The Germanic barbarians of the Roman era created and popularized a new sort of spear known as the boar spear. The boar spear has a diamond-shaped metal tip mounted on a short, heavy shaft with lugs (sometimes called “wings”) at the gorge to prevent the boar from charging the hunter while s/he is impaling the animal. Its basic design is similar to that of the winged lance, a medieval weapon popular at the time, as well as the Bohemian earspoon of the 14th century.
Boar Spear
Type of weapon:
Polearm
Other names:
Saufeder in German
Origin:
Germanic barbarians
Utilization
Hunting and infantry
Total length:
90 inches (2.3 m)
Weight:
4 lb (1.8 kg)
The wings on the boar spear also made it useful in battle, as they could be snagged on an opponent’s shield and torn off, or they could be forced forward to deflect an oncoming spear. In the 16th century, the boar spear was a prestige symbol for the leaders of the foot army as well as a weapon of combat.
Boar spears can sometimes be confused with bear spears or rogatinas.
During the High Middle Ages (1000–1300), these edged weapons were still in use, although they eventually died out due to the popularity of the jousting lance. A version with a longer tip was employed for combat in Italy in the 15th century.
Boar spear, French, dated 1576.
Some modern-day boar hunters still use hounds and boar spears, much like their medieval ancestors. A mature wild boar has impressive strength. When it protects itself, it poses a major threat because of the severity of the damage it can inflict.
The Origins of the Boar Spear
In the civilizations of the Indo-Europeans, hunting wild boars has always played a significant role, frequently serving as a test of bravery and manliness as well as a means of providing for basic survival needs. Initiation into maturity was marked by the first wild boar hunt among the ancient Romans.
Similarly, in the amphitheaters of minor rural villages remote from the big gladiatorial circuit in Rome and Capua, the slaughter of wild pigs was a highly admired sight. The boar spear was born as a new cold weapon out of this need.
Although the Latin-Italic peoples did not invent the boar spear used for hunting wild boar, its origins can be traced back to the period of the Roman Empire.
The Germanic barbarians invented the wild boar spear because their civilization centered on hunting and wild animals (such as boars, bears, and wolves) had an essential symbolic role in their society.
After the wild boar had been captured and debilitated by the hounds, it was killed using the boar spear (“saufeder” in German). It was a big and heavy weapon fitted with lug wings to keep the beast at a safe distance from the hunter.
History of the Boar Spear
The Germans, for their part, resorted to using the boar spear in combat as well. The weapon’s durability ensured that it could easily break through hostile shields and armor. The “wings” on the spear made it more versatile, allowing it to catch an enemy shield or deflect a strike from another spear or sword, such as the partisan, guisarme, or flamberge.
The Roman Empire began systematically recruiting Germans as mercenaries in the 2nd century AD, and it was at this time that this massively tipped boar spear with stopping “wings” spread across Germany.
Evidence of the weapon and its employment may be seen in numerous mosaics, thanks to the widespread Germanization of the Empire that ensured its inclusion in Roman art by the 4th century AD.
Changes to the Boar Spear in the Middle Ages
16th-century German boar spear.
Roman-barbarian fighters (Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, Burgundians, Lombards, Franks, etc.) and later troops of the Holy Roman Empire utilized the same sort of spear for both wild boar hunting and fighting during the High Middle Ages (1000–1300).
An explicit mention is made of a boar hunting episode featuring Emperor Charlemagne in the book Karolus Magnus et Leo papa. Charlemagne successfully hunts a wild boar with the weapon. The book is preserved at the Abbey of St. Gall and attributed (likely erroneously) to the poet Angilbert (740–814).
Odin, the ultimate warrior-god, was often shown by the Vikings in Northern Europe, who lived outside the cultural basin of Carolingian Europe, with a holy Gungnir spear with the usual lugs of a boar’s spear.
It is interesting to note that the Germanic wedge formation, which was favored in combat and was said to have been created by the deity Odin, was also known as the “formation with the boar’s head” (Svinfylking in Old Norse or caput porcinum in Latin). Saxo Grammaticus’s Gesta Danorum gives a detailed account of the Germans’ strategic usage of the wedge.
The Holy Lance, an icon of the Holy Roman Empire (the lance that is said to have pierced the side of Jesus while he was crucified on the cross), is a modified boar spear with two mock blades running the length of the weapon from its lugs to its tip.
After the jousting spear developed as the preferred weapon of the Franco-Norman heavy cavalry in the Late Middle Ages (1300–1500), the boar spear was consigned to the ranks of infantry armies.
Long-bladed swords (see spadone) also began to proliferate in the hunting field as the tactical and symbolic significance of the sword increased along with advancements in European metallurgy as a result of contact with the eastern Mediterranean basin through the Crusades (such as Damascus steel).
After the wild boar had been crippled and trapped by the hounds and by the servants armed with spears, the high-ranking European hunters started to use their swords to exterminate the beast.
Even among the Carolingian emperors, who saw wild boar hunting as a good way to practice their martial arts, the trend persisted and even grew during the Late Middle Ages (1300–1500), eventually giving rise to the Renaissance-era invention of the “hunting sword”.
In the 15th century, foot soldiers were still using the boar spear. This included not just the common infantryman but also the knight, who had been forced to fight on the ground instead of on horseback.
The master of fencing, Fiore dei Liberi (1350–1410) details the precise use of the boar spear against an opponent on horseback in his work Flos Duellatorum (around 1409–1410). This involves striking the enemy in the head with both the spear’s tip and its handle.
The Boar Spear’s Design
When a boar spear was inserted into a chamber or rib cage, it was claimed to cause instantaneous death by severing the heart, lungs, and major blood vessels. Thus, a boar spear had to be very sturdy because of its intended use:
The length of the metal head varied between 8 and 16 inches (20 and 40 cm). The “wings” (lugs) of the spear’s lozenge-shaped blade were attached to the shaft by a conical or pyramidal gorge. This metal point was heavy enough to ensure the weapon could penetrate the boar’s thick rib cage and deliver a lethal blow to the boar’s heart.
The 80-inch (2 m) long rod was fashioned from a single piece of specially selected wood (such as the ash wood) to prevent breaking. It was sometimes wrapped in leather for a better grip and was designed to withstand the impact of the blow as well as the pressure exerted by the enraged animal. The hunters intended on keeping the animal blocked with the lugs.
The boar spear’s harsh edges were rounded down during the Renaissance to reflect the prevailing aesthetic and military trends of the period. For this reason, later versions of the weapon, notably those made in Italy, include a “leaf” blade similar to the pike’s and long, curved “wings” that resemble the corseque spear’s prongs.
Boar Spear Today
Even in modern times, the boar spear is employed to dispatch of wounded wildlife. When compared to a gunfire, killing a wild boar with a boar spear is preferable since the dogs hunting the pig are not put in danger and their hearing is not damaged by the loud explosion. While hunting, the boar spear is sometimes used as a defense weapon in case of an attack. However, expertise and experience are necessary while tackling this issue.
Aside from the aforementioned exceptional circumstance, the boar spear is mostly employed as a decorative object in hunting halls and as a trophy for meritorious hunters.
In many jurisdictions, shooting wild boar with nothing more than a boar spear is not against the law. But when there is a possibility of animal cruelty from inexperience or lack of competence, hunting with a boar spear becomes troublesome on a daily basis. Engaging in hand-to-hand combat with an aggressive animal carries the inherent risk of endangering one’s own well-being and life.
The Boar Spear at a Glance
What is a boar spear, and how was it used in battle?
The boar spear was a spear-like weapon popularized by the Germanic barbarians during the Roman era. It featured a diamond-shaped metal tip mounted on a short, heavy shaft with lugs or wings at the gorge. These wings served multiple purposes, such as preventing a charging boar from reaching the hunter and providing versatility in battle. They could be used to snag an opponent’s shield, tear it off, or deflect incoming attacks. The boar spear proved durable and effective, capable of breaking through shields and armor.
What role did the boar spear play in hunting and warfare throughout history?
The boar spear had a significant historical role in both hunting and warfare. In hunting, it originated from the need to capture and kill wild boars, which were highly symbolic and held cultural significance among the Germanic tribes. The weapon allowed hunters to keep a safe distance from the boar while delivering a lethal blow. In warfare, the boar spear was utilized by Germanic and Roman-barbarian fighters during the High Middle Ages. It provided them with a versatile and effective weapon for combat, capable of breaching shields and deflecting strikes.
How did the decline of the boar spear come about?
The popularity of the boar spear declined over time due to several factors. The emergence of long-bladed swords in the hunting field, as well as advancements in European metallurgy through contact with the eastern Mediterranean, contributed to the trend. High-ranking European hunters began using swords to finish off boars after they had been trapped and weakened by hounds and spears. Additionally, the rise of the jousting lance as the preferred weapon for heavy cavalry in the Late Middle Ages relegated the boar spear to infantry armies.
What were the key design features of the boar spear?
The boar spear was designed with durability and effectiveness in mind. Its metal head varied in length between 8 and 16 inches and had a lozenge-shaped blade with lugs or wings attached to the shaft. The sturdy 80-inch long wooden shaft, often wrapped in leather for a better grip, could withstand the impact of a blow and the force exerted by a boar. The rounded edges of the spear’s blade were later refined during the Renaissance to align with the aesthetic and military trends of the time, resulting in versions with a leaf blade and long, curved wings.
References
Flos duellatorum – Fiore Dei Liberi, Giovanni Rapisardi – Google Books
The glaive is a bladed close combat weapon used by heavy infantry. This European polearm consists of a wooden pole of between 4 and 5 feet (1.2 and 1.5 meters) with a spearhead measuring between 1.3 and 2 feet (40 and 60 cm) in length and 2 to 2.8 inches (5 to 7 cm) in width. In order to make the spearhead sturdier, it is often coated with rivets or wound with a metal ribbon. The weapon weighed around 4.5 to 7.7 lbs (2 to 3.5 kg). The tip of the glaive is a blade, and it is a single-edged blade in the shape of a broad falchion. Occasionally, a hook was made at the other end of the blade to pull a horseman off a horse.
European glaives from the Middle Ages, with a single-edged blade at the end of a pole.
From the butt of the blade, sometimes a spike is laid parallel or directed at a small angle to the blade, serving to grip the enemy’s weapon when reflecting an overhead blow, and also to inflict more effective thrusts against opponents wearing armor (as opposed to slashing blows delivered by the blade’s tip). The glaive, however, is still best used for stabbing attacks.
For balance and to finish off the wounded, the lowest portion of the glaive’s pole also features a spike (called a “spur” or “heel”), although this piece is often not sharpened, but pointed. The glaive existed from about the 14th to the 20th centuries as a unique cold weapon.
Glaive’s Etymology
The term “glaive” comes from French. However, the name either originates in the Celtic word “cladivos”, which means “sword,” or the Latin word “gladius” for the same thing. All glaive allusions in early English and French, however, actually relate to spears.
From the 15th century on, the word “glaive” began to refer exclusively to this specific type of weapon in English. In this century, the term began to be used in its modern sense. Around the same time, glaive became a poetic shorthand for any kind of sword. This is still the most common way the term is used today in French.
History of the Glaive
A soldier with a glaive in 14th-century dress.
Glaive bears a resemblance to the naginata of Japan, the guandao of China, the woldo of Korea, and the sovnya of Russia. Among them, the guandao is said to have been invented in the 3rd century AD.
Swords and falchions with long poles gave inspiration to the first glaive designs. And between 1200 and 1400, the first glaive is believed to have been developed from the war scythe. (The word “falx,” which means “scythe” in Latin, is where the name “falchion” originates.) The war scythe was already in use by the Balkan and Mesopotamian populations in ancient times.
In the European Middle Ages, the glaive stood out as one of the most unusual polearms to emerge. The small, single-edged sword was placed on a large wooden shaft that was taller than the wielder.
By the 14th century, it had evolved into a genuine weapon, crafted by expert weaponsmiths. At this time, the glaive had been carried as a personal weapon, most notably by crossbowmen. It proved effective as a weapon against mounted attackers due to its long reach.
It was a weapon of the palace guard up until the 18th century, when it fell out of use. The fact that it was originally a peasant instrument, however, was never forgotten, and it made its way into textbooks as early as 1612:
“GLAIVE. A hooked polearm, resembling a scythe, with a spike on the straight part of the shaft. It may not be very different from the harpe of the Latins or the ἄρπη of the Greeks.
Vocabolario Degli Accademici Della Crusca, Florence 1612, p. 320.
Dated 1564, a state glaive for Maximilian II of Austria’s Guard. (Credit: Philamuseum)
Originally a weapon of battle mainly in the 15th century, the glaive was adopted as a symbol of nobility in royal courts and by the bodyguard of the Doge of Venice from the 16th through the 18th centuries. Glaives with heraldic ornamentation, such as coats of arms or seals, help historians place them in a certain time period.
The glaive used by the palace guard during the reign of Emperor Ferdinand I, for instance, had the imperial monogram on both sides. The Habsburg and Bohemian/Hungarian coats of arms are shown underneath the imperial crown, intertwined with the Golden Fleece Order. This weapon survived into the 20th century through the efforts of the Bavarian court and the Hungarian royal guard.
A glaive might have a wide, axe-like point at one end and a simple ball-shaped counterweight at the other, or it could have two similar double-edged, thin, long blades at both ends. On the other hand, the ones with two blades (one at each end of the pole) are an incredibly unusual variant.
The Chinese developed glaives with three blades, each of which could be used independently of the others. This long blade had two handles so that the glaive could be struck from either end. The third blade was placed between the handles.
In total, about a hundred different alterations of the glaive have been discovered to this day. The weapon is most similar to the halberd (German), bardiche (Austrian), and voulge (French), with the naginata (Japanese), guandao (Chinese), bhuj (Indian), sovnya (Russian), and palma (Siberian) being plausible alternatives.
Guan Yu (160–220 AD), a Chinese warlord from the Three Kingdoms period, was almost always seen brandishing a glaive, which was known as guandao, yanyuedao, or dadao. He was a Chinese military general famous for his glaive which supposedly weighed 82 catties (about 50 kg or 110 lbs). His weapon went by the moniker Green Dragon Crescent Blade.
In the “Avengers”
Avengers: Infinity War featured a powerful version of this weapon for a villain. This picture shows Corvus Glaive’s weapon during the filming. It can pierce Vision’s Vibranium armor, deflect his Mind Stone-fueled energy shot, and disperse the sonic waves from Shuri’s Vibranium Gauntles.
When the Glaive Became a Throwing Weapon
For some reason, the term “glaive” has also been used to describe a fantastical multi-edged throwing weapon since the 1980s, conceptually similar to but bigger than the Japanese ninja shuriken.
Such weapons are often given the capacity to “bounce back” to the thrower, either magically or through the boomerang concept. Fantasy novels and movies (like Krull from 1983, which has a five-pointed glaive) as well as video games (Dark Sector, Torchlight 2, Warframe, and Dungeon Siege II) depict characters who throw glaives.
In the “Keeper of Swords”
Nick Perumov’s “The Keeper of Swords” (not released in English) has a protagonist named Ker Laeda, also known as the warrior of the Grey League of Fess, also known as the necromancer “Neyasynth”. And he favors the glaive as his primary weapon.
Ker Laeda’s glaive is still not emblematic of the weapon as a whole. It has two blades (or cutting points), which makes it a double-edged pole. It is also much shorter and lighter than the real weapon, which is not designed for delicate swordwork.
Unlike other long-bladed weapons, Ker Laeda has no trouble wielding it in underground environments like tunnels. Plus, a hefty, long glaive has little chance of stopping an arrow shot at point-blank range. Ker Laeda’s weapon is also detachable, in that it turns into two swords.
Many people, inspired by Nick Perumov’s work, incorrectly assume that glaives always have two blades, despite the fact that weapons with blades on both ends of the pole are very rare.
Glaive at a Glance
What is a glaive?
A glaive is a European polearm used in close combat by heavy infantry. It is made of a wooden pole between 4 to 5 feet long with a spearhead of 1.3 to 2 feet long and 2 to 2.8 inches in width. The tip of the glaive is a single-edged blade in the shape of a broad falchion. It also has a spike at the butt of the blade, which serves to grip the enemy’s weapon when reflecting an overhead blow and inflict more effective thrusts against opponents wearing armor.
What is the history of the glaive?
The glaive was first developed from the war scythe between 1200 and 1400. By the 14th century, it had evolved into a genuine weapon, crafted by expert weaponsmiths. At this time, the glaive had been carried as a personal weapon, most notably by crossbowmen. It was a weapon of the palace guard up until the 18th century when it fell out of use. Originally a weapon of battle mainly in the 15th century, the glaive was later adopted as a symbol of nobility in royal courts and by the bodyguard of the Doge of Venice from the 16th through the 18th centuries.
What are the different versions of glaive?
A glaive can have a wide, axe-like point at one end and a simple ball-shaped counterweight at the other. From the butt of the blade, sometimes a spike is laid parallel or directed at a small angle to the blade. The lowest portion of the glaive’s pole also features a spike called a “spur” or “heel,” although this piece is often not sharpened but pointed. Glaives with heraldic ornamentation, such as coats of arms or seals, can help historians place them in a certain time period.
A cold weapon with a warhead in the shape of a blade fixed to the handle is referred to as an edged weapon. An edged weapon is also known as a bladed weapon. The edged weapons include swords, knives, rapiers, daggers, and sabers. The tip of some polearms, such as glaives, is fashioned like a blade, but despite this, it is not categorized as an edged weapon but as a thrusting weapon.
Blade Length in Edged Weapons
The blade is an elongated metal warhead whose specifications affect the specifics of the damage done. Edged weapons may chop, slash, pierce, pierce-cut, or chop-cut depending on the form of the blade and the composition of the tip and blades.
When it comes to length, there are three main blade lengths for the edged weapons:
Short-bladed: Up to 12 in (30 cm)
Medium-bladed: 12 to 20 in (30 to 50 cm)
Long-bladed: Longer than 20 in (50 cm)
History of Edged Weapons
The knife was the first weapon to include a blade. In other words, it was the first edged weapon in history. Swords and daggers followed. A group of researchers from Rome University uncovered nine edged weapons from 3300 BC in the 1980s. The experts concluded that the Arslantepe swords were the earliest and oldest swords ever found. An arsenic and copper alloy were used to create them.
The mechanical advantage of single-edged swords over double-edged ones made them ideal for use in equine combat. In the 7th century, the swords developed a little curve that led to the creation of sabers.
The curve gave the edged swords better striking power than traditional swords, especially when riding on a horse. By the 13th century, they had spread over most of Asia and Eastern Europe, where they ultimately replaced most other edged weapons.
Once the stabbing qualities of swords were improved, the first small swords and later rapiers emerged in Europe in the 15th century.
Types of Edged Weapons
The classification of edged weapons is done according to their form and function. Throughout history, several edged weapons have been given definitive names:
The combat knife predates all other edged weapons because of its ability to pierce and cut. Since the Upper Paleolithic period (40,000–10,000 BC), we have known mostly about stone knives used for cutting. Copper, bronze, iron, and eventually steel knives with a piercing edge developed much later.
Almost every culture throughout history has used and continues to use combat knives. Their size usually varies between 10 and 12 inches.
Dagger
Belt knives and daggers.
A dagger has a short to medium 2-sided blade that can pierce armor and cut through clothing. The blade might have a straight or curved profile.
The length of a dagger may vary from 5 to 12 inches. Compared to daggers, knives are much more compact in design. The blade of a dagger normally has a single, sharp edge.
A dagger is distinct from a knife in that it is designed only for use in battle and not as a cutting tool. Two-edged daggers appeared here and there as well.
Stiletto
A stiletto is a kind of dagger with a short to medium, faceted or circular blade that is used for piercing. The length of a typical stiletto was about 12 inches (30 cm).
The stiletto is a direct descendant of the misericorde (“dagger of mercy”) carried by medieval knights into combat. It was designed to break through the weak spots in the knight’s armor and kill him while he was dismounted.
Various cultures made use of and adapted this kind of weapon. However, its tiny size made it ideal for covert operations. The Japanese kanzashi, for instance, was an edged weapon in the form of a hairpin.
Dirk
A dirk is a piercing weapon with a rhombic-shaped blade that is either short or medium in length. True dirks are the only edged weapons that fit this category. The length of a dirk can reach all the way up to 20 inches but not smaller than 12 inches. In other words, they are longer than knives, daggers, and stilettos but shorter than swords.
Scottish settlers in the 1700s brought the dirk to the United States. This weapon had a single edge at first, but by 1745, two edges became the norm. Dirks were often fashioned from dismantled swords.
Sword
Swords with basket hilt.
A sword is a two-edged stabbing and slashing weapon with a medium- to long-length straight blade. The Arslantepe swords from 3300 BC are the oldest swords ever found, and they are made of arsenic and copper alloy. Bronze swords from the 2nd millennium BC are also one of the first known examples of this edged weapon.
However, in other societies, bone and wooden swords with stone blades are documented as well, which may have been the forerunners of metal swords.
Swords combined the features of knives and axes. Over the centuries, some swords have become primarily designed for thrusting, while others are designed for cutting. This led to the emergence of new types of swords and other types of edged weapons. The length of an average sword is 30 inches (75 cm), while the weight is 2.5 lbs (1 kg).
Basket-Hilted Sword
A basket-hilted sword.
The basket-hilted sword is a sword-like weapon with a single, long, straight blade used for piercing and cutting. This edged weapon’s hilt was occasionally inclined to the axis of the blade to maximize effectiveness when used by cavalry.
The blade length of most basket hilt swords was between 32 and 36 inches. Including the hilt, the overall length of the sword might be anywhere from 39 to 45 inches.
In the past, the basket-hilted sword was occasionally used to describe a weapon with two blades or a curved shape; however, this is no longer the case. The 16th-century basket-hilted sword was widely used by heavy cavalry up to the time of Napoleon. It thereafter fell out of favor until the early 19th century.
Saber
A saber is a weapon with a long, curved blade, the “convex” side of which is used for cutting and stabbing. Curving the blade provided the sword with better cutting qualities, increasing its efficacy, and this alteration apparently occurred by chance.
Nomads in Eastern Europe and Central Asia likely came up with the saber at the same time since they were one of the earliest cavalries in history.
Turkic and Mongolic nomads of the Eurasian steppes used “Turko-Mongol sabers” between the 8th and 14th centuries. The length of their blades was between 30 and 40 inches (75 and 100 cm). The Avar cemetery in Romania contained the oldest discovered sabers from the 650s AD.
A shashka is a long, single-edged weapon used for cutting and chopping. The blades of the leppa and katana are all very similar to those of the shashka. It is a backsword with one blade and no guard.
The shashka is a hybrid weapon that combines elements of both a straight sword and a curved saber. The slightly bent blade can be used for cutting or thrusting with equal efficiency.
The most prevalent shashkas are without bows (Caucasian and Asian kinds), but there are also shashkas with bows (dragoon type) that seem like sabers but aren’t.
Small Sword
French smallsword with scabbard, c. 1780. (metmuseum.org)
The small sword is a sword with a long, straight blade that may have anywhere from one to four edges, with a well-developed hilt that is used for stabbing and cutting. The small sword was there because it was more effective for stabbing.
They are thinner and lighter than regular swords and are often preferred during duels.
Small swords typically have blades that are between 24 and 33 inches (60 and 85 cm) in length. Used by Polish-Lithuanian hussars in the Renaissance period, the koncerz is another kind of small sword.
Rapier
Rapier next to a sword-like dagger.
The blade of a rapier is long and straight and has some elasticity, while the guard is often cup-shaped. Rapiers were derived from swords. The Italian instructor Rocco Bonetti arrived in England in 1570 and promoted thrusting with the rapier rather than cutting or slashing in duels.
Rapiers are one of the longest types of edged weapons. Most rapiers have an average blade length of 41 inches (104 cm). Their blades can be single- or double-edged.
Fascine Knife
The fascine knife is a single-edged weapon with a medium-size blade that can be used for chopping, cutting, and stabbing. They are on the shorter side of the edged weapons.
Fascine knives may have highly distinctive blade forms, but their primary function is to deliver chopping strokes. The European fascine knife evolved from a shattered sword or saber blade when it was forged into a shorter and thicker one.
Despite its shorter but thicker blade, the fascine knife replaced the axe or other heavy weapons in northeastern Europe. Their blade size is usually around 25 inches (64 cm).
Weapons such as the falchion, machete, kopis sword (Ancient Greek), makhaira sword (Ancient Greek), falcata (pre-Roman Iberia), parang knife (Malay archipelago), kukri knife (Nepal), and golok sword (Malay archipelago) are all examples of the fascine knife.
The yatagan (yatağan in Turkish) is a knife-like weapon with a straight or double-curved blade that is sharpened on the interior for stabbing and slicing. The name derives from “laying” in Turkish, meaning “putting to bed with eternal sleep”. The Uruk-Hai in The Lord of the Rings were armed with yatagan, albeit rather modified ones.
In yatagan, blade width is typically consistent. Yatagans with a wider blade near the tip are rather rare. The design of the yatagan assures a “raking” movement that would cut and slice more effectively. Yatagan is a specific type of edged weapon, just like a saber or dirk.
Bayonet
The bayonet is a knife or sword that is affixed to the end of a handgun’s barrel and is used for stabbing or stabbing-cutting. This edged weapon made its debut in the 17th century. Bayonets, like other edged weapons, may come in a variety of forms, such as plug, socket, or sword bayonets.
Edged Weapons at a Glance
What are the three main blade lengths for edged weapons?
The three main blade lengths for edged weapons are short-bladed (up to 12 in or 30 cm), medium-bladed (12 to 20 in or 30 to 50 cm), and long-bladed (longer than 20 in or 50 cm).
What is the history of edged weapons?
The history of edged weapons dates back to the Upper Paleolithic period (40,000–10,000 BC) with stone knives used for cutting. Copper, bronze, iron, and eventually steel knives with a piercing edge developed much later. Swords and daggers followed, with the oldest swords ever found being the Arslantepe swords from 3300 BC made of arsenic and copper alloy. Over time, different types of edged weapons emerged, including the saber and rapier.
What are some types of edged weapons?
Some types of edged weapons include the combat knife, dagger, stiletto, dirk, and sword. The combat knife predates all other edged weapons, while a dagger is designed only for use in battle and not as a cutting tool. The stiletto is a type of dagger with a short to medium, faceted or circular blade that is used for piercing. A dirk is a piercing weapon with a rhombic-shaped blade, while a sword is a two-edged stabbing and slashing weapon with a medium- to long-length straight blade.
What is the difference between a dagger and a knife?
A dagger is distinct from a knife in that it is designed only for use in battle and not as a cutting tool. Daggers have a short to medium 2-sided blade that can pierce armor and cut through clothing, while knives are much more compact in design and their blade normally has a single, sharp edge.
A cold weapon is a hand weapon that works by using direct muscular strength to produce its impact without involving fire, explosions, compressed gas, or electricity. The cold weapons are separated as melee weapons and ranged weapons. The melee weapons function as an extension of the arm and the ranged weapon, in contrast, strikes targets at a distance longer than direct physical contact. Some of the cold weapons include swords, daggers, polearms, hammers, crossbows, catapults, and bows.
Categories of Cold Weapon
Guisarme.
Most cold weapons fall into one of the five categories: polearms, bladed (edged) weapons, blunt weapons, throwing weapons, and defensive weapons.
Polearms: including spears, pikes, lances, halberds, and military forks. The length of such weapons gives them a range advantage, and their sharp points are made for skewering.
Bladed weapons: daggers, swords, knives, bayonets, machetes, and other edged weapons. These instruments of death are made for stabbing, mutilating, and bleeding out their victims.
Blunt weapons: clubs, war hammers, maces, whips, and batons are all examples of blunt weapons. Blunt force trauma is the intended effect of these weapons.
Throwing weapons: including bows, crossbows, blowguns, and catapults, and they are used for ranged attacks.
Defensive weapons: shields (e.g., bucklers, heaters etc.), pepper spray, and body armor are considered defensive cold weapons.
History of Cold Weapons
Koncerz. (Public Domain)
The cold weapons originally appeared quite a long time ago as a hunting tool. Cold weapons such as blades, knives, shields, and maces were all fashioned in the Stone Age, either as basic tools or by severing a stick at one end and inserting a stone, which was then bound in place using strips of tree bark or a thread made of twisted catgut.
Cold weapons are also called white arms or white weapons. This name comes from the way the weapon looks when light is reflected off of it. The name dates back to antiquity, when it was used to highlight the improvement in stabbing efficiency from stone, copper, bronze, and iron blades to those made of steel, which looked white under the sunlight. (In the legal language, “cold weapon” is still more commonly used.)
Until the 16th century, cold weapons were the main type of weapon. With the development of firearms, they practically lost their significance.
Currently, they are used as auxiliary equipment, supplementing the capabilities of firearms, as an honorary (award) weapon, and as part of traditional attire.
In ancient times, the Roman weapon known as hasta (spear) was a pretty effective cold weapon. Worn by a person known as a hastati, it was approximately 5 feet and 9 inches (1.75 m) in length.
From the 15th century, it was called a pike. This very long weapon was similar to the ancient Greek weapon kontos, a weapon proper to horsemen or the ancient sarissaof the infantry of the Macedonian army.
By the nature of the inflicted damage (punctured, incised, slashed), the cold weapon distinguishes between crushing, thrusting, stabbing, and slashing weapons.
Stabbing
The blade of these cold weapons only results in puncture damage:
Blunt weapons, often known as bludgeoning weapons, do harm by colliding with their target and doing so on the basis of impact theory. Typical examples of these cold weapons include cudgels, maces, clubs, hammers, and sticks. They are offensive weapons with a handle that is quite lengthy and intended to bash, dent, or damage through strikes.
The earliest forms of such cold weapons, which date back to the origins of mankind, are combat sticks and clubs. Stone Age weaponry progressed from clubs and maces to axes. The whips or flails came next, which were a punishment instrument formed of multiple chains with metal balls at their ends and strung from a short handle and used as a weapon of war. It was akin to the flagrum of the ancient Romans.
Bladed Weapons
Blades, on the other hand, are based on the application of the blade itself, which is a piece of metal with a proper form and one or more sharp sections known as “edge.” The blades that are known as slashing weapons are called “edged weapons” and common examples include swords, knives, sabers, and axes.
The bladed cold weapons can also be appropriate for hitting with the tip to pierce the target, which is called “pointed weapons.” They include weapons like bayonets, pikes, and spears or daggers. Some pointed weapons just have the pointed tip needed to pierce or puncture anything and they don’t even have an edge on their blades. The stilettos, foils, “centodieci,” and “Bec de Corbin” are a few examples.
Throwing Weapons
Bows and crossbows are examples of throwing cold weapons. They hurl different forms of projectiles, such as stones, arrows, and bolts, or they themselves are thrown such as javelins, throwing axes, throwing knives. They travel great distances using the physical force of the person in conjunction with the mechanism of the device. However, they are always loaded by the thrower’s muscle force.
Classification of Cold Weapon
Some people refer to cold weapons as those that don’t produce a sound. Others may characterize them as offensive tools that only use the fighter’s strength as a source of power. Or, you might say that they are any metal weapon that is not a firearm.
Based on Size
Short-hand weapons, long-hand weapons, and polearms are three categories of cold weapons based on size:
Short-hand weapons: knives, daggers, stilettos, small daggers, and throwing hatchets are under the category of short-hand weapons, which are concealable and often do not measure more than 12 in (30 cm).
Long-hand weapons: swords, sabers, katanas, war axes, etc., were the typical individual fighting weapons used at close range until the invention of guns.
Polearms: They are poled weapons with handles that are 6.5 feet (2 m) or longer to extend the range of action of the actual weapons themselves.
Based on Function
Additionally, cold weapons can be split into several categories based on the reason they were constructed, such in:
Throwing weapons, such as javelins and certain kinds of hatchets like the tomahawk.
Crushing weapons, common examples of crushing weapons include clubs, hammers, maces, and sticks.
Slashing weapons, swords, knives, sabers, and axes are examples of cutting cold weapons that are often used for cutting.
Pointing weapons, such as daggers, spears, pikes, and bayonets, are designed to strike a target from the tip.
Shooting weapons, like crossbows and bows are examples of ranged cold weapons that shoot battle objects (arrows, bolts, etc.) a long distance.
Defensive weapons, such as armor and shields are examples of defensive cold weapons that deflect attacks from bladed weapons.
Soft weapons, including chigiriki and chain whip, are folding or articulated weapons.
The Cold Weapon at a Glance
What is a cold weapon?
A cold weapon is a type of hand weapon that doesn’t rely on fire, explosions, compressed gas, or electricity to operate. Instead, it works through direct muscular strength to produce its impact. Some examples include swords, daggers, polearms, hammers, crossbows, and bows.
What are the five categories of cold weapons?
Most of them fall into one of the five categories: polearms, bladed (edged) weapons, blunt weapons, throwing weapons, and defensive weapons.
What is the history of cold weapons?
They originated a long time ago as hunting tools. They were used to fashion blades, knives, shields, and maces during the Stone Age. They lost their significance with the development of firearms in the 16th century. Currently, they are used as auxiliary equipment, supplementing the capabilities of firearms, as an honorary (award) weapon, and as part of traditional attire.
What are some examples of cold weapons used for stabbing?
Examples of cold weapons used for stabbing include Koncerz, Spear, Dirk, Kris, Knife, Pike, Lance, Partisan, Rapier, Halberd, Sai, Sarissa, Stylet, Bayonet, Estoc, Spontoon.
The atlatl is a device used to throw spears. It works by extending the throwing arm. The spear accelerates with this motion and reaches a speed of over 90 mph (150 km/h) which is much higher than spears thrown by hand. Hooks placed at the slinging end made of reindeer antlers for guiding the spear have been discovered in Europe and other parts of the world since the end of the Paleolithic Age (Magdalenian Era; 9,000 to 15,000 BC). The atlatl used by Australian Aborigines was called a Woomera. In Central America, the atlatl was still being used as a weapon of war and for hunting at the time of the discovery of America, under the Aztec name Atlatl.
The way atlatl is used.
Since the beginning of time, our ancestors have made a lot of weapons to help them hunt, catch wild animals for food, and fight with each other for survival resources. It was these primitive weapons that helped humans climb to the top of the food chain. Among all the weapons used by primitive people, the atlatl, or spear thrower, is a very special weapon. It shows how intelligent early humans were, and in some ways, the atlatl is just as important as the bow and arrow.
To this day, wilderness survival experts and primitive tribal hunters still use this weapon. For example, Matt Graham, a famous wilderness survival expert known for his shows for Discovery and National Geographic, is a loyal fan of the atlatl. With an atlatl in hand, he can easily hit a squirrel at a distance of more than 30 feet (10 meters) and a turkey at a distance of dozens of feet. It is a great tool for wilderness survival. So, what kind of weapon is an atlatl?
Definition of Atlatl
The atlatl is an ancient weapon that was used to throw spears. It is also called the spear-throwing weapon or spear launcher. It is the simplest way to make a spear throw farther, hit harder, and hit with more accuracy. It is a simple but very creative tool. The word atlatl (pronounced AT-lat-uhl) comes from the Nahuatl language of the Aztecs.
History of Atlatl
A Mixtec warrior with an atlatl.
The earliest prototype of the atlatl can probably be traced back to the Paleolithic era (about 40,000 years ago). But it was first documented archaeologically in Europe about 18,000 years ago in the Upper Solutrean period. Many scholars believe that the atlatl appeared earlier than the bow and arrow, but this weapon was more difficult to master and required more training. It was on the basis of the atlatl that humans invented the bow. Thus, the position of this weapon in human history is bound to be even more important than the bow.
The atlatl has existed in human history for a very long time, from the Paleolithic era to the present day, and it has been widely spread across the world. It is a widely used, universal weapon, from the aboriginal people of Australia to the Native Americans, to the Melanesians, and so on. We can see the paintings of this weapon in various civilizations regarding hunting and fighting.
A work of rock art about the handling of the atlatl. Anbangbang Rock Shelter, Kakadu Park, Northern Australia. (Image, CC BY-SA 3)
The atlatls from the Upper Paleolithic are almost exclusively documented as hook throwers. This may be due to the durability of this specific construction type made from reindeer antlers. The hook ends made of reindeer antlers are by far the most common, with only one example known to be made of bone and mammoth ivory.
The hook was attached to a wooden shaft using sloping angles, natural adhesives (probably birch tar), binding materials (sinew, bast), and sometimes through holes. To increase the flight stability of the spear, it was probably feathered. The relatively small number of findings suggests that the majority of atlatls were made entirely of wood.
Design of the Atlatl
The design and shape of the atlatl vary, but generally, its main frame is a slightly curved bone, antler, or wooden board (about 1-3.3 feet or 30-100 cm long). The tail end of the board is equipped with a “hook” (used to hold the notch at the end of the spear) or a crossbar, and the front end of the board is designed with a spear shaft bracket and handle. Worldwide comparisons of complete ethnographic findings reveal an average overall length of 26 inches (65 cm) for atlatls. The length of the spears, whose tips were made of flint or reindeer antler, is reconstructed to be between 83 and 91 inches (2.10 and 2.30 m) based on experiments.
How to Use Atlatl
The principle of the atlatl (spear thrower). (Public Domain)How Eskimo (Inuit) use the atlatl. (Public Domain)
When using it, the atlatl must be used in conjunction with a spear, just as an arrow must be used with a bow. The user places the elastic-tipped spear on top of the thrower, with the tail end of the spear against the hook-shaped tip of the thrower. The spear’s shaft is parallel to the thrower and is secured in place on the thrower’s spear holder or with the fingers.
The user then extends their arm back and grips the handle of the thrower, forcefully swinging it forward to launch the spear toward the target. The spear can be launched up to a distance of 50 to 330 feet (15 to 100 m), with skilled users able to hit targets the size of a grapefruit at a distance of 130 feet (40 m).
Atlatl with standing deer, Magdalenian, 13,000 BC, Cave of Mas d’Azil. (Image: Don Hitchcock)
In official contests, distances of up to 460 feet (140 m) were recorded. However, the average hunting distance back in the day was much shorter, at about 100 feet (30 m) or less.
How Does Atlatl Work?
The atlatl acts as an extension of the human arm, effectively lengthening the arm’s lever to increase the initial velocity of the spear. By utilizing the lever effect, the force is better transmitted to the dart or spear, resulting in greater speed and power during flight and allowing for longer, more accurate, and more powerful throws. The atlatl quadruples the kinetic energy of the arm and transfers it to the arrow. This is the reason for the much greater speed of the arrow when using an atlatl.
While the atlatl can also launch ordinary darts or spears, specialized spears designed for use with the atlatl are preferred for maximum efficiency. These specialized spears have feathers on the back end, making them resemble large arrows rather than typical spears. The feathers provide more stable flight trajectories and longer ranges, resulting in greater killing power.
Similar to arrows launched from a bow, spears launched from an atlatl do not fly straight toward the target. Instead, they twist and turn like a snake in flight, which actually improves their stability. Therefore, elastic materials are preferred for spear construction.
The Importance of Atlatl
Compared to using only the arm for throwing, the atlatl significantly extends the range and accuracy of human attacks, making it an essential tool for personal safety during hunting.
Before the invention of bows and arrows and javelins, humans had to hunt large animals up close with long spears, engaging in face-to-face combat with the prey. Those who participated in such hunting were typically members of the tribe who were best suited for reproduction and skilled in hunting. When such members were lost in hunting (which often happened), it could lead to an imbalance in the fragile ecological balance of the group, potentially leading to the extinction of the tribe.
The invention of the atlatl allowed humans to launch deadly attacks from several dozen meters away, increasing the flexibility of hunting without having to get too close to the prey and risk startling it. It also protected hunters’ safety, even when hunting large game or predators such as wild boar, wolves, leopards, lions, mammoths, and bears.
Why Did Europeans Start Using the Bow Instead of the Atlatl?
The rope spear thrower of the Old World.
In Europe, the spear-thrower was replaced by the bow and arrow during the late Neolithic period (10,000–2200 BC). This was because:
The bow and arrow were easier to use.
The accuracy of the bow and arrow was less affected by the elasticity and weight of the projectile. Therefore, even with a significant difference in arrowhead shape, arrows shot from the same bow could still hit the target close to each other. However, for the atlatl, the flint arrowheads needed to be shaped consistently to be effective.
Additionally, the spear thrower or atlatl had limited range. After the Iron Age, Europeans used lightweight javelins with cords to increase throwing power and improve accuracy by adding spin to the javelin.
Atlatl for Hunting
As long as the spears thrown from the atlatl were accurate, they could easily take down these dangerous animals with a single blow. This significantly reduced the danger of hunting and increased the success rate of hunting. Therefore, many scholars argue that the invention of the atlatl marked the beginning of humans’ dominance over all animals.
Since spears are much heavier and larger than arrows, they can cause more damage, easily penetrating the scales and thick hides of animals. The primitive tribes in the Amazon basin used atlatls to hunt bony fish such as arapaima.
The atlatl, or spear thrower, played a role in the extinction of many large animals, and some scholars suggest that the extinction of prehistoric large animals such as mammoths was directly related to this weapon. Scholars have discovered suspected atlatl wounds on mammoth bones and even the weapons themselves carved into mammoth shapes, indicating a strong directional meaning.
The invention of the atlatl allowed primitive humans to safely kill huge mammoths, short-faced bears, and woolly rhinoceroses from relatively safe distances. Some African tribal hunters are still using these weapons to hunt elephants, hippos, lions, and large antelopes, and they can shoot them pretty easily. The fact that humans climbed to the top of the food chain is not without reason.
How to Make an Atlatl Spear Thrower
A ceremonial atlatl from Peru, 1–300 AD. (Image: Lombards Museum)
Moreover, the structure of this weapon is very simple, and primitive humans could easily make an atlatl using readily available flint, animal bones, and deer antlers. Even if there were no antlers or animal bones, a tree branch over 1 foot (30 cm) long with a slight curve and a branch would suffice.
When making an atlatl, one can cut a branch of a tree, leaving 0.8 to 1.2 inches (2 to 3 cm) for a hook to grip the spear. The other branch serves as the main body and handle of this weapon. If a suitable branch is not available, a wooden stick of 10 to 20 inches (or several tens of cm) can also be used.
The branch can be slightly curved, but even a straight stick can be bent to the desired curvature by heating it over a fire. Then, a 0.8–1.2-inch (2–3 cm) pointed tip can be attached to the end to grip the end of the spear.
Making an atlatl from bamboo
Some hunters of certain ethnic groups use bamboo to make atlatls. They break open a bamboo with a diameter larger than their wrist, remove all but the end node, and carve the remaining half into a suitable size. Then, they boil or roast the bamboo to bend it into the desired shape and attach a 0.8 to 1.2-inch (2 to 3 cm) pointed tip to the end for gripping the end of the spear.
Knowing the principle of an atlatl makes it very easy to make one. Some atlatls may have a spear rest and weight design, but they are not necessary. However, they improve the power and comfort of the spear thrower.
Types of Atlatls
Woomera spear thrower
Early human ancestors invented many types of atlatls. Some types can not only project spears, but also be used as water scoops. The “Woomera spear thrower” used by Australian Aboriginals is one such example.
Its shape is elliptical, resembling a paddle. The middle part is very wide and has a groove, which can be used as a water scoop or a food tray. The handle end is also tied with a sharp stone blade for cutting and can be used as a shield in close combat.
Therefore, the Woomera spear thrower is a multiple combinations of a dagger, container, shield, and atlatl, which is a very clever design.
In addition to the Woomera atlatl, many of these weapons in the Americas are designed with weights and finger grooves. These spear throwers are generally called “Aztec atlatls”. The word atlatl (pronounced AT-lat-uhl) comes from the Nahuatl language of the Aztecs.
The main body is slender and lightweight, so the inventor attached a weight stone to the lower end to improve the center of gravity and power of this atlatl.
In addition, the handle of the Aztec spear thrower is designed with two finger grooves (one on each side of the handle). The material of the grooves is sometimes braided leather attached to the handle, and sometimes they are drilled and carved into the handle itself.
Using the Aztec atlatl
When using the atlatl, the index and middle fingers of the user pass through the grooves, which provide better stability for the spear and allow for greater force to be applied. Unlike most spear throwers, where the palm faces the user, the Aztec spear thrower is held with the palm facing forward, allowing for more efficient use of force and a more comfortable wrist position while also increasing the force of the throw.
Of course, some users may prefer to use the thumb and index finger through the grooves while gripping the handle with the remaining three fingers, depending on personal preference.
How the Aztec Weapon Atlatl Terrified the Spanish Musketeers
After Columbus “discovered” the Americas, many Spanish colonizers and conquerors flooded into the continent with their iron and gunpowder weapons, eager to seize gold, silver, and land. They used their advanced weaponry to conquer and subjugate Native Americans, including the Aztecs, who resisted European colonization with their own weapons, including the atlatl.
In some Spanish colonial diaries, there are records of Native Americans using atlatls for hunting and attacking Spanish colonizers, making it one of the few formidable weapons at their disposal. With the atlatl, Native Americans could launch attacks from tens or even hundreds of feet away, and though their spears could not penetrate the armor worn by Spanish conquistadors, who generally did not wear full body armor for mobility reasons, there were many parts of the body left unprotected, such as the thighs, which if struck by a spear could cause extreme pain and even disable the soldier.
Moreover, many Spanish colonizers could not afford to buy full suits of armor, and only wore cotton armor, which could easily be penetrated by obsidian-tipped spears, leaving a gaping hole in the soldier’s body. Thus, the Aztec atlatl left a lasting impression on Spanish conquerors who were armed with steel swords and guns, and even arquebusiers at times feared the weapon.
Atlatl Sport and World Records
The atlatl is still used in modern times by some sports associations for contests. David Ingvall, of Aurora, Colorado, set a new world record for the atlatl in July 1995 by throwing a distance of 848.56 feet (258.64 meters). He propelled an arrow with an atlatl made of carbon fiber, titanium, and a shaft of metal. And the world record for a traditional atlatl that is made of wood, antler, and bone is 581 feet or 177 meters.
Chronology and Distribution of the Atlatl
Studies show that the thin ivory tips from the Pavlovian culture (around 25,000 BC) were only made to be used as the tips of atlatls. This assumption is plausible but not proven. The same applies to the delicate back knives and tips of the Gravettian industry (33,000 BC), which may have been used as shaft reinforcement in these weapon.
The oldest hook end as direct evidence of the atlatl comes from the Grotte de Combe Saunière (Combe-Sauniere Cave) (layer IVb) in France and is attributed to the late Solutrean industry (18,000–16,000 BC). However, the majority of the hook ends of this weapon come from the “Middle Magdalenian” (stage “Magdalenian IV,” around 14,700–13,400 BC). The combination of spear and spear thrower is the oldest complex hunting weapon of humanity—probably several thousand years older than the hunting bow based on current findings.
The focus of the distribution of atlatl findings is in southwestern France, with some finds from northern Spain (El Castillo cave), Switzerland (Kesslerloch), and Germany (Teufelsbrücke in Thuringia). The finds from Switzerland and Germany are particularly noteworthy because they can be assigned to the type of “rudimentary horse head” whose main distribution area is about 620 miles (1000 km) away in southwestern France. And this missing link from the core area to Switzerland and Thuringia in Germany is often used as an argument for atlatls made entirely of wood (because of their lack of durability in nature).
In later times, the weapon was archaeologically and ethnographically documented worldwide in Micronesia, Australia (called Woomera), New Guinea, and among the Eskimos (Inuits). In America, the Aztecs used the spear thrower and called it the atlatl in their language, whose construction differs somewhat from the spear throwers on the other continents, as a weapon of war.
Spear throwers can also be found in the iconography of the Inca, Wari, Tiwanaku, and Moche.
Categorization
Some researchers divide ethnographic atlatls based on their construction characteristics, such as hook throwers, groove throwers, which are made from a single piece and have a grooved depression at one end, and hook-groove throwers, a mixed type with a small hook. There is no archaeological evidence for groove throwers. In New Guinea, spear throwers are found that are hollowed out at the end, while the spear has a barb.
As additional criteria for distinguishing archaeological spear thrower hook ends, researchers use the manner of the base design (unilateral or bilateral sloping; perforations) and decorations (unadorned; engravings or ornaments; figurative decorations). The figurative decorations consist of animal representations and possibly anthropomorphic representations. Some findings have distinct similarities in their design, leading to the highlight of two types of groups in particular.
The faon type atlatl with fawn and birds from Mas-d’Azil. (Image: Tylwyth Eldar, CC-4.0, enhanced)
One is the “faon” (fawn) atlatl spear throwers. It is a long-carved piece of reindeer bone decorated with carved ibex and birds. The functional end is carved into the shape of a recumbent or standing ibex looking backward, with one or two birds on the tail tip and a bird’s tail as a hook.
The other group of atlatls is the “rudimentary horse head” type, in which the functional end is shaped like a horse head facing in the throwing direction, and the forelock serves as a hook – in some cases, horse bodies are engraved on the shafts. However, since fragments of this type are usually broken off in the horse head’s mouth area, nothing can be said about their possible regularity.
History of Atlatl Research
The 15,000-year-old mammoth-shaped spear thrower, or atlatl decoration was discovered in 1866 by Peccadeau de l’Isle in the Montastruc rock shelter, France. (Image: British Museum)
The first finding of an atlatl or spear thrower was excavated by the French paleontologist Edouard Lartet and the English collector Henry Christy in 1863 during their excavations at the “Abri classique” of Laugerie-Basse (Les Eyzies de Tayac). In the publication of the site in 1864, two fragments of a piece were depicted separately, with the fragment with the hook interpreted as part of a harpoon.
In October 1866, the French researcher Peccadeau de l’Isle discovered the hook-shaped end of a spear thrower fashioned in the form of a mammoth during his excavations at the Abri Montastruc rock shelter (Bruniquel). A new hook was inserted into this piece, as the original, in the form of the raised tail of the animal, was likely broken off during use. The excavator regarded this piece as the handle of a dagger.
Around the same time in 1866, the Vicomte de Lastic Saint-Jal examined the nearby Grotte du Roc du Courbet (“Grand Roc Cave”) (Penne), which is also located in the Aveyron Valley. He recovered numerous finds, including three atlatl hooks that were also not recognized as such.
Sculpted atlatl from the Mas d’Azil Cave showing an ibex (at the top part).
In the 1870s and 1880s, Edouard Piette examined various sites in the Pyrenean foothills, including the Grotte de Gourdan in 1871, the Grotte d’Espalungue (Arudy) in 1873, and the Mas d’Azil Cave in 1887. All three sites contained hook ends that were not recognized as such at the time of excavation.
Arthur de Maret excavated Le Placard in 1879, where he found hook ends that also went unrecognized.
After comparisons with spear throwers from Australia, Central, and South America, and those of the Eskimos, the French prehistorian Adrien de Mortillet expressed the assumption in an article from 1891 that the excavated hook-shaped objects could have been used for the same purpose. He referred primarily to the piece excavated by Lartet and Christy from Laugerie-Basse. Mortillet was thus the first to publish the correct interpretation of the atlatl finding, but as it later turned out, he was not the first to recognize it.
In 1903, Émile Cartailhac published several hook ends from the stations of Bruniquel. He also correctly interpreted the function of the pieces and made ethnographic comparisons, as Mortillet did in 1891. The special feature of this publication was the reference to a letter he found in the university library of Toulouse, written by a member of the “Geological Survey of Ireland” on September 27, 1864, and addressed to Edouard Lartet. The unidentified author, who also used ethnographic comparisons with Australian spear throwers to argue his case, had correctly interpreted the function of the first hook end found by Lartet and Christy in the same year.
In 1907, Henri Breuil, in an article co-written with Emile Cartailhac about the small Paleolithic art objects of the Vibraye collection, listed all 34 atlatl hook ends that were known at the time.
An atlatl’s butt-end decoration called “creeping hyena”, made of reindeer antlers, from the Madeleine rock shelter in Tursac, France. It is 4.2 inches or 10.7 cm tall. (Image: Klaus D. Peter, CC-3.0)
In the first half of the 20th century, further examples of atlatl hooks were discovered during excavations at other sites or through continued work at previously known locations. These included the Saint-Michel Cave (F. Mascaraux 1910), La Madeleine (Abri) (L. Capitan and D. Peyrony 1928), and the caves of Isturitz and Oxocelhaya (R. de Saint-Périer 1936; E. Passemard 1944). These publications provide comprehensive descriptions of the archaeological sites, but the atlatl hooks are not given special consideration and are treated as one among many types of artifacts.
Other newly discovered atlatl hooks were described in separate articles, such as those found at Grotte d’Enlène (H. Bégouën 1912; R. Bégouën 1986), Grotte du Mas d’Azil (M. and S.-J. Péquart 1942), Kesslerloch (W. U. Guyan 1944), Grotte de Bedeilhac (R. Robert 1951, 1953a, 1953b), Canecaude I (D. Sacchi 1975), and Combe Sauniére 1 (P. Cattelain 1989). However, these articles provide fewer comparisons with other finds and focus primarily on describing the individual artifacts, often highlighting aspects of their artistic design.
In 1955, the English archaeologist Dorothy Garrod wrote a longer article about the 66 known Upper Paleolithic atlatl hooks. It was published in the Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society. She talked briefly about the history, timeline, and location of the finds, but her main goal was to put them into groups.
She thought that the design of the hook end was the most important way to tell them apart. She called “unweighted throwers” those with simple, lightly decorated shafts and “weighted throwers” those with bigger, animal-shaped hooks. She only briefly talked about questions of function and technology, like shafting, but she made it clear that there needed to be a study that included experiments with reconstructed pieces.
An unpublished seminar paper from 1977 by Jörg Sedlmeier updated Garrod’s compilation to include 79 examples of Upper Paleolithic atlatl hooks. However, it also provided a little discussion of the functional and technological aspects of this famous invention.
Controlling machines via the study of cybernetics is one of the most important scientific discoveries of the twentieth century. Not only because it gave rise to the ubiquitous neologism “cyber,” which means “computer.” Instead, cybernetics is still influential in how we think about machines and technology today. However, initially, there were a variety of unconventional approaches, somewhere between the technological and the animalistic.
The history of the field of cybernetics may be traced back to the era of World War II. In order to better defend themselves against German aerial assaults, the Allies sought new and innovative methods of doing so. Ballistic calculations could determine where a projectile was going, but it was still very difficult to pinpoint the precise location of the target. This was especially true when the target was a moving airplane, the height, and speed of which may change at any moment.
In 1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s administration in the United States established the National Defense Research Committee, which later evolved into the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD). There was a government agency that supported studies on military issues. The issue of inaccurate air defense was literally given its own department. At that point in 1945, it had already supported 80 initiatives in this field. And there was a four-page project proposed by mathematician Norbert Wiener (1894–1964).
The goal of the postwar era was to establish cybernetics as a scientific discipline. However, there was a competing suggestion that needed to be taken into account.
The pigeon notion dates back to before cybernetics
Pigeons are sent off to a low-stimulation lab setting called a Skinner box, named after the psychologist who created it, B. F. Skinner (1904–1990).
Simultaneously, another well-known scientist tackled an issue with comparable implications. It was psychologist Burrhus Frederic Skinner, or B. F. Skinner (1904–1990), who worked on the rocket control system. His system was proto-cybernetic, rather than computer-based or mechanical control technology, and pigeons played a significant part in this.
The term “radical behaviorism” is often attributed to B. F. Skinner. He was curious about how organisms respond to the obvious environmental factors that affect their behavior. But this time he didn’t give any consideration to the mental or spiritual aspects since they were not relevant to his study.
One of his most influential research methodologies, “operant conditioning,” was included in his suggested solution for a novel rocket control system. By using the Skinner box, an apparatus designed for use in the laboratory, he demonstrated that operant behavior—that is, an activity that occurs independently of any conditioning—could be rewarded. The theory behind it is that when an experimental animal is rewarded for a certain action, it will continue to engage in that activity.
Pigeons as rocket pilots
Because of this, Skinner believed that the actions of all living things could be predicted and manipulated. He planned to use this knowledge for missile command in the future. He posited that if conditioned pigeons were placed in the rocket’s control room, things might go more smoothly. After all, the projectiles’ trajectories and courses need to be continually monitored and altered. Skinner thought pigeons were capable of doing this. Control systems were not feasible at the turn of the 1940s for many technological reasons.
The Aggregat 4 rocket, also known as the V2 rocket, was first fired by Nazi Germany in World War II in 1944. It had cutting-edge navigation technology that could automatically keep the flying object on track. It was an early example of a guided missile. The U.S. Office of Strategic Research and Development (OSRD) worked tirelessly to improve the country’s inadequate air defenses.
Pigeon-Guided missile nose cone by B. F. Skinner. (Credit: American History Museum)
Originally titled “Project Pigeon,” Skinner changed his concept to “Project Orcon” (from “Organic Control”). The capsule at the rocket’s tip was designed to hold up to three pigeons. Each pigeon sees the target displayed on a sensor-equipped screen in front of it. To control the rocket, the birds were trained to peck at a certain spot on a screen. If the missile swerved off course, the target would move out of the center of the screen, the pigeons would continue to follow it, and the sensors would pick up on the changes in trajectory and correct them.
During the experiment, a pigeon successfully is pecking the ship on the sensor equipped screen and guiding the rocket to the target.
Therefore, Norbert Wiener wasn’t the only one who obtained funding from the OSRD; Skinner also received $25,000 ($423,000 today). However, in October 1944, the OSRD decided that a more technological solution would be preferable to using pigeons to control rockets, and the project was canceled. However, Skinner’s theory was not entirely abandoned. U.S. naval officials gave it another look in 1948, this time dubbing it “Project Orcon.” The military gave up on the pigeon strategy in 1953.
Skinner’s theory was never put to the test or used in battle. However, his other efforts had a much greater impact on science and psychology. His studies provided the foundation for behavior treatment, for instance.
