Tag: armor

Lorica Hamata: The Roman Chainmail Used For 600 Years
The term “lorica” meant body protection in ancient Rome, and “hamata” was the name of the chainmail made of interlocking rings. The lorica hamata was the 1/4-type chainmail armor used by the Roman soldiers between c. 200 BC and c. 400 AD. In this type of mesh armor, 1 ring connects to 4 others, and rivets are used to fasten these rings (hence the root term “hamatus” or “hooked”). A lorica hamata was basically chainmail protection consisting of two main parts: a shirt and a neckline for fastening.
About 35,000–40,000 rings made up the armor and the rings could hardly rust thanks to the constant friction between them.
History of the Lorica Hamata
The Gallic Celts invented the lorica hamata before the Romans. The Latin League’s (793–338 BC) armed forces were reorganized after the disastrous conquest of Rome (about 390 BC). During this time, the armor used by the Celtic enemies, ring chainmail, was adopted in place of the traditional bronze cuirasses.
Lorica, quod e loris de corio crudo pectoralia faciebant; postea subcidit gallica e ferro sub id vocabulum, ex anulis ferrea tunica
“Lorica ‘corselet’, which they made chest-protectors from rawhide thongs; later, a Gallic corselet made of iron fell under the same name, an iron shirt made of rings.”
Varro, On the Latin Language (De lingua latina libri) Book V, 24:116.
The ancient Romans used this armor for the first time in the conquest of Hispania which began in 218 BC. As shown by the oldest reliable pictorial testimony, all Roman soldiers were in chainmail in 168 BC without exception. It was reserved for the wealthiest of Roman fighters. They favored this armor for so long due to its superior protection and low upkeep requirements.
Several variants of this armor existed, each tailored to a certain unit and its missions. Therefore, there could be a variety of scout, cavalry, and spearman variants. In the first few decades of the first century, the lorica hamata was gradually phased out in favor of the lorica segmentata. This is the most easily recognized Roman armor by most people.
Historians, however, disagree on whether or not the lorica segmentata really became as common as was formerly thought and for how long. What is known for sure is that in the latter decades of the Empire, the lorica hamata was once again the standard armor, but it seems that certain legions in Africa and Asia never ceased wearing it.
How Good Was It?
Battle of Magnesia, 190 BC.
The primary purpose of the lorica hamata was to absorb the impact of strikes and thrusting movements. However, its design made it vulnerable to stabbing motions, which could cause the rings to separate. Since the rings on their own were insufficient to withstand the force of a blow, a subarmalis, made up of multiple layers of linen and/or felt, was worn beneath the armor. It’s likely that these layers were padded, possibly with materials like sheepskin.
Additionally, an extra layer of chainmail was frequently added over the harness, specifically on the shoulder area, to better absorb impacts. Overall, it wasn’t great at absorbing blows from heavy objects or blocking the arrows, but it was durable, adaptable, and would last for decades when not neglected. In later periods of the empire, Germans and Persians also used the lorica hamata. This armor was further used in medieval Europe and Byzantium.
Features of the Lorica Hamata
Around 35,000–40,000 rings made up the lorica hamata and the rings could hardly rust due to the constant friction between them. The average lorica hamata weighed anywhere between 20 and 28 lb (9–13 kg). The armor was made of bronze and iron, with rings in a diameter of 0.2–0.3 inches (5–9 mm) and 0.04–0.08 inches (1–2 mm) in thickness.
The Romans modeled the lorica hamata’s fastening system after that of Greek “linen armor,” such as the gambeson and linothorax. This happened around the time when the Romans conquered Greece and the Levant in the 1st century BC.
They simply upgraded their lorica hamatas with U-shaped neckline armor that went around the chest, shoulders, and upper back. The uniform side of the U was fastened in the upper back, while its split arms crossed over the shoulders and fastened at their tips on the chest (sometimes with a fibula or brooch).
However, the shoulder pads frequently did not stay in place because the undergarments worn beneath this chain mesh for added comfort were more unstable than the Greeks’ linen. When this armor slid down the arms, the shoulders became exposed. It often continued to slide down the torso in the heat of a battle and blocked the arms at the end.
Thus, extra side clips have been added to the lorica hamata to secure these shoulder pads in place. A piece of cloth or leather was also used to reinforce the neckline. This reinforcement doubled the underside of the neckline and folded over the top by 0.80 or 1.20 inches (2 or 3 cm). A seam held together the fold of the lining, the mail fabric, and the lining itself.
Derivatives
The Warrior of Vachères with lorica plumata. (Image: Daniele Giannotti, Flickr)
Evidence suggests the existence of derivatives of lorica hamata. Among them, most people are familiar with the lorica plumata. One example of this armor can be seen in the statue of a Roman Gaul soldier with a large oval parma shield and Celtic torc necklace.
The Gallo-Roman statue of an ancient soldier is known as the Warrior of Vachères, and it dates from the late 1st century BC to the early 1st century AD (the reign of Augustus). He is wearing chainmail, which is believed to be the lorica plumata. Gauls were the fierce enemies of Rome, even giving birth to the Murmillo gladiators.
Evolution
The development of a more secure way for fastening the lorica hamata. (File, CC BY-SA 3.0)
The development of a more secure way for fastening the lorica hamata went as follows:
- (1) An “open” neckline is seen in the first image. You slip it on top, then fold down the shoulder pads and secure them.
- Later designs are shown in the next two images where new attachments for the shoulder pads are seen (2). The two shoulder pads are secured with a leather strap. (3) A rivet in the middle of the chest keeps this strap in place.
The next three images depict the additional development over time.
- (4) Lower on the chest are the rivets for the retention strap.
- (5) Instead of using straps to fasten the neckline, now rivets are used.
- (6) The strap is finally replaced with a metal attachment. This piece is partially riveted to the chest. There is now a hook at the end of each shoulder arm. The hook for the arm is attached to a button.
Replacement of the Lorica Hamata
Lorica hamata remained almost unchanged in this form until the 5th century AD. It lost popularity in the 5th century and was supplanted by simpler and, most importantly, cheaper ring armor (unlike mail armor, the rings were not connected).
The ancient Roman blacksmiths increased the lorica hamata’s length under Julius Caesar. This armor started just above the hips, grew to nearly the knees, and then returned to its original size again.
The length of the sleeves also varied in size. The first versions did not have sleeves. But later, a few inches of short sleeves were introduced. After that point, sleeve lengths changed based on local trends and cultural preferences. For instance, the Roman legionaries in Syria started wearing lorica hamatas with long sleeves.
Roman cavalryman. (Illustrated by Adam Hook, Internet Archive)
The practice of securing shoulder pads with metal attachments expanded widely by the late 1st century AD. The padding on the shoulder blades also seems to be missing. Around this period, some horse riders started using lorica segmentata shoulder pads instead of the traditional Greek neckline.
Nonetheless, the lorica hamata has been 1/4-type chainmail armor throughout its history (where 1 ring connects to 4 others).
Attachments to the Lorica Hamata
Centurion wearing a subarmalis or thoracomachus under the lorica hamata. A Roman centurion in Pompey’s time. (Photo by Medium69, CC BY-SA 3.0)
The lorica hamata attachments used by the legionnaires varied according to personal preference and the level of threat they faced.
Light tunics worn over chainmail were documented throughout the Roman Near East; thus, it’s safe to assume that surcoats were also used in these regions. While heavy tunics were occasionally worn in the winter, it is known that sutcoats were used in northern Gaul and on the Germanic borders.
Some mesh sleeves could be either permanently attached or easily removed which protected both the arms and legs. It was not uncommon to see the Greek greaves worn alongside the lorica hamata.
Focale scarf.
There are bas-reliefs depicting the use of metal plates to secure the front of the neckline. Also, a scarf (focale) was almost always worn with any Roman armor, including the lorica hamata. It was to protect the neck from the chafing of the armor. This was necessary since Roman armor usually had wide neck openings, which posed significant risks of injury.
Under the lorica hamata was a gambeson called the subarmalis or thoracomachus, which had been worn since Augustus’ time (r. 27 BC–14 AD). Optios and decurions (Roman cavalry officer) wore this gambeson as a mark of status, elaborately ornamented.
Manufacturing
The iron wire used to make the lorica hamata’s rings. This iron wire has been made by driving an iron ingot through a die with holes of progressively smaller sizes. This production method has been the case since at least the 8th century AD.
The metal rings of the lorica hamata chainmail Roman armor, a replica of the 2nd century species.
However, forging an ingot through a die with a single puncture directly generated the finished iron wire in Roman times. Using a single die was significantly more finicky since the wire would break as it was moved around. The iron wire was difficult and cost more coins than cheaper ring armor.
After Julius Caesar’s death, there was a power struggle between Mark Antony and Augustus, which led to the development of a new type of Roman armor called lorica segmentata. This new armor provides clues regarding the production time of the lorica hamata. According to historical accounts, a lorica segmentata required around 70 hours to produce with ready-use iron. This gives us roughly three times as much production time for lorica hamata since it is made of complex wire.
The most commonly used type of lorica hamata was the traditional 4:1 riveted variety. The spinnerets or spinning mills were a thing at the time, but the rings were often flattened and riveted, since this is what we learn from both historical sources and relics. Some of the examples, however, seem to be constructed of “open” ring armor (where rings are not connected).
Some lorica hamatas with 4:1 mesh were also made with a welded ring. In this variant, the 4 rings held together by the central ring were not riveted but welded. Only the central ring was riveted. This probably lowered the cost.
Decoration
The Roman legionaries had their armor and weapons adorned with elaborate designs. Even though this trend peaked with parade weapons, it also included battle equipment.
One or more rows of bronze rings have been seen lining the bottom of the lorica hamata on the remains of some pieces recovered in rivers around the world. This embellishment is reminiscent of what was seen on Indian parade chainmail from the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
The fibulas (brooch) were used to seal several lorica hamata on the chest, as was mentioned above. This fibula had two arms that met in S form. The entire structure had the shape of a U or twisted lyre, with two arms joined at their bases by an axis. It was common practice to adorn this flat surface. The whole fibula could be chiseled and gilded, and this was the status of rank among Roman legionaries.
The complexity and quantity of a person’s armaments in the Roman army served as one indicator of their wealth and status.
References
Featured image: Photo by Frila, This file is licensed under the Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.
Chainmail armor repair. Gallery images: Roland zh, CC BY-SA 3.0
August 18, 2023
Pauldron: History of a Crucial Plate Armor
The pauldron was an integral aspect of plate armor. It was a kind of shoulder and upper arm protection for soldiers. Protecting the wearer’s chest and head, pauldrons remained an integral part of plate armor throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It was developed in the 15th century to replace the smaller spaulders.
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Because unlike pauldrons, the armpit was exposed while wearing spaulders. A limited number of pauldrons extended to encompass not only the armpit but the upper back and chest as well.
History of Pauldron
Shoulder Armor in the 13th Century
Attempts to better protect the shoulder region of the knights led to the invention of the first shoulder armor around 1275. Ailettes were the first armor specially created for this.
They were fastened to the breastplate with leather straps and intended to cover the shoulder and neck, although they were not especially sturdy and frequently slipped in combat.
By the end of the 1300s, shoulders were covered with scales or transversely joined laminar plates to enhance the ailettes. One example of the latter is called lorica segmentata (derived from lorica hamata) which was popular among Roman legionaries.
Used first around 1270, this design was already pretty similar to the spaulder. However, even this evolution was inadequate, since the bottom of the arm still remained exposed when the arm was lifted to attack.
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Pauldron in the 15th Century
From the 15th century forward, the front and back of shoulder armor were widened to better shield the wearer’s armpits. Thus, the first pauldron was designed. These widened extensions were known as the rear and front wings.
The first pauldrons were made of a single piece of plate. But they quickly gave way to more flexible versions that provided better freedom of movement. The front wing that led to the chest was the most crucial element of a pauldron. It was common practice to experiment with a variety of widths and lengths for the front wings.
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A magnificent plate armor of the German Pienzenau family with a pauldron and a round rondel, c. 1550, from a tomb in Lower Bavaria.
Since the lance was carried in the armpit region with the right arm, the wings on the right arm were often thinner, shorter, and cut concavely.
This was because a large pauldron would have hindered the movement of the weapon arm. On the other hand, they were substantially longer and broader on the left arm since this side was shielded and not used for carrying weapons.
Another part of the pauldron was the rondel and besagew. They were specifically developed for the pauldron to protect the armpit (rondel) and steady the jousting lance (besagew). They could be moved around to cover the gap between the armpit and breastplate. They also came in various shapes and sizes.
The rondels started out square and lobbed, but were later shaped into disks. They stayed as part of pauldrons until the late 16th century. When lances fell out of favor about 1580, their absence led to a gradual enlargement of the front wings at the locations that had been shrunk to accommodate the lances.
When the aventail was no longer worn, the back wings of a pauldron enlarged to absurd proportions. On Italian armor, they became so big that they overlapped at the rear to reinforce the rather weak back portion of the armor. The Italian armor also included a small and narrow frontal wing.
Pauldron and gauntlet of Manfredi of Faenza, c. 1580. Victoria and Albert Museum, CC BY 4.0.
The research suggests that this was because Italians disliked movement restrictions brought on by their preferred fencing technique.
For instance, the Italian lansquenets, who are known to wield large swords like spadone, did not wear pauldrons. They rather placed a protective attachment on the gorget (a steel or leather collar around the throat), which protected the armpits, shoulders, and upper half of the arm.
There was a clear distinction between noble and mercenary armor during this period. While mercenaries favored the above design, nobles persisted in perfecting their pauldrons.
Once tournaments rolled around, the pike and the lance were once again a menace to the knights. Their shoulder armor could be destroyed or badly damaged with a single blow from the long sword or a war hammer.
The solution was to start attaching vertical armor to the edges of the wings. They came in lower and higher forms, and some of them extended over the shoulder. They deflected spearpoints and other projectiles from attacks.
Pauldron in the 16th Century
The pauldrons with vertical wings gradually faded away again by the middle of the 16th century. The forewings were now mostly above the shoulder. In most cases, the pauldrons were fastened to the gorget; in others, they were secured to the iron shoulder straps or the pauldron straps.
In the 16th century, additional shoulder pieces were employed to significantly reinforce them for jousting armor. By screwing on an additional second pauldron, they were greatly strengthened. And they protected not just the shoulder but also the left side of the helmet, the face, and part of the chest. The right shoulder was once again smaller to make room for the lance.
The elbow caps on the left arm were expanded significantly, and sometimes even a second cap was put on, known as a double cap. The left side of the plate armor, including the left pauldron, was fortified more often than the right since that’s where the opposing lance tended to strike.
The existing caps were expanded by broadening their top edge since they were fairly small to begin with. Some of these caps were so large that they went over the top portion of the arm. Armor destined for jousting tournaments often included these extraordinary reinforcements.
August 5, 2023
Mongolian Armor: What Did the Mongols Wear?
July 29, 2023
Vambrace: A European Armor of Asian Origin
A vambrace was a personal protective gear of the Middle Ages, part of an armor that protected the hands from the wrists to the elbows. The most basic, first vambraces belonged to the splint armor. Just like the armor, it had metal plates fixed to a leather or cloth foundation. The earliest vambrace was discovered in a Scythian (a proto-Turkic tribe) grave from the 4th century BC.
Construction
A 19th-century depiction of an Eastern European vambrace by Viskovatov A.V. (1801–1892).
Vambraces (or “forearm guards”) were made of leather, iron, and copper, similar to the other protective medieval gears like the breastplate, elbow guard, bracer, gauntlet, and poleyn (knee guard).
The full-metal vambraces, said to have originated in West Asia, eventually superseded the splint armor variant. The tubular vambraces were the most advanced of all.
The elbow (upper) and forearm (lower) plates of such a version were quite curved. These two plates could be fastened together using straps and buckles.
An aventail, vambrace, and poleyn by Viskovatov A.V. (1801–1892)
Vambrace vs. Bracer
- The word “vambrace” (also known as “lower cannons”) is used to refer to the complete “sleeve armor” whereas the portion of the armor that extends from the wrist to the elbow is referred to as just “bracer“.
History of the Vambraces
Central Asia and India
A decoration on a shield found in the remains of a small castle on Mount Mugh indicates that tubular vambraces were in use in Iran as early as the 8th century. During this time, there were battles between Turks, Chinese, Sogdians, Arabs, Khwarezmians, and Persians for control of this area.
Only during the first half of the 15th century did vambraces with familiar styles emerge. They quickly gained popularity, first in the Indian and other Islamic armies. The plates that made up these vambraces could be secured by straps and chainmail or they could be hinged.
- See Also: Lorica Hamata: The Roman Chainmail Used For 600 Years,
By the 16th century, some vambraces included two or three plates that rested on the arm instead of only one. Occasionally, specimens from these areas began to have distinctive traits. Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghuri’s vambraces from the 15th century appeared to be made up of two pieces of chainmail and cloth.
In 1711, Indians used vambraces consisting of iron and bronze plates with an inner plate to distribute pressure more evenly throughout the rings of chainmail. More elaborate variations, which covered the dorsal side of the hand as well as the fingers, began to vanish around the 15th century for some reason.
Western Europe
Vambrace for left arm, c. 1380–1400, steel, copper alloy.
Artifacts from the Vendel Period (540–790 AD) in Swedish history have been discovered that are consistent with European strap-type vambraces.
They found usage in Kievan Rus’ as well. Probably sewed with an overlap onto a cloth base, these vambraces had a succession of long, thin, somewhat curved iron plates measuring about 12 by 0.4 inches (30 by 1 cm).
Vambraces first appeared in Europe due to an influx of ideas from the East. Arm protection plates initially emerged in the early 1200s, followed by tubular vambraces in the 1250s and 1260s, and finally hinged vambraces in the first part of the 1300s. The findings from Bornholm in Denmark are the oldest (14th-century) examples of this style to be discovered.
The use of plate armor to protect the limbs began in Europe as a result of the refinement of vambraces and greaves. The first vambraces in Europe were developed to fill the gap between the elbow guard and the plate glove, or gauntlet.
Eastern Europe
Articulated tubular vambraces with hinges were utilized as a distinct piece of armor in Eastern Europe, just as they were in West Asia. Their basic construction was similar to that of medieval Rus’ vambraces called “bazubands.”
Sometimes they were used together with a lining or chainmail gauntlets. Noblemen typically paired a mirror with their vambraces since they were a symbol of wealth and social status at the time. Their vambraces were embellished with engravings, silver, gold, and valuable stones.
They were also occasionally made out of Damascus steel. The mounted troops of Muscovite Rus’ often wore them, and with a cuirass, they were standard issue for Polish cavalrymen.
This set (cuirass and vambrace) first arrived in other European nations in the 17th century, thanks to Poland’s cultural impact. The vambrace’s extended upper half would sometimes reach beyond the wearer’s elbow for extra protection.
Russia
A 17th-century Russian infantryman with bardiche, vambrace, chainmail armor, and a saber or shashka. (Image)
Influenced by the Turkic nations to the east, the Rus’ began using and making tubular vambraces with hinges about the year 1200. Vambraces from the Sahnovka village in the Middle Dnieper area and the Gomel area are among the archaeological artifacts that have been linked to the Mongol invasions of Kievan Rus’.
The only real difference between these and subsequent vambraces was that the latter were not curved as much. They were adorned with gold and valuable stones and were crafted from steel, red bulat steel, and iron.
China and Mongolia
Vambraces were also part of late Chinese and Mongolian defensive arsenals, also known as khuiag or kuyak. Two curved metal plates and a metal elbow guard were sewed onto cloth to form this plate armor. There were either buttons or buckles to secure them.
Japan
The kote (籠手, armored sleeve) vambrace, originally designed for the left hand, was first introduced in Japan in the 1200s. It was a thick fabric sleeve with connected plates that covered the back of the hand, the forearm, and the outside portion of the arm from the elbow to the wrist. The practice of covering both arms with vambraces in Japan dates back to the 13th century. Later kotes used chainmail for further protection at the elbow.
References
Featured image: Fedor Grigoryevich Solntsev (1801–1892), Antiquities of the Russian State.
Russian infantryman artwork: Russland, Polen und Livland bis ins 17. Jahrhundert : Schiemann, Theodor, 1847-1921 – Internet Archive
Vambraces from the Sahnovka village: TRUE HISTORY SHOP
July 27, 2023