded was an empire whose civilization was a synthesis of the Persian, Greek, and Armenian traditions. Ardashir I deposed the last Parthian monarch in 224 BC and established the Sasanian dynasty.

    How did the Sasanians take power in Persia?

    After defeating Artabanus IV, the last Parthian ruler, in 226 BC, Ardashir I established the Sasanian Empire and became its king. The Sasanians restored the Persian Empire to its former glory over the course of roughly four centuries. Religious leaders, soldiers, and farmers were the three main castes of Sasanian society, which was structured on a monarchical system. It marked the pinnacle of agricultural advancement and of Zoroastrianism as the official religion.

    How did the Persian Empire collapse?

    Muslims (or Arab-Islamic peoples) first started conquering Persia in about the year 637 AD. The final Sasanian monarch, Yazdegerd III, fought the Muslim caliphate and its development of the Islamic Empire for a long time. Once again, Yazdegerd III was beaten, this time at the Battle of Nahavand after losing at the Battle of al-Qadisiyya. As a result of these two setbacks, the Persian Empire began to crumble.

    Once the Muslims took over, what happened to the Persian Empire?

    Once Yazdegerd III passed away in 651 AD, all of Persia was free from Islamic rule. The Muslim caliphate cast doubt on Zoroastrianism and extended an invitation to convert to Islam to a broad segment of the Persian populace. In the realm of the erstwhile Persian Empire, Iranians and Arabs lived together for a long time without mixing. For instance, during that time, Persian rather than Arabic was recognized as the official language of Persia.

    Where is Persia today?

    Picture of Reza Shah, emperor of Iran in the early 30's in uniform.
    Picture of Reza Shah, emperor of Iran in the early ’30s in uniform.

    Modern-day Iran is a modern-day reference to ancient Persia. General Reza Shah Pahlavi led an uprising against Russian and British rule in the early 1920s. He declared independence for his country. He was so committed to modernizing his nation that he declared to the world that the land formerly known as Persia would henceforth be known as Iran. In Iran, countless items (vases, figurines, etc.), architectural remnants, and archaeological sites such as Haft Tappeh bore testament to the stamp of ancient Persia.

    Key dates in the history of Persia

    539 BC – The Persians conquer Mesopotamia

    The Jewish people were permitted to return to their ancient homelands when the Persians conquered Mesopotamia. Not everyone followed this path; some stayed in Babylon or the countries that received them during the diaspora. After many years in exile, many exiles returned to Jerusalem to worship in the newly built Temple of Jerusalem. Although a new memorial was built, it paled in comparison to the Old Temple, and the monarchy never returned to the country again.

    525 BC – The Persians conquer Egypt

    Ancient Egypt had been weakened by invasions and battles of succession prior to its fall into Persian control. Then, King Cambyses II ruled over the whole region. Even though the last native pharaohs had forced the Persians out, they were able to take back Egypt a few years later.

    498 BC – Capture of Sardis

    The Greeks invaded the city of Sardis in Asia Minor as part of their war against the Persians. They burned down the lower town but were unable to take the citadel. Angry with the Greeks for their invasion of Sardis, Darius took his revenge at the Battle of Ephesus. After that, the Persian monarch Darius instituted a strict regime of punishment and control over the Greek population.

    494 BC – Sack of Miletus

    Aristagoras’ uprising in Ionia culminated in the destruction of Miletus at the hands of the Persian Army. The commencement of the Middle Ages can be traced back to this event, which is often referred to as “The Sack of Miletus.” The Achaemenid rulers would use this opportunity to retaliate against Athens for interfering with the revolts of the Greek towns in Asia.

    490 BC – Darius destroys Byzantium

    Darius I of Persia launched an invasion of the Greek city of Byzantium. Darius’s major goals during the First Persian War were to seize possession of a city that had a geographically advantageous location between Asia and Europe and send a strong message to Athens, which backed the Ionian Revolt.

    September 13, 490 BC – Battle of Marathon

    Miltiades led 10,000 Athenian hoplites into battle against invading Persian forces on the plain of Marathon. The Persians were outnumbered, yet they still lost badly. The First Persian War ended here, and Athens reached its zenith. This fight inspired the tale of Philippides, whose name is associated with the creation of the marathon race.

    486 BC – Death of Darius I

    After his father Darius I passed away, his son Xerxes I inherited leadership of the Persian Empire with the intention of exacting revenge for his father’s defeat at the hands of the Greeks. Xerxes I began the Second Persian War, which included an assault on Athens. The Achaemenid dynasty oversaw the rise of the Persian Empire, which lasted until Alexander the Great’s invasions in 330 BC.

    483 BC- Discovery of the mines of Laurion

    The Athenians discovered silver mines on their own land in Laurion. They used the wealth from these mines to improve life in Athens and to construct 200 warships (triremes) to bolster the Greek fleet. Themistocles made this strategic choice that would pay off at Salamis, the climax of the Second Persian War.

    July, 480 BC – Junction of the Persian troops

    The Persians had regrouped at Thessalonica, giving them access to 600 ships and 150,000 men. Greek forces, however, decided to pull back from the country’s northern coast and reorganize on the other side of the Pass of Thermopylae. The Greeks wanted to use the narrow nature of the area to their advantage.

    September 17, 480 BC – Beginning of the Battle of Artemisium

    In anticipation of the Persian fleet, 300 Greek triremes sailed to the cape of Artemisium to begin the Battle of Artemisium. The Greek fleet was forced to retreat in front of the opposing fleet, but in doing so they were able to slow the march of the Persian army. A storm hit a few days after this engagement, destroying most of the Persian fleet that had decided to go inland.

    September 19, 480 BC – Heroic defeat of Leonidas at Thermopylae

    480 BC battle of thermopylae
    The Battle of Thermopylae, 480 BC.

    The Greek army had been forced to retreat toward the Isthmus of Corinth after a (possible) treachery. King Leonidas I of Sparta, aided by 700 volunteers, resisted the 10,000 Persians that had surrounded him. Leonidas I and his men fought to the death, and their sacrifice permitted the bulk of the Greek forces to retreat. The Parthenon was among the many buildings the Persians burned during their invasion of Athens.

    29 September, 480 BC – Victory of the Greeks in Salamis

    The Greeks, realizing their numerical disadvantage against the Persian fleet, feigned to retreat. In actuality, their goal was to guide the Persians across the very constricted Strait of Salamis. Parts of Persian ships were destroyed in this conflict because they were lured into the trap prepared by the Athenian strategist Themistocles.

    August 27, 479 BC – Death of Mardonius in Plataea

    Mardonius, an esteemed Persian leader, was killed while leading his army against a force of Lacedaemonians. Greek forces under Pausanias’ command took advantage of this to beat the Persians at Plataea, thereby ending the status quo between the two camps after the Greek victory at Salamis. This incident inaugurated the Persian Army’s retreat from the Ionian metropolises.

    478 BC – The Spartan Pausanias takes Byzantium

    After his impressive performance at Plataea, Pausanias was given leadership of the Greek forces so that they might continue their war against the Persians. Pausanias, a regent of Sparta, marched on Cyprus and captured Byzantium. The city, devastated by Darius a few years before, was being rebuilt.

    478 BC – Formation of the Delian League

    Several Greek communities decided to form a league in response to the rising imperialism of the time and their fleet’s victory at Salamis. Themistocles and Aristeides took the first move toward establishing the Delian League by initiating this treaty. This new organization, which gave Athens control over the army, solely applied to the fleet and had nothing to do with the regular soldiers.

    472 BC – Aeschylus presents The Persians

    Aeschylus suggested that The Persians be staged at Athens. References to the Second Persian War could be found in this Greek play, the earliest one for which we have a text. Aeschylus, who was there throughout the conflict, used his first-hand knowledge to write a tragedy that forever changed the genre. In fact, it was the first occasion in history that so many performers were onstage at the same time.

    336 BC – Alexander the Great becomes king of Macedonia

    The 20-year-old Alexander the Great succeeded his father as King of Macedonia. Without hesitation, he eliminated his enemies, put down the insurrection at Thebes, and kept up the war against the Persian Empire that his father began.

    334 BC – Beginning of the war against the Persians

    Alexander the Great fought the Persians beginning in 334 BC. With a force of 30,000 soldiers and 5,000 horsemen at his disposal, he rode forth in the direction of Asia and won the Battle of the Granicus, therefore enabling him to destroy Darius’s army. Alexander the Great’s conquests, which lasted a decade and required him to walk more than 6,200 miles (10,000 kilometers) on foot, were bolstered by this victory against the monarch of Persia.

    332 BC – Alexander the Great conquers Judea

    In the end, Alexander the Great was successful in his conquest of Judea. In this area, which the Persians had evacuated, the Jews were allowed a certain degree of independence. Many of them decided to make Alexandria their permanent home at that time. The influence of Hellenistic culture on Jews inside the kingdom led to tensions between Jews who embraced this culture, also known as Hellenistic Jews, and those who did not.

    332 BC – Alexander arrived in Egypt where he was acclaimed as a liberator

    the battle of issus francesco coghetti 1
    The Battle of Issus, Francesco Coghetti, 19th century.

    The Persian Army suffered yet another loss at the hands of Alexander the Great and his army at Issus (Cilicia). Darius was forced to evacuate Egypt since he was helpless against Alexander the Great’s invasion. The first Greek colony of Alexandria was founded by the King of Macedonia on the land where he was hailed as a liberator and acknowledged as a descendant of Amon.

    October, 331 BC – Victory of Alexander the Great at Gaugamela

    Alexander the Great was successful in defeating the King of Persia in Mesopotamia for the third time since the beginning of the war. Darius III was on the run in the mountains while Alexander the Great expanded his control over the Middle East and Egypt. As a result, Alexander the Great took control of the Achaemenid Empire’s wealth and was crowned the King of Asia.

    330 BC – In pursuit of Darius

    Alexander the Great knew that he had to locate Darius
    Alexander discovers the body of Darius.

    Alexander the Great knew that he had to locate Darius if he was to succeed Darius as King of Persia. The new King of Asia set out on an expedition to find Darius. Darius, along with a small group of loyalists, had fled into the mountains just as Alexander the Great was about to arrive.

    Before Alexander the Great arrived, Darius was murdered. Alexander decided to restore Darius’ royal status and vowed to seek revenge for his murder. To this end, he tracked down and killed the satrap Bessus in Bactria, who was suspected of being behind Darius’s murder.

    329 BC – Three years to pacify Persia

    Over the course of three years, Alexander the Great battled hard to conquer the regions of Hyrcania, Aria, Arachosia, Bactria, and Sogdiana. The new ruler of Persia established several Alexandrias over the course of his conquest. A yearning to return home was the last straw in Alexander the Great’s long and exhausting campaign to bring peace to Persia.

    326 BC – A trying return home

    Alexander the Great’s army was divided into three factions en route to the Indus Valley. Alexander the Great went toward the desert of Gedrosia, while Nearchus traversed the Persian Gulf and Craterus crossed the Balon Pass with his elephants. Alexander the Great and his army arrived in Susa in 324 BC and they immediately began planning the next invasions. Alexander the Great, on the eve of new conquests, embraced the quest of bringing together Macedonians, Greeks, and Asians into one nation.

    326 BC – Alexander invades Punjab

    Alexander the Great had crossed all of Persia and was now in the East. Alexander invaded Punjab despite opposition from King Porus and the deployment of elephants as a weapon of resistance. As a result of the battles, Alexander the Great had to abandon his quest for India because his warriors were too tired to continue. The Seleucid dynasty began with Alexander the Great’s landing in Punjab.

    May 5, 614 – The Persians seize the True Cross

    Jerusalem, a holy city for Christians, fell to the Persians under King Khosrow II (Chosroes II), who went on to steal the “True Cross” relic in 614. The churches were burned down, and 35,000 people were sold into slavery. Heraclius I, the Byzantine emperor who in 627 had beaten the Persians at Nineveh, later returned the True Cross to Jerusalem in 630. In 638, the city was conquered by Muslims.

    December 12, 627 – Victory of Heraclius over the Persians

    Heraclius I, Emperor of Byzantium, defeated Khosrow II, King of Persia, in a battle for control of Nineveh in 627 in the Middle East. In a triumphal march into the Sasanian Persian capital of Ctesiphon, Alexander compelled the Sasanians to hand over Egypt to the Byzantine Empire. After it had been looted by the Persians in 614, Heraclius I returned to Jerusalem with the True Cross in 630.

    632 – Abu Bakr succeeds Muhammad

    It was Abu Bakr, the Prophet’s father-in-law, who was named Caliph. He was able to calm tensions between Medina and Mecca that had arisen about who would follow Mohammed. Then, all of Arabia was forcibly converted to Islam. Omar, a devoted companion of the Prophet, was named his successor and went on to conquer Syria, Egypt, and Persia. After Omar’s death in 644, his successor, Uthman, carried on with the conquests.

    1055 – Tughril Beg is recognized as Sultan in Baghdad

    A Sunni Turkish Seljuk dynasty member, Tughril conquered Baghdad and was acknowledged as ruler by the Abbasid Caliph. This dynasty had previously ruled over Persia. By 1038, he had already overthrown the Buyid dynasty and taken control of Nishapur. The Fatimids were the first to build a Sunni Muslim empire in the region, and the Seljuks would follow in their footsteps by creating a massive state across Asia Minor and Syria. Conflicts over inheritance, the presence of the Franks, and local uprisings all contributed to the fragmentation of the region beginning in 1092.

    1501 – The Safavids reign over Persia

    The Safavid dynasty, founded by Ismail I, established a Shiite kingdom after the expulsion of the Timurids. The kingdom depended on “Twelver,” a philosophy that would become central to Iranian Shiism. Isfahan replaced Shiraz as the dynastic capital several years later. The Safavids, however, were wiped off by Afghan invasions in the 18th century and never recovered.

  • Pompey: The Only Rival Worthy of Caesar

    Pompey: The Only Rival Worthy of Caesar

    Pompey, a prominent Roman commander and politician, was born in the Italian city of Picenum on September 27, 106 BC. He was murdered at Pelusium in Egypt on September 28th, 48 BC. With Caesar and Crassus, Pompey created the First Triumvirate, although he was ultimately destroyed by Caesar at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC. Pompey or Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus born into a wealthy plebeian family, earned the moniker “the Great” due to his outstanding military achievements. However, his competition with Caesar, previously allied, would ultimately be his undoing. Pompey was a well-respected Roman commander and politician. The Civil War that broke out in 49 BC would turn him into Julius Caesar‘s biggest antagonist, despite the fact that he was married to Caesar’s daughter Julia.

    Pompey was a ruthless and brazen man, typical of the world’s elite. His innate or cultivated amiability, however, won the hearts of many.

    pompey face
    The reconstruction of Pompey the Great by Alessandro Tomasi.

    Pompey’s early life

    Pompey was born to a noble family and a demanding and harsh father. Pompey’s father was Cnaeus Pompeius Strabo, a substantial general in the Roman army. Pompeius Strabo stood out throughout the Social War (91-87 BC) because of his stubborn character. Thus, his funeral pyre was met with ridicule as the townsfolk despised him and burned his body.

    Pompey followed his father and developed an interest in the military and strategic planning. His father’s wealth and extensive clients led Pompey to meet with Sulla. By that time, Sulla was in charge of the Optimates, the traditional political group that staunchly defended the privileges of the old nobility. While Gaius Marius, the head of the progressive Populares faction, had high hopes for the young Julius Caesar, nephew of his wife Julia, Pompey still remained a bright young guy in his eyes.

    Since Pompey was trained for battle since he was young, it is only logical that he would first commit to a successful military career. Almost immediately, the politician Syula took notice of him, and he went on to battle in Africa and Sicily with successful campaigns in the Far East, Hispania, and against Mediterranean pirates.

    Aeschylus’s blunt quote, “I hate the sire, but dearly love this child of his,” serves as the first line in Plutarch’s biography of Pompey the Great.

    Pompey rose through the ranks of the Roman military and eventually became Emperor. With Caesar and Crassus, Pompey formed the triumvirate that ruled Rome beginning in 60 BC. Pompey married Caesar’s daughter, and the three of them ruled the whole Roman lands.

    It was because of his efforts to bring back order in Rome that Pompey was named sole consul in 52 BC. But three years later, a civil war erupted, putting Pompey against Caesar. The latter was even designated an enemy of Rome by that time. After being soundly beaten by Caesar in Greece in the legendary Battle of Pharsalus, Pompey was assassinated on an Egyptian beach.

    After the Pharsalus, Pompey had sought refuge with Ptolemy, King of Egypt, but Ptolemy ultimately betrayed him, killed him and gave his head to Caesar. Pompey was a military hero who also founded towns like Nicopolis and Pompeiopolis. He also created the Theatre of Pompey in Rome.

    Rome during Pompey

    pompey

    The political systems of the city-state of Rome were in need of a revival because of the decline of the Republic in comparison to the vast geography of the Empire. The collapse of this political system paved the way for constant civil wars and provided the ideal environment for the power grabs of the ambitious. Pompey was a ruthless and brazen man, typical of the world’s elite. His innate or cultivated amiability, however, won him many friends and admirers. And he was looking good, too. His demeanor was courteous, and his eyes were a mix of softness and fervor. Pompey was quite popular with the ladies, and the stunningly beautiful famous courtesan Flora was completely smitten with him.

    These deadly good looks were complemented by a rebellious strand of hair that was lifted by a spike on the forehead, giving him phony Alexander airs. After the successful campaigns he commanded in Africa in 81 BC against Marius’s supporters, his warriors took to calling him “Magnus” (Great) in honor of this trait and his military prowess in reference to Alexander the Great. This distinction was one that Pompey gladly accepted, revealing much about his aspirations.

    Insolence that portends disaster

    Despite the norms, Pompey still planned to ride a tank hauled by African elephants around Rome during the celebration of his victory. He was more of a strategist than a scenographer, and thus he failed to foresee that his excessively imposing chariot would prevent him from entering the city. Being ridiculed might be fatal in ancient Rome, but not to a man of his type.

    In 79 BC, Pompey was just 26 years old. Despite being a member of the equestrian order (the lower Roman nobility), Pompey was so confident in his triumphs that he petitioned the Senate for the magistracy of consul, an honor normally reserved for the senatorial class. His teacher Sulla (who served as dictator in 82–79 BC) thought this request was a sign of arrogance and bad luck, so he decided to distance himself from Pompey.

    When it became clear that Pompey would no longer have the backing of the optimates’ leader, he moved to support the election of Sulla’s opponent, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. For Sulla, Aemilius Lepidus was a filthy provoker. However, this coincidental union did not survive for very long. Aemilius Lepidus revolted against the Senate and in return, Pompey suppressed this rebellion with an army raised from Picenum. After defeating Aemilius Lepidus on the battlefield, Pompey removed him from power the next year.

    A path to victory

    When the Spartacus revolt broke out in the city of Capua, Pompey arrested 6,000 rebels and had them crucified one every 108 feet (33 meters) along the route leading from Rome to Capua. The commander hoped to send a message to the slaves to discourage them from trying to escape.

    Pompey resumed his Hispanic campaign in 77 BC. His new mission was to put down the rebellion led by another Marius admirer. Following a string of close engagements, General Pompey finally delivered a decisive defeat to Sertorius. He put up a monument to himself atop Col du Perthus (Perthus Pass) as a last act of egotism before departing the Iberian Peninsula. According to his inscription, Pompey had conquered 87 cities. Surely he totaled even the tiniest villages along his route.

    Even though the Romans had been humbled by revolts for months, but the victor of Sertorius had not yet departed Spain. While trying to flee, Spartacus and his band of 100,000 slaves completely routed the army. Even a seasoned general like Crassus had run into trouble. In 73 BC, he received assistance from Pompey and Lucullus. Most of the rebels were eliminated by their forces. Capturing 6,000, Pompey then had one crucified every 108 feet (33 meters) along the route from Rome to Capua, where the uprising had begun.

    The commander hoped to send a message to the slaves that would discourage them from trying to escape. In Rome, people did not question the authority of rulers. So, it was another one of Pompey’s clever “stunts” when he publicly earned credit for putting down the Spartacus rebellion.

    Pompey’s hopes for absolute power were now bolstered by this fresh triumph, and he quickly took advantage of the admiration to which he was subject in Rome to make another consulate submission while failing to fulfill the requisite conditions once again. But the senate had to make an exception for Pompey because of how popular he was, and therefore, Pompey and Crassus were both chosen Roman consuls (prime ministers) in 70 BC.

    Despite their election, the two men first hesitated to dismiss their troops which created fear of a new civil war. But, too much blood had already been spilled, and so the two consuls decided to simultaneously demobilize their legionaries. But this did not signify a permanent abandonment of their goals, rather, it was only a temporary pause.

    Pompey’s wars against the pirates and Mithridates

    Battle of Korakesion 67 BC pompey vs pirates
    At the Battle of Korakesion, 67 BC, Pompey with 200 ships faced the pirates of the Mediterranean with 1,000 ships in modern-day Alanya, Turkey.

    Pompey used his naval prowess to once again make a name for himself in 67 BC. The Gabinian Law granted Pompey extraordinary authority, the imperium. He was therefore endowed with the authority to completely wipe out the Mediterranean’s piracy problem. Their attacks hampered commerce and threatened Italy’s food supply, as much of their wheat originated in Egypt. With his fleet of 200 vessels, Pompey was able to effectively eliminate the pirate threat and square up the maritime space in just three months. Now a hero in the eyes of the Athenians, Pompey then established some of the reformed pirates in Soli, in modern-day Turkey. He planned to turn those pirates into farmers by placing them far from the sea. But the city of Soli was destroyed by Mithridates, and yet there was a request for revival by its inhabitants. So, Pompey rebuilt the city and named it “Pompeiopolis.”

    The lawmaker Gaius Manilius then gave Pompey the chance to steer the war against the king of Pontus, Mithridates VI Eupator, a few months after this victory. Mithridates’ reign of terror in the East was a direct result of his refusal to abide by the terms of his treaty with Rome. Pompey was given free rein to eradicate this threat from the East and restore peace to the area.

    He defeated King Mithridates’ soldiers with a daring nighttime assault in the Battle of the Lycus in 66 BC. In the East, Pompey kept pushing forward. Some, like Armenia’s King Tigran, chose to work with Pompey rather than oppose him. However, many other kinglets met their end because they were too egotistical to take the diplomatic route. The ever-victorious General Pompey brought the East to its knees and annexed the territories of Pontus and Bithynia on the southwestern bank of the Black Sea. Pompey even managed to put the King of Parthia, Phraates III, in a bind.

    General who strikes fear in his subjects

    However, Pompey’s progression did not end there. The Judean rulers came to him to put an end to a power conflict in 63 BC. Pompey saw his chance to crush Judea and took it for his own. On a Saturday, he led his legion into Jerusalem. Since that was a holy day, the Jewish army chose to refrain from battle. Approximately 13,000 of them were slaughtered in the temple where they took refuge. Judea was now dependent on Rome, and its new king, Hyrcanus II, was revered by Pompey and treated like a subject by the Romans.

    Pompey thought about going home to Italy to revel in his victory. While returning, he followed in Alexander’s footsteps by establishing new towns as monuments to his greatness. After arriving at the city of Brindisi, he dispersed his forces to show the worried and admiring senate that he would not seize power via force. Pompey gambled on marriage ties as a means of gaining sway at the highest levels of politics. By allying himself closely with the more traditionalist Optimates, Pompey hoped to emerge as their new champion. As a result, he set his sights on tying the knot with a member of the Cato family. But the seasoned Stoic refused to give Pompey his niece in marriage.

    Julius Caesar 1

    Pompey finally realized what was going on here. His frequent victories and his will to succeed were worrying his would-be friends. He had already towered above many others and appeared menacing. Thus, he decided to look for a man who would understand him better. Similarly, Caesar also made his subjects fear him with reverence and respect. The two men agreed that it was time to join forces against the rest of Rome. In 59 BC, Pompey married his new friend Caesar’s daughter, Julia, to solidify his alliance.

    In their agreement to aid each other’s rise to power, Caesar and Pompey invited Crassus to this secret pact. The First Triumvirate planned to get Pompey and Crassus elected consuls and then vote to give Caesar more time in Gaul. Everything went according to plan. However, the pact was altered following Julia’s death in 54 BC and Crassus’ death in 53 BC in the East, two years after his consulship.

    Caesar vs. Pompey: a showdown between giants

    As early as 51 BC, Caesar ruled all of Gaul. Getting back to Rome and taking up a new consular position was high on Caesar’s list of priorities. The two men were destined to clash, at least in Pompey’s opinion. As a strategic move, Caesar suggested that his army be disbanded if Pompey would do the same. That was the equivalent of signing a symbolic nonaggression pact. But Pompey refused and instead called Caesar, who had recently defeated the chieftain of Gaul, Vercingetorix, to return to Rome after dismissing his men.

    But Caesar led his soldiers to cross the Rubicon River on January 12, 49 BC. The warning was crystal clear: The time for a titanic clash was drawing near. If there was to be a conflict, Pompey knew it would be in the city of Rome, which would not end well for him. Caesar’s army, bolstered by their Gallic successes, marched toward Pompey, while Pompey’s forces were outnumbered. It was on March 19 that Pompey departed Rome for the East, where he intended to reorganize his forces and force Caesar to meet him on neutral ground.

    The two generals fought a sort of positional battle in the spring of 48 BC, near Dyrrachium in Albania. Because of supply shortages, their soldiers had to endure. But both knew that it would be risky to go on the offensive under the circumstances. Nonetheless, on July 10, both armies clashed in the Battle of Dyrrhachium which took place from April to late July and ended in a non-trivial defeat for Caesar’s army.

    Battle of Pharsalus 48 BC
    The Battle of Pharsalus, 48 BC.

    But on August 9, 48 BC, near Pharsalus in central Greece, the two armies met again at the Battle of Pharsalus. Pompey lost 6,000 troops and another 24,000 captured, while Caesar only lost 1,200 men. Pompey admitted that this overwhelming defeat was the worst of his life. He escaped the camp and his soldiers while disguised as a regular civilian.

    On August 9th, at Pharsalia, Pompey stated he had just faced the worst defeat of his career. 6,000 of his soldiers lay dead, while another 24,000 were captive. As for Caesar, he had only lost 1,200.

    Pompey approached Ptolemy XIII, Cleopatra’s brother-husband, in a mad attempt to get revenge. He believed that hiding out in Egypt would buy him enough time to face his father-in-law, Caesar, again. On September 28th, his ship anchored off the coast of Pelusium, in the northern Nile Delta. A small group including the young pharaoh’s advisors greeted Pompey when he arrived aboard a boat. One of Pompey’s former centurions, the Roman Lucius Septimius, had been stationed in the Nile Valley for some time. While Pompey was caught off guard and trapped in the boat with no way to escape, the former legionary dealt the killing blow. Ptolemy XIII’s advisors, Pothinus and Achillas, had joined him in the assassination of Pompey as they watched Pompey die helplessly on the ship.

    death of pompey
    Pompey was assassinated and his body was dismembered to be delivered to Julius Caesar. (18th century, Gaetano Gandolfi oil painting, Musee Magnin)

    Pompey had a fantastic career and deserved more than such a death. His body was cast onto the shore, pouring boiling blood, and his head was severed by Achillas. Ptolemy XIII believed he held a priceless treasure in his hands: the head of one of Rome’s best tacticians. The killers fancied themselves more cunning than Pompey and hoped that by pleasing Caesar, they might secure his support. But rather than causing an ensuing peace, the death of Pompey sparked a civil war. Caesar still had the utmost respect for Pompey. He admired Pompey’s drive and professionalism in the military. He had, no doubt, enjoyed the confrontation and was honored to see such a skilled tactician struggling. Caesar and Pompey were mirror images of one another, and thus, Pompey went down in history as Caesar’s only truly legitimate competitor.

    Key dates in the history of Pompey

    60 BC: The First Triumvirate

    In order to become Consul of Rome, Julius Caesar created a covert alliance with Pompey and Crassus, which they called the First Triumvirate.

    59 BC: Caesar, Consul of Rome

    A triumvirate consisting of Pompey and Crassus and Julius Caesar allowed the latter to assume the position of Consul.

    149 BC: Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon

    In order to unite Cisalpine Gaul and Italy, Julius Caesar led the 13th Legion over the Rubicon River. However, without permission from the Roman Senate, no military commander could cross this frontier.

    Julius Caesar broke Roman law and declared war on the Senate by disregarding this edict. While crossing the Rubicon, he yelled “Alea iacta est,” which means “The die is cast,” in popular Latin. Nothing could stop Julius Caesar from entering Rome, removing Pompey, and eventually becoming dictator for life over the whole Roman Empire.

    August 9, 48 BC: Pompey defeated by Caesar

    At Pharsalia in Thessaly, Caesar pursued and decimated Pompey’s forces. Following Caesar’s crossing of the Rubicon (the river dividing Gaul from Italy), Pompey and the Senators fled Rome and headed for Greece a year earlier. After Caesar’s defeat of Pompey, the latter sought asylum in Egypt with Ptolemy XIII, but Ptolemy XIII had him murdered because he was afraid of retaliation from Caesar.

    September 30, 48 BC: Assassination of Pompey

    Ptolemy XIII, Cleopatra’s husband, had the Roman commander Pompey, Caesar’s adversary, killed. The Egyptian pharaoh planned this assassination in an attempt to win Caesar’s favor. But it was unlikely that the Roman Emperor would appreciate this favor. In the end, Caesar had the pharaoh deposed so that Cleopatra could rise to the throne, and then he became her lover.

    47 BC: Julius Caesar meets Cleopatra

    As Caesar tracked down Pompey in Egypt, Julius Caesar found out that he had been murdered. He became resentful of Ptolemy XIII, the pharaoh, who was at odds with his sister-wife Cleopatra. The Egyptian Queen had an instant and profound effect on the Roman commander. Following his successful military campaign against the monarch, Caesar handed over Egypt’s throne to Cleopatra. They were now expecting a boy.

    March 15, 44 BC: Assassination of Julius Caesar

    Despite being named dictator for life, Julius Caesar was killed. 50 Senators, all of whom supported the reinstatement of the oligarchic republic, piled on top of Caesar during a session of the Senate and delivered 23 sword blows. Caesar died next to a monument honoring his opponent, Pompey. Caesar had a lot of respect for Brutus, the son of his mistress, and he had a lot of respect for Cassius, a Roman commander, who were both involved in the assassination.

    Bibliography