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Tag: nero

  • The Complete List of the Emperors of the Roman Empire

    The Complete List of the Emperors of the Roman Empire

    The Roman Empire, or Imperium Romanum in Latin, refers to the political and military entity that existed on ancient Roman territory from 27 BC to 476 AD. Wars, power struggles, and acts of treachery shaped the history of the Roman Empire and were inextricably related to the list of Roman emperors. There were a number of Roman emperors that came one after the other, and some of them left more of an imprint on history than others throughout this time.

    JULIO-CLAUDIAN DYNASTY

    Augustus: The First Roman Emperor

    • Julio-Claudian Dynasty
    • Grand-nephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar
    • Reign: 27 to 14 BC

    Augustus, formerly known as Octavian, was born in Rome in 63 BC and became the first emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty because of his thirst for revenge over Caesar’s assassination (he was the grand-nephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar). In order to achieve this, Augustus created the Second Triumvirate with Mark Antony and Lepidus. The Principate of Augustus was soon founded when Augustus turned against his erstwhile friends (during the Battle of Actium). On January 16, 27 BC, he was proclaimed Emperor and served in that capacity until 14 AD.

    Tiberius: The Emperor Exiled to Capri

    • Julio-Claudian Dynasty
    • Son-in-law and adopted son of Augustus
    • Reign: 14 to 37 AD

    Tiberius, the adopted son and son-in-law of Augustus, ascended the throne of the Roman Empire in 14 AD and ruled until his death in 37 AD. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Tiberius made a name for himself in the military field. For most of the decade Tiberius was in charge of crucial campaigns, mostly in Germania. His reign was interspersed with political and economic changes. Upon the death of his son Drusus II, Tiberius voluntarily went into exile on Capri Island. On this island he dismissed and later killed a governor who had previously tried to overthrow him.

    Caligula: A Tyrannical Emperor

    • Julio-Claudian Dynasty
    • Great grandson of Augustus and son of Germanicus
    • Reign: 37 to 41 AD

    The Roman emperor Caligula was the son of Germanicus and a great-grandson of Augustus. He was the third ruler of the Roman Empire and a member of the powerful Julio-Claudian family. Caligula ruled Rome and its empire from 37 to 41. His reputation as a cruel ruler was cemented over those four years. Throughout his reign, Caligula would not hesitate to have his closest associates murdered, and he had a deep-seated animosity against the Senate. Caligula was killed at Rome in 41 by a gang of praetorians, who believed he was either ill or mad.

    Claudius: Who Became Emperor by Chance

    • Julio-Claudian Dynasty
    • Nephew of Tiberius and uncle of Caligula
    • Reign: 41 to 54 AD

    Claudius was the only person who could have been emperor after Caligula. He took power at 41 and stayed in charge until 54. He was the first emperor to be born somewhere other than Italy, but he was also part of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Claudius was Tiberius’ nephew and Caligula’s uncle. Claudius was able to get some political projects done (like expanding the Empire and taking over Brittany), but it was harder for him to find love. Before he died in 54, he had his third wife, Messalina, killed. His death was blamed on his fourth wife, Agrippina the Younger, who then put her son, Nero, on the throne.

    Nero: An Emperor Turned Despot

    • Julio-Claudian Dynasty
    • Grand-nephew and adopted son of Claudius
    • Reign: 54 to 68 AD

    As the final member of the Julio-Claudian line to claim the title of Roman emperor, Nero became a totalitarian ruler. Claudius adopted him as a son, making him his grandnephew. During his reign from 54 to 68 AD, numerous significant events occurred, including the murder of his mother Agrippina (and the suspicion of the assassination of his brother Britannicus), persecutions of Christians, and the rebuilding of the Domus Aurea after the destruction of Rome in 64 AD. Poppaea Sabina’s husband of ten years, Nero, killed himself in 68 AD after being removed from power.

    What Happened in the Year of the Four Emperors

    • Four emperors: Galba, Othon, Vitellius, Vespasian
    • Year 68 AD

    Following Nero’s death in 68 CE, four new emperors ruled the Roman Empire that year (hence the name, “Year of the Four Emperors“). Successors Galba, Otto, and Vitellius ruled the Roman Empire in turn until Vespasian arrived to put an end to the civil wars. War and conflict among the many armies do occur during the Year of the Four Emperors.

    FLAVIAN DYNASTY

    Vespasian: A Reforming Emperor

    • Flavian Dynasty
    • Originated from the plebs
    • Reign: 69 to 79 AD

    In 69, Vespasian restored order to the Roman Empire and became the first Emperor of the Flavian Dynasty. Originally from the plebs, Vespasian enjoyed the image of a reforming emperor, with a whole series of fiscal and legislative reforms undertaken. We owe him, among other things, the introduction of a tax on urine, Pecunia non olet. Vespasian was also responsible for the construction of the Colosseum, which was completed in 80 during the reign of his son Titus. Vespasian died in 79, having been ill for a decade.

    Titus: The Emperor Who Conquered Jerusalem

    • Flavian Dynasty
    • Son of Vespasian
    • Reign: 79 to 81 AD

    Titus, the son of Vespasian and a member of the Flavian dynasty, succeeded to the throne following his father’s death in 79. Titus, unlike his father, reigned as Roman Emperor for just two years. In the span of two years, the Romans conquered Jerusalem and massacred the Jews (Titus, on the other hand, had plans for the Jewish Princess Berenice) and Mount Vesuvius erupted, destroying the city of Pompeii. We don’t know what killed Titus in 81, although it was either disease or poison.

    Domitian: The Last of the Flavians

    • Flavian Dynasty
    • Son of Vespasian
    • Reign: 81 to 96 AD

    Brother of the emperor Titus, Domitian was the last ruler of the Roman Empire from the Flavian dynasty. Domitian, like his father Vespasian, extended the average length of a Roman emperor’s rule to over 10 years (from 81 to 96 AD). Domitian was typically seen as a dictator who did not hesitate to remove the opponents of the state from Rome, while being at the origin of many political choices (the growth of the Roman economy, the wars of Agricola, etc.).

    NERVA–ANTONINE DYNASTY

    Nerva: An Advisor Who Became Emperor

    • Dynasty of the Antonine
    • Advisor to Nero and Flavian
    • Reign: 96 to 98 AD

    Nerva, who had served as Nero’s adviser and later that of the other members of the Flavian dynasty, ascended to the throne in 96 and ruled until 98. He established his own dynasty, the Antonine. In the face of financial woes and a lack of support from the Roman military, Nerva was soon pressured into naming a successor. Following his adoption of Trajan, he died a few months later of natural causes. Historians emphasize Nerva’s ability to facilitate a peaceful transfer of power.

    Trajan: The Best of the Roman Emperors

    • Antonine Dynasty
    • Adopted son of Nerva
    • Reign: 98 to 117 AD

    The Roman historian Tacitus called Trajan “the greatest of the Roman emperors” since his name was synonymous with the empire’s greatest victories and its greatest growth. Trajan was a member of the Antonine dynasty and Nerva’s adoptive son. During his reign from 98 to 117, Trajan fought many battles against the Dacians in Armenia and Mesopotamia with the help of the Roman Army. With the money he amassed in these campaigns, he helped build several structures, including Trajan’s Forum, home to the world-famous Trajan column.

    Hadrian: A Scholarly Emperor

    • Antonine Dynasty
    • Adopted son of Trajan
    • Reign: 117 to 138 AD

    The Roman emperor Hadrian, a member of the Antonine dynasty and the adoptive son of Trajan, ruled from AD 117 to 138. The philosophical and literary Hadrian ended the imperial expansion strategy of his predecessor, Trajan. He was remembered as a peaceful ruler who oversaw the construction of several structures, including the wall that bears his name (Hadrian’s Wall). Hadrian faced the Jewish uprising known as the Bar Kokhba revolt during his reign.

    Antoninus Pius: An Emperor of Consolidation

    • Antonine Dynasty
    • Adopted son of Hadrian
    • Reign: 138 to 161 AD

    Antoninus Pius, the adoptive son of Hadrian, served as a magistrate for a very long time. He held the offices of quaestor, praetor, consul, and proconsul of Asia before he was finally elevated to the throne as Emperor. The second-longest reigning Roman emperor after Augustus, he took pride in his Nîmes heritage (Antoninus Pius reigned from 138 until his death in 161). Antoninus Pius, a member of the Antonine dynasty, like his predecessor, left a mark of his passing by having a wall built in his honor (The Antonine Wall).

    Marcus Aurelius: Philosopher Emperor

    • Antonine Dynasty
    • Son-in-law and adopted son of Antoninus
    • Reign: 161 to 180 AD

    The concept of a philosopher emperor is often used when referring to Marcus Aurelius, the final emperor of the Pax Romana. The founder of Stoicism and author of “Meditations,” Marcus Aurelius, was faced with the horrors of battle. Along with being Antoninus’ son-in-law, Aurelius was also Antoninus’ adoptive son. Wars with the Parthian Empire and the Marcomannic Wars occurred during his reign (161–180). Emperor Aurelius, a member of the Antonine dynasty, made the unprecedented choice not to adopt an heir before his death in 180.

    Lucius Verus: Co-emperor

    • Antonine Dynasty
    • Adopted son of Antoninus and son-in-law of Marcus Aurelius
    • Reign: 161 to 169 AD

    It was possible for the Roman Empire to have two emperors at once at various points throughout its history. This occurred between the years 161 and 169, when Lucius Aurelius Verus (whose father was also named Lucius Aelius) served as co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius. Lucius Verus, a major player in the Parthian conflict, fought the Germanic Marcomanni on the Danube River a few months before his own demise. As the adoptive son of Antoninus and the son-in-law of Marcus Aurelius, Verus was also a member of the Antonine dynasty.

    Commodus: A Bloodthirsty Emperor

    • Antonine Dynasty
    • Son of Marcus Aurelius
    • Reign: 180 to 192 AD

    Commodus (born Lucius Aurelius Commodus) was a brutal, dictatorial, and bloodthirsty Roman Emperor. He was the son of Marcus Aurelius and a member of the Antonine dynasty. Avidius Cassius prevented him from becoming dictator. In “Gladiator,” Commodus was the target of many assassination attempts after he was falsely accused of killing his own father. After Lucilla’s scheme was foiled, it was Commodus’ slave, Narcissus, who killed the emperor in the context of a new conspiracy.

    Year of the Five Emperors

    • Five emperors: Pertinax, Didius Julianus, Pescennius Niger, Clodius Albinus, and Septimius Severus
    • Year 193 AD

    Soon after Commodus’ death, the Roman Empire entered a fresh era of turmoil known as the Year of the Five Emperors. Pertinax was deposed shortly after being proclaimed emperor on January 1, 193, and his position was taken by Didius Julianus. He was removed from his position as emperor due to widespread disapproval among Roman citizens, the Senate, and the Army. Septimius Severus, Pescennius Niger, and Clodius Albinus were imposed by the Roman troops into a civil war. The victor, Severus, took the throne as the 21st Roman Emperor after defeating all other challengers.

    SEVERAN DYNASTY

    Septimius Severus: Founder of the Severan Dynasty

    • Severan Dynasty
    • Libyan origins, Rome’s first African Emperor
    • Reign: 193 to 211 AD

    After prevailing in the civil war that erupted during the Year of the Five Emperors, Septimius Severus established the Severan dynasty as a continuation of the Antonine and was declared Emperor by his troops (r. 193 to 211). Even though Severus set up a hereditary monarchy, the Libyan emperor nevertheless had to deal with succession disputes at the end of his life. Rome’s first African Emperor, Septimius Severus died in 211, perhaps from poisoning by his own son Caracalla, who replaced him alongside another son, Geta.

    Caracalla: A Military Tyrant

    • Severan Dynasty
    • Son of Septimius Severus
    • Reign: from 211 to 217 AD

    Beginning in the year 211, Caracalla, the younger brother of Geta and the son of Septimius Severus, ruled the Roman Empire with an iron fist. Caracalla, inspired by Alexander the Great, had his brother killed and then led an army against the Germans and the Parthians. His atrocities in Alexandria bolstered his reputation as a military despot. Caracalla, before his death in 217, made the decision to issue the Edict of Caracalla, which declared all free males in the Roman Empire to be citizens.

    Macrinus: Unpopular Usurper

    • Severan Dynasty
    • Native of Mauretania (Africa), overthrew Caracalla
    • Reign: from 217 to 218 AD

    After plotting Caracalla’s murder, Macrinus took over as Caracalla’s successor as prefect of the Praetorium. Macrinus, the first emperor to be from the equestrian aristocracy and a native of African Mauritania, was not a very successful ruler (217–218). After the monetary changes caused him to lose favor with the Roman soldiers, Macrinus attempted to leave the city of Antioch to join the Roman soldiers. He and his son co-emperor Diadumenian were both taken prisoner at the same time. Macrinus was put to death for trying to escape in the year 218.

    Elagabalus: The Child of Many Vices

    • The Severan Dynasty
    • Nephew of Caracalla
    • Reign: 218 to 222 AD

    Elagabalus (also known as Heliogabalus) was just 14 years old when he replaced Macrinus as ruler of the Severan in 218. He was the nephew of Caracalla. He gave some authority to his grandmother and mother, who influenced him. Elagabalus’ promotion of sun worship (hence the name Heliogabalus) and his role in the decision to transport the famed black stone of Emesa (a piece of meteorite) to Rome left an indelible mark on the empire’s history. He was killed by the mob and thrown into the Tiber River in the year 222 at the age of 18 years old.

    Severus Alexander: The Emperor Murdered by His Troops

    • Severan Dynasty
    • Cousin of Elagabalus
    • Reign: 222 to 225 AD

    Severus Alexander, Elagabalus’ cousin and the final emperor of the Severan dynasty, ruled over a dull empire from 222 to 225. He tried to return the black stone to Emesa in an effort to impress his mother, Julia Mamaea, and so win over the favor of certain Romans. He was not a military expert and therefore, despite his reforms helping the poor, he became unpopular. After just three years in power, Emperor Severus Alexander died. He was likely assassinated by his own troops, who had criticized his pacifism. It was with his death that the military chaos began.

    CRISIS OF THE THIRD CENTURY

    Which Emperors Succeeded During the Crisis of the Third Century?

    • The Crisis of the Third Century: from 235 to 268 AD.
    • Maximinus Thrax: declared by his soldiers, reigned from 235 to 238 AD.
    • Gordian I: appointed by his soldiers, reigned from March to April 238 AD.
    • Gordian II: son of Gordian I, from March to April 238 AD.
    • Pupienus and Balbinus: appointed by the Senate, reigned from April to July 238 AD.
    • Gordian III: nephew of Gordian II, reigned from 238 to 244 AD.
    • Philip the Arab: named by his soldiers, reigned from 244 to 249 AD.
    • Decius: named by his soldiers, reigned from 249 to 251 AD.
    • Trebonianus Gallus: appointed by his soldiers, reigned from 251 to 253 AD.
    • Valerian: appointed by his soldiers, reigned from 253 to 260 AD.
    • Gallienus: son of Valerian, from 253 to 268 AD.

    The death of Severus Alexander was often seen as the beginning of the Crisis of the Third Century (also known as the “Military Anarchy”) a period that lasted for 33 years. Between the years 235 and 268, a slew of Roman emperors came and went, with the military often intervening and attempting to seize power. The Army was responsible for the deaths of several emperors. Maximinus Thrax (reign of 235–238), Gordian I (reign of March to April 238), Philip the Arab (reign of 244–249), Decius (reign of 249–251), Valerian (reign of 253–260), or Gallienus (reign of 253–263) all ruled during this time, coinciding with the list of the Thirty Tyrants (reign of 253–268).

    The Illyrian Emperors Who Tried to Put an End to the Crisis of the Third Century

    • Illyrian emperors: from 268 to 285
    • Claudius II (Claudius Gothicus): named by Gallien, reigned from 268 to 270
    • Quintillus: Brother of Claudius II, reigned from August to October 270
    • Aurelian: declared by his soldiers, reigned from 270 to 275
    • Marcus Claudius Tacitus: appointed by the Senate, reigned from 275 to 276
    • Florianus: half-brother of Marcus Claudius Tacitus, reigned from June to September 276
    • Probus: appointed by his soldiers, reigned from 276 to 282
    • Carus: appointed by his soldiers, reigned from 282 to 283
    • Numerian: son of Carus and brother of Carinus, reigned from 283 to 284
    • Carinus: son of Carus and brother of Numerian, reigned from 284 to 285

    Between the years 268 and 285, many Illyrian emperors tried to put a stop to the Crisis of the Third Century. From Illyria, Claudius II the Goth (268–270), Quintillus (August–October 270), Aurelian (270–275), Probus (276–282), and even Carinus (284–285) all tried to resolve the problem of the late third century. Within a few months of taking control, the Roman military killed numerous civilians. But the dilemma of the Third Century was not resolved until Diocletian took power in 284.

    TETRARCHY

    Diocletian: The Founder of the Tetrarchy

    • Tetrarchy Period
    • Defeat of Carinus at the Battle of the Margus
    • Reign: 285 to 305

    Diocletian, who became Emperor in 284, oversaw the conclusion of the crises that plagued the early third century and inaugurated the First Tetrarchy (a mode of government that allowed the emperor to delegate the governance of the Empire to counter invasions). After defeating Carinus at the Battle of the Margus, Diocletian quickly instituted a new government based on shared authority. Diocletian issued the Edict of Maximum Prices in 301, one of the numerous fruitless efforts he made to stabilize the Roman currency. The Great Persecution and the persecution of Christians also occurred during this time.

    Maximian Herculius: The Fighting Emperor

    • Tetrarchy Period
    • Appointed by Diocletian
    • Reign: 285 to 305

    Maximian Herculius, who was the second emperor of the First Tetrarchy, was one of those emperors who led a lot of military campaigns. During his reign, which started in 285 AD, he worked to stop the Germanic invasion and get rid of the Bagaudae rebel threat in Gaul. Maximian Herculius, the father of Maxentius, put on a usurper’s costume the year after Diocletian asked him to step down in 305. He tried several times to obtain power again before being forced to commit suicide in 310.

    Galerius: The Guarantor of Diocletian’s Legacy

    • Tetrarchy Period
    • Appointed by Diocletian
    • Reign: 293 to 311 AD

    Galerius, who came from a military family, was a staunch supporter of the Tetrarchy and a direct successor to Diocletian. Beginning in 293, Galerius made use of the established protocol to rule as Roman Emperor in the East. Galerius swiftly surpassed Severus and Maximinus Daza as the most important figures in the Roman Empire. Sadly, he only had time to issue the Edict of Serdica before his death in 311. His passing marked the end of the Tetrarchy.

    Constantius Chlorus: The Father of Constantine I

    • Tetrarchy Period
    • Appointed by Diocletian
    • Reign: 293 to 306 AD

    On May 1, 305, Constantius Chlorus replaced Maximian Herculius as Emperor, becoming the second emperor to benefit from the Tetrarchy desired and established by Diocletian. Diocletian appointed him to his position. Before that, in the year 293, he was named Julius Caesar of the Western Empire and took part in the administration of the Roman state with the other tetrarchs. Constantius Chlorus, the father of Constantine I, died of natural causes in 306. He had helped rebuild the ancient city of Autun.

    Tetrarchs of Maximinus Daza, Severus and Maxentius

    • Tetrarchy Period
    • Maximinus Daza: nephew of Galerius, reigned from 305 to 313
    • Severus: general of Galerius, reigned from 305 to 307
    • Maxentius: son of Maximian Herculius, reigned from 306 to 312

    Different tetrarchs succeeded each other for brief periods of time throughout the Tetrarchy period of the Roman Empire. In addition to the aforementioned figures, others including Maximinus Daza, Licinius, Severus, and Maxentius helped protect the Roman Empire before Constantine I came to power. Maxentius, the son of Constantius Chlorus, eliminated the previous tetrarchs before beginning his own 31-year rule (by defeating Maxentius, for example, in 312 at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge).

    Licinius: The Rival of Constantine I

    • Tetrarchy Period
    • Close to Galerius
    • Reign: from 308 to 324 AD

    Co-emperor and personal friend of Galerius, Licinius was a powerful figure in the Tetrarchy. In 308, he was asked to oversee the eastern section of the Roman Empire. Licinius, a close friend of Constantine I, took part in a fratricidal battle between tetrarchs that resulted in the death of Maximinus Daza. He was also on Constantius I’s side when the Edict of Milan was issued in 313. After starting a civil war with a colleague, Constantine I eventually conquered and killed him at the Battle of Adrianople in 324.

    CONSTANTINIAN DYNASTY

    Constantine I: The First Christian Emperor

    • Constantinian Dynasty
    • Son of Constantius Chlorus
    • Reign: 306 to 337 AD

    In 306, Constantine I, son of Constantius Chlorus and a member of the Constantinian dynasty, was named Emperor. He was the final member of the Tetrarchy. He established the Constantinian dynasty after eliminating his rivals for the throne (at the battles of the Milvian Bridge and Andrinople). Through the Edict of Milan in 313, Constantine I ended the persecution of Christians throughout his rule, which lasted until 337. In order to unite the many Christian churches, he called for the First Council at Nicaea in 325, in the midst of his efforts to protect Christianity.

    Constantine II and Constans I: Unfortunate Heirs of Constantine

    • Constantinian Dynasty
    • Constantine II: son of Constantine I, reigned from 337 to 340
    • Constans I: son of Constantine I, reigned from 337 to 350

    After Constantine I’s unexpected death in 337, there was a precarious time of transition. Members of the Constantinian dynasty, including the emperor’s three sons, fought among themselves and killed family members. After the Empire was split in two, the first emperors to go to war with them were Constantine II (337–340) and Constantine I. In the year 340, the second one killed the first one. Magnentius, one of Constantine I’s generals, killed the emperor and thereafter usurped power after Constantine I’s death in 350.

    Constantius II: A Worthy Heir of Constantine

    • Constantinian Dynasty
    • Son of Constantine I
    • Reign: 337 to 361 AD

    After the deaths of his two brothers, Constantius II became the only successor to the throne of the Roman Empire and ruled from 337 to 361. His efforts to fortify the Christian Church were similar to those of his predecessor, Constantine I. To bring the bishops together, he called a council in 353 and held it at Arles. Constantius II picked his opponent Julian as his successor after fending off many usurpation attempts (by Magnentius, Nepotian, Sylvain, etc.) before he died of sickness in 361.

    Julian: The Emperor Who Wished to Restore Paganism

    • Constantinian Dynasty
    • Nephew of Constantine I
    • Reign: 361 to 363 AD

    Constantius II died in 361 and Julian the Apostate, also known as Julian, who served as Caesar from 355 to 361 was named emperor. The Constantinian emperor declared his intention to revive polytheism inside the Roman Empire in 361, despite having been raised as a Christian. The nephew of Constantine I supported paganism as well. In addition, we owe Julian the satirical essay on philosophers named Misopogon (or “Beard-Hater”), written in 363 just before the end of his rule.

    Jovian: A Christian General

    • Constantinian Dynasty
    • General of Julian
    • Reign: 363 to 364 AD

    Constantinian Jovian, who was relatively unknown when he ascended to the throne in 363, was crowned emperor and led the military war against the Sasanian while dressed as a commander. Jovian’s willingness to make peace with Emperor Shapur II was a defining characteristic of his new role. Jovian, a devout Christian and commander under Julian, used his time in power to issue an edict of tolerance similar to that of his predecessor. He died very abruptly in 364 at the young age of 33, only eight short months after becoming Emperor.

    VALENTINIANIC DYNASTY

    Valentinians: The Emperors With a Tragic Fate

    • Valentinianic Dynasty
    • Valentinian I: elected on the death of Jovian, reigned from 364 to 375 AD.
    • Valens: the younger brother of Valentinian I, reigned from 364 to 378 AD.
    • Gratian: eldest son of Valentinian I, reigned from 367 to 383 AD.
    • Valentinian II: the younger son of Valentinian I, reigned from 375 to 392 AD.

    The terrible Valentinianic era begins with Jovian’s demise. The Valentinianic dynasty saw four rulers rule between the years 364 and 392. He ruled from 364 until his death from a stroke in 375. His brother Valens co-ruled with him until his death in 378 at the Battle of Adrianople, and then Gratian governed from 367 until he was defeated and murdered in 383. After his father, Valentinian I, was assassinated while Valentinian II was just four years old, he ruled under the supervision of his mother until his own death by hanging in 392.

    THEODOSIAN DYNASTY

    Magnus Maximus: A Usurper Turned Emperor

    • Theodosian Dynasty
    • The cousin of Theodosius I
    • Reign: 384 to 388 AD

    Magnus Maximus, a cousin of Theodosius I and a member of the Theodosian family, usurped the Roman throne. In 383, as a usurper, he was victorious against Emperor Gratian at the Battle of Lutetia. He was a legendary king of Brittany who Theodosius I recognized as Eastern Emperor in 384 and held that title until 388. Maximus, Theodosius I, and Valentinian II were the three emperors of the Roman Empire during that time. Maximus faced Valentinian II to seize Rome in 387 but was defeated by the coalition of Theodosius I and Valentinian II .

    Theodosius I: The Last Emperor to Rule a Unified Roman Empire

    • Theodosian Dynasty.
    • Magnus Maximus’ cousin.
    • Reign: 379 to 395 AD.

    From 379 to 395, Theodosius I served as Roman Emperor under the name Augustus, which Gratian gave him. Additionally, he was a cousin of Magnus Maximus. It was during his reign that Christianity became the state religion, thanks to his involvement in the Edict of Thessalonica. He ended pagan practices and, in this case, forbade the ancient Olympic Games from being held. It was generally agreed that Theodosius I was the final emperor of the reunified Roman Empire before the Honorius brothers took power.

    After a long period of various Western Roman emperors, a barbarian from Germany named Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustus (reigned 475–476 AD), the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, and grabbed the throne of Italy, which marked the fall of the Western Roman Empire on September 4, 476 AD.

  • Nero: Biography of the Despotic Roman Emperor

    Nero: Biography of the Despotic Roman Emperor

    Nero (Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus)’s birth date is traditionally accepted to be December 15th, 37 AD, at Antium, while his death date is conventionally accepted to be June 9th, 68 AD, in Rome. Emperor Vespasian was the fifth and last ruler of the Roman Empire under the Julio-Claudian Dynasty. Nero seems like a complex figure since he has been called both a brutal ruler and a poet. Yet the Emperor’s capricious nature continues to captivate. The majority of what is known about Nero comes from biographies published 40 years after the events, such as those by Suetonius and Tacitus.

    Childhood Under Caligula

    The head of Emperor Nero. 64 AD. The statue is 7.9 feet (2.4) meters tall.
    The head of Emperor Nero. 64 AD. The statue is 7.9 feet (2.4 meters) tall.

    The true name of Nero is Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, and he was born to Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger, the sister of Caligula. Caligula assumed power on March 16, 37 AD, when he was 24 years old. In the event that Nero’s uncle did not produce a male successor, Nero might assume the throne. But when it came to their brother Caligula, Agrippina and her sisters were quite close. So, Caligula was greatly influenced by them.

    As a matter of fact, Nero was born to a prominent mother. Nero did not go with his mother when she was banished to the Pontine Islands because of her role in a plot against Caligula. In 40 AD, Nero’s father passed away. Caligula, his wife, and their daughter were all murdered in a plot that was hatched on January 24, 41 AD. So, the winds shifted in favor of Nero when Caligula’s successor, Claudius, called Agrippina back to Rome.

    Claudius Adopts Nero

    But Nero had little chance of succeeding Claudius as Emperor. The Emperor had two children: the heir apparent Octavia, born in 40 AD, and Britannicus, born in 41 AD. But the rules changed with Agrippina. Emperor Claudius’s wife Messalina was put to death in the year 48 AD on charges of conspiracy. On January 1, 49, Agrippina married Claudius, making her his fourth wife. She also planned Nero’s marriage to his half-sister Octavia, which took place later in 53 AD. Claudius then formally adopted Nero on February 25, 50 AD, changing his name to “Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus.” Lucius was now called Nero. He was the legitimate successor to the kingdom since he was older than his adopted brother. Even though Nero was just 14 years old when Claudius freed him in 51 AD, he still went on to make Nero proconsul, invite him into the Senate, depict him on the coins.

    Nero Becomes Emperor

    Claudius died of poisoning on October 13, 54 AD. In 54 AD, Nero’s reign as Emperor began when he was just 17 years old. From the start of his reign, he had the support of his mother, the scholar Seneca, and Sextus Afranius Burrus, prefect of the praetorium. He hoped to win over the common people and the military by offering bonuses. His personal life could be in tatters, but the Empire was in good hands. Nero was unhappy in his marriage and began keeping a former slave called Claudia Acte as his lover. However, Agrippina supported Octavia, while Seneca and Burrus backed the Emperor.

    Nero prevented his mother from further meddling in his life by removing herself from the picture. He also faced constant competition from Britannicus, his adopted brother and a trusted ally of the majority. Britannicus, however, passed away unexpectedly on or around February 12, 55 AD. Suetonius and other ancient authors suggested that Nero might have poisoned him. It seems more plausible, however, that Britannicus experienced an epileptic fit before his death, which led to the burst of an aneurysm.

    Nero lived a hedonistic life as Emperor and left state business to his counselors. In the year 59 AD, Nero had his mother, Agrippina, murdered, perhaps with the help of his beloved Poppaea. Despite Seneca’s best efforts, the Emperor’s reputation was damaged by this incident. From the year 62 AD on, further changes were done under Nero’s rule. Since Burrus had passed away, Nero needed a new advisor, and Seneca had already decided to step down.

    Nero chose Tigellinus, who, upon taking office, issued a slew of anti-treason statutes. In addition, Nero’s mistress fell pregnant, and he still didn’t have any heirs. Everything got to the point where Nero wanted to marry her and end things with Octavia, so he did just that. Nero started by making false accusations of adultery against Octavia. Unlike Nero, though, Octavia was held up as an example of virtue. In the end, the divorce was finalized with Octavia’s infertility as the reason. On June 9, 62, Octavia committed suicide by cutting her veins, sparking widespread unrest.

    Great Fire of Rome: Did Nero Burn Rome?

    Hubert Robert (1733–1808), The Fire of Rome (1785).
    Hubert Robert (1733–1808), The Fire of Rome (1785). Museum of modern art André Malraux. Wikimedia Commons.

    The Great Fire of Rome occurred on July 18, 64 AD, near the Circus Maximus. Nero had taken a holiday to Antium at the time. As soon as he heard about it, he hurried back. The story spread like wildfire that Nero played lyre and sang atop the Quirinal as the city burned. In actuality, some historians believe that Nero welcomed the destitute inside his palace and fed them to prevent a famine. People blamed Nero since he was the one who announced ambitions to reconstruct Rome swiftly in a magnificent manner.

    But Emperor Nero looked to the Christians as a new scapegoat for the populace. Starting in October, he launched a campaign of extraordinary persecution against them. Some he sent to the lions, while others he crucified and burned to death. The martyrdom of Sts. Peter and Paul is linked to these events in Christian mythology. But there’s no proof of it. Nero had a new palace constructed after the devastating fire, and it was much larger.

    Nero the Olympic champion

    Nero won the Olympic Games in 67 AD after spending around one million sesterces to bribe judges and organizers of the tournament. In the midst of his triumph, the Roman emperor makes the executive decision to provide tax exemptions to his Greek guests who are already residing inside Roman territory. Nero brought back 1,808 olive wreaths to Rome to celebrate every one of his “assumed” victories at the Olympics.

    The Death of Nero

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    Vasily Sergeyevich Smirnov (1858-1890), Nero’s Death (1888), oil on canvas, The Russian Museum.

    Another controversy involved Nero in the year 65 AD. Since it was seen shameful for an emperor to engage in public entertainment, his reputation suffered. Pisonian conspiracy, in which his old friend Seneca played a part, was the next scandal.

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    Roman statesman Gaius Calpurnius Piso intended to have Nero assassinated and Nero, in return, ordered Piso, the philosopher Seneca, Seneca’s nephew Lucan, and the satirist Petronius to commit suicide.

    Nero also ordered a heroic general, who was well respected, to commit suicide as well. But Nero asked for too much without even realizing it. The military leaders were now planning a revolution against the Emperor. The historians Suetonius and Tacitus report that Nero had kicked his pregnant wife Poppea in the stomach which killed her. Nero then made another marriage proposal to Claudia Antonia, but she turned it down.

    Consequently, Nero had her sentenced to death on the grounds that she was plotting against him. He wed his lover, Statilia Messalina, in May of 66 AD. Nero then spent a year traveling in Greece and treating himself to cultural performances while he was there. At the same time, in Rome, praetorian prefect Nymphidius Sabinus was trying to win over the support of the senators and the Praetorian Guard.

    Nero had noticed a shift in the atmosphere since his return to Rome. Then the uprisings began. It started with Vindex, the governor of Lyon Gaul. Then the legate of the Legio III Augusta legion in Africa, which had been supplying Rome with wheat, stopped doing so. Later, Nymphidius Sabinus took over the Praetorian Guard (Imperial Guard). Nero was finally expelled from office by the Senate, and as a result, he took his own life. On June 9, 68 AD, at the age of 30, Emperor Nero slit his throat at the rural home of his loyal freedman Phaon, bringing an end to the Julio-Claudian Dynasty.

    After Nero’s death, the Senate passed a resolution to damnatio memoriae Nero (condemnation of memory). Numerous civil wars and the change of imperial dynasties characterized the year 69 as the “Year of the Four Emperors.”

    Family Tree of Nero and His Titles

    Nero was the grandson of Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus and Antonia the Elder, daughter of Mark Antony and Octavia the Younger (the latter being the sister of Augustus and the grand-niece of Julius Caesar), adopted son of Claudius, son of Agrippa the Younger and also the great-great-grandson of former emperor Augustus (descended from his daughter Julia). From 53 to 62 AD, Nero was married to Claudia Octavia; from 62 to 65 AD, to Poppea, with whom he had a daughter who died shortly after birth; from 66 to 68 AD, to Statilia Messalina; and from 66 to 68 AD, to Sporus.

    In 37 AD, Nero was known as Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; in 50 AD, he was known as Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus; and in 66 AD, he was known as Emperor Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus.

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    Additionally, Nero held a number of magistracies and titles, including Pontifex maximus and Pater Patriae in 55 AD, consul in 55, 57, 58, 60, and 68 AD, and acclaimed Emperor in 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 66, and 67 AD. Nero also received the tribunician power (tribunicia potestas) in 54 AD, and had it renewed each year afterwards. His full title at the time of his death was “Emperor Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus Pontifex Maximus Tribunicia Potestate XIV, Emperor XII, Consul V, Pater Patriae.”

    Legacy of Nero

    Henryk Siemiradzki (1843–1902), Nero’s Torches (Christian Candlesticks)
    Henryk Siemiradzki (1843–1902), Nero’s Torches (Christian Candlesticks) (1876). National Museum in Krakow. Wikimedia Commons.

    The Emperor Nero is often seen in contemporary work. Henryk Sienkiewicz’s book “Quo Vadis?” which won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1905, is one such work; so, too, are Hubert Monteilhet’s “Neropolis.”

    Several movies were born from Henryk Sienkiewicz’s work, including a 1951 film directed by Mervyn Leroy and starring Peter Ustinov as Nero. Brigitte Bardot plays Poppea in the 1956 film “Nero’s Weekend,” directed by Stefano Steno. Nero has appeared on stage (in Jean Racine’s “Britannicus”), in comics, and in video games.

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    Operas including Claudio Monteverdi’s “L’incoronazione di Poppea” (1642), Anton Rubinstein’s “Nero” (1879), Arrigo Boito’s “Nerone” (1924), and Pietro Mascagni’s “Nero” (1935) were all inspired by him. Nero has even lent his name to a software for burning discs called “Nero Burning ROM.”

    Key Dates for Nero

    • 15 December 37: Birth of Nero

    Agrippina the Younger, Caligula’s sister, gave birth to Nero. That made him the Emperor’s nephew. Initially, he had no right to the throne. His mother, however, was well-known and influential, and she plotted for her son to one day become Emperor.

    • 25 February 50: Claudius adopted Nero

    Nero’s mother, Agrippina the Younger, was ultimately able to wed Emperor Claudius. Therefore, she also arranged for the Emperor to adopt him. Due to his seniority, Nero was anointed Emperor rather than Claudius’s younger son Britannicus.

    • 13 October 54: Nero becomes Emperor

    Nero became Emperor after the death of Claudius. Through the use of his authority, he had his mother murdered despite her role as an adviser at the start of his reign and he was later accused of killing his half-brother Britannicus, his chief contender for the throne. His rule was marked by brutality, an appreciation for the arts and a penchant for hedonism; he left official business in the hands of his entourage while he and his wife indulged in their passions. All of this would ultimately lead to his downfall and the end of his reign as Emperor.

    • July 19, 64: Rome ravaged by a fire

    The whole city of Rome was destroyed by a massive fire that started in the middle of the night near the “Circus Maximus.” It took six days to put out the fire because of its size. Having spent some time in the countryside, Emperor Nero hastened his return to the imperial city. He had a new palace constructed after the devastating blaze, and it was much larger. The commoners blamed him for starting the fire so that Rome could be rebuilt to his desires. The despotic ruler immediately pointed the finger at the Christian minority. Starting in October, he launched a campaign of extraordinary persecution against them.

    • 9 June 68: Death of Nero

    The reign of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty ended with Nero’s death. The Senate passed a resolution to “damnatio memoriae” him (condemnation of memory) when he passed away. Numerous civil wars and the changing of imperial dynasties characterized the year 69. It’s later called “The Year of the Four Emperors.”