The Maginot Line was a system of fortifications built from 1928 to 1938, located on the northeast border of France. It is named after the Minister of War at the time, André Maginot, who had this defense project adopted by Parliament in 1930.
Following the trauma of World War I, the objective was to prevent a new German invasion and make the French territory impregnable. The Maginot Line became closely associated with the painful memory of the 1940 defeat. In the collective memory, it bears a significant responsibility, symbolizing the immobility, sclerosis, and archaism of the French army, strictly confined to a defensive strategy unsuitable for the realities of modern, fast-paced, and mobile warfare.
A Consequence of World War I
135 mm turret model 1932 (block 6 of the Rochonvillers fortification).
After the conclusion of World War I, France found it imperative to completely reassess its military strategy. The war experience marked a radical shift in warfare, with the emergence of aviation, armored forces, and the development of highly destructive artillery. The vulnerability of the traditional infantry became evident in the staggering losses suffered by the French army throughout the war. The previously untenable strategy of relentless offense, adopted by the French high command in 1914, needed reevaluation, paving the way for the formulation of a new strategy.
Marshal Foch advocated for the creation of a rapidly deployable mobile army, while Joffre and, particularly, Pétain argued that a continuous defensive front was invulnerable, forming the basis for France’s defense.
Additionally, the Treaty of Versailles returned Alsace and Lorraine to France. These newly acquired, richly populated territories necessitated inclusion in the new French defense policy. The existing line of forts from Montmédy to Belfort was inadequate for defending these territories in the event of a new war, a constant concern for the French high command.
World War I also led to a reevaluation of fortifications. The rapid fall of Belgian forts in August 1914 convinced the high command of the futility of such structures, leading to the disarmament of forts. The forts of Séré de Rivières, built in the 1880s, were scarcely used during the war’s initial phase. Troops moved forward beyond the forts, making them susceptible to quick capture by the Germans in the early days of the Battle of Verdun.
However, the Battle of Verdun played a pivotal role in the rehabilitation of fortifications. The resilience of Fort Vaux and the significant role of Fort Souville highlighted the utility of fortifications. Lessons from this battle were crucial in shaping future strategies. The new strategy became decidedly defensive, relying on massive fortifications housing effective artillery.
The construction of the new French fortifications adhered to principles such as protecting the Northeastern border facing Germany and the Southeastern border facing Italy. This involved establishing a continuous front and creating an uninterrupted line of fire along the fortifications. The backbone of the system comprised deeply entrenched fortified structures with dispersed organs and equipment, allowing crews to live and fight for months without external contact. The construction of this system was entrusted to the Commission de Défense du Territoire (CDT) and later to the Commission de Défense des Frontières (CDF) starting in 1922.
Construction of the Maginot Line
Barbed wire network in front of the entrance to the Immerhof.
These two commissions would be tasked with defining the nature and layout of the new fortifications. However, it would not be their responsibility to implement the construction of the fortifications; they served as a reflective body where different concepts of fortification would be debated.
By the end of 1925, the Supreme War Council approved the commission’s report, envisioning the construction of a discontinuous fortification system, even during times of peace.
The project presented in November of the following year outlines the creation of three fortified regions—meaning three continuous lines of fortifications separated by non-fortified spaces, similar to Séré de Rivières’ fortified curtains—centered around Metz, the Lauter Valley, and Belfort, along with fortified positions behind the main ones.
This project was gradually streamlined, leading to the final 1929 plan that envisioned the creation of two fortified regions (Metz and Lauter), a specific defense line along the Rhine in Alsace, and the defensive organization of the Alps.
In 1927, the Commission for the Organization of Fortified Regions (CORF) was established. Its role was to implement the decisions of the CDF, and it became the primary architect of the Maginot Line. Comprising the best specialists from the three armed forces involved—artillery, infantry, and engineering—it was tasked with finalizing the positions’ layout, implementing construction projects, and managing equipment.
The CORF established regional delegations in Metz and Strasbourg, to which local engineering headquarters (Thionville, Bitche, Mulhouse, Belfort, and Nice, among others) are subordinate. The enormity of the task, the scale of the construction projects, the numerous technical challenges, and the overwhelming responsibility placed on the technicians and officers working on this colossal project necessitated the involvement of the country’s scientific and technical elite.
Turret for two mixed arms.
The next step was to gain approval for the project from political institutions. Early in 1929, the Council of Ministers approved the CORF’s project. When André Maginot succeeded Paul Painlevé as Minister of War at the end of 1929, he was tasked with taking over the dossier. He ensured the project’s approval in the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate, where it received over 90% of the votes.
On January 14, 1930, a law was passed allocating 2.9 billion francs over 5 years for the fortification projects. However, in reality, the work had already begun long before.
By the end of 1928, construction of the first structure of the Maginot Line, the Rimplas fortification in the Alps facing Italy, was underway, although the majority of the fortifications would later be oriented towards Germany.
Most of the major works in the Northeast were initiated in 1929. The blocks were cast and armed between 1929 and 1934. Most structures became operational by 1935, even though considerable work was still required to enhance the comfort inside the fortifications.
Simultaneously, hundreds of casemates and thousands of small bunkers were constructed according to the CORF’s plans, and millions of rails were planted to establish a massive anti-tank barrier along the northeastern border. By 1936, the core of the Maginot Line was constructed and operational, leading to the dissolution of the CORF. However, this did not mean that construction of the Maginot Line ceased entirely.
Budget and Technical Limitations
An STG blockhouse in the Cattenom woods. Image: Wikimedia, CC BY-SA 3.0 de.
The budget consistently put pressure on the CORF (Commission d’Organisation des Régions Fortifiées) throughout the construction process, either due to unanticipated costs, particularly for specific circumstances requiring special arrangements, or as a result of the extremely high inflation during those years. For these reasons, the ambitions of the CORF had to be constantly scaled-down, leading to the abandonment of the construction of certain blocks, bunkers, or even entire structures, resulting in serious weaknesses in certain sectors.
The Faulquemont region and the border with Belgium from Longuyon to Willy were both fortified as part of a second phase of work that began in 1934 to equip certain sectors that the first phase had neglected. However, the structures built in this second period had a much lower budget and, consequently, were of much lower quality than those constructed in the previous period.
After the CORF’s mandate ended in 1936, the construction of the Maginot Line continued under the guidance of the Main-d’œuvre militaire (MOM) or the Service Technique du Génie (STG) of each region, following plans drawn by officers present on-site.
These late achievements suffered not only from a significant lack of resources but also from a blatant lack of coherence, as each sector followed plans drawn by officers whose tactics could differ radically from those of the neighboring sector. These isolated construction campaigns did not cease with the declaration of war and sometimes continued until June 1940. Alongside the actual construction, a campaign of technical innovation had to be launched to equip the new fortifications.
By 1936, France possessed a brand-new and seemingly invulnerable system of fortifications. The years that followed, especially with the outbreak of World War II, provided an opportunity for the Maginot Line to prove its qualities in battle. Indeed, the Maginot Line played a genuine strategic role in the campaign in France, a role often unknown to the general public today, even though the battles that took place there were of great intensity.
The Maginot Line in the War
Single CORF casemate at Ravin-de-Crusnes. Image: Wikimedia, CC BY-SA 3.0.
The moment the large fortifications are put into service, they are occupied by specialized troops created for the occasion—fortress troops comprising detachments of infantry, artillery, and engineering. In times of peace, these troops are stationed in barracks behind the fortifications they occupy at the slightest alert. Thus, even before the declaration of war in September 1939, the Maginot Line would be put on alert several times based on the convulsions in Franco-German diplomatic relations, such as the remilitarization of the Rhineland in March 1936 or the Anschluss in March 1938. However, on August 23, 1939, when reservists were put on alert, the occupation became permanent.
During the fall and winter of 1939–1940, similar to the rest of the front, no notable events occurred on the Maginot Line except for a few skirmishes and aerial combats. Half of the French army—the 3rd, 5th, and 8th armies—massed behind the line and remained entirely passive during these nine months of the “Phoney War.”
On May 10, 1940, the German army launched its major offensive against Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and France. The French army stationed behind the Belgian border immediately moved to engage the Wehrmacht in Belgium, while the troops of the Maginot Line remained in their positions. In the initial days of the campaign, the battlefield remains distant from the Maginot Line.
The first significant contact between the German army and the fortifications of the Maginot Line occurred on May 16, 1940, at the Ferté outpost near Montmédy. It is a small and lower-quality outpost built in 1934, but it is the first Maginot Line outpost that the Germans had the opportunity to attack. They unleash a barrage of shells on the two casemates, overwhelming the modest outpost. Three days of incessant bombardment filled the interior with smoke, causing the asphyxiation and death of all 107 soldiers in the crew.
Apart from this tragic episode, the majority of the Maginot Line remains away from the main axes of the German offensive. Fearing the resistance of the fortifications, the Germans launched assaults against the line itself only very late in the campaign, coinciding with the beginning of the evacuation of Maginot Line troops after Weygand’s general retreat order on June 12. By this date, the French army is already defeated, and the Maginot Line troops are the only corps holding their positions with intact equipment.
However, when the Germans launched their first major offensive against the Maginot Line, most of its garrison troops were still in place. The Wehrmacht chooses to attack in the Sarre Valley, where the Maginot Line consists of small casemates and large artificial water bodies forming a defensive line. On June 14, 1940, after artillery and aviation bombardment, the Germans assaulted the fortified line.
Type B 81 mortar firing chamber in the Bois du Four A5 structure. Image: Michaël Séramour, CC BY-SA 4.0.
Fierce fighting ensues throughout the day in the woods of the Sarre Valley. By evening, French troops, reinforced by some Polish units, managed to repel the Germans at the cost of 500 casualties. The Wehrmacht, on the other hand, suffered over 1,000 losses. Paradoxically, this became the greatest French victory of the 1940 campaign, achieved on the same day as the fall of Paris.
However, it is a victory without lasting impact. The Sarre troops, like the rest of the French army, must retreat, abandoning the positions they fiercely defended on June 14. The general retreat of all field troops leaves the Maginot Line with only 22,000 defenders, from Luxembourg to Switzerland.
From then on, the Germans exploited this breach in the Maginot Line to encircle it. Soon, most fortified outposts would find themselves attacked from all sides. On June 15, the German army launched an offensive on the corner of the Maginot Line in Lower Alsace.
For several days, the Germans attempted to breach the line of fortifications but failed.
On June 19, a new German attack was launched in the Vosges. The mountain range crest was defended only by a series of small casemates deprived of artillery support due to the withdrawal of field artillery. They could only resist fiercely before being taken.
On June 16, taking advantage of the French withdrawal in the Rhine Valley, the Germans launched a bold amphibious operation. In a state of significant numerical inferiority and almost without artillery support, the French could only delay the battle before gradually retreating. The fighting, however, continued until the armistice between France and Germany came into effect on June 22.
However, the battles are not confined to the Northeast. On June 10, 1940, Italy declared war on France and launched an offensive against the French fortifications in the Alps. Despite significant numerical superiority, the Italian advance was laborious and faced great difficulties, notably due to the effectiveness of the Maginot Line fortifications in the Alps.
After Armistice
The most imposing casemate in the north-east: Block 5 of the Rochonvillers fortification, with four battlements each protecting a cannon. Image: Michel Teiten, CC BY 2.5.
When the armistice came into effect on June 24, 1940, the Maginot Line was largely intact. No major artillery fortifications had surrendered to the Germans. While a few casemates and small fortifications had fallen to the Wehrmacht from June 20 onwards, neither the artillery—the Germans utilized 420mm cannons—nor aerial bombardments succeeded in incapacitating the concrete and steel fortresses. When the fighting ceased, both adversaries faced each other, and the situation proved to be quite delicate to resolve.
According to the laws of war, as the troops of the Maginot Line were undefeated, they were entitled to withdraw without being imprisoned, a concession the Germans refused. The French negotiators at the armistice commission were compelled to yield.
For several days, a French military delegation bearing government orders toured all the Maginot Line fortifications to organize the surrender and captivity of all garrisons. On July 1, 1940, the 22,000 defenders of the Maginot Line abandoned their fortifications to surrender them to the Germans. Like two million French soldiers, they would endure nearly five years of captivity in Germany.
During the occupation, the Germans capitalized on the potential of the Maginot Line. Some fortifications were used to test new German weapons, while others became true underground war factories, sheltered from Allied bombardments.
As the prospect of an Allied attack on Europe became increasingly likely, the Germans conceived grand plans to repurpose the Maginot Line into a vast defensive line facing the West. The Germans had made no significant changes, however, when the Americans reached the back of the Maginot Line in October 1944.
In some areas, the Maginot Line impeded Allied progress, but it did not play a significant strategic role during this campaign. Before abandoning certain fortifications, the Germans sometimes carried out explosive demolitions.
Phased Abandonment of the Maginot Line
On ne passe pas!. The 1918 French propaganda poster by Maurice Neumont. Image: Temple.edu
After the restoration of peace, the Maginot Line was not abandoned. It now plays a role in NATO’s strategy, considered a defensive line against a potential Soviet offensive in Western Europe. However, despite being at the forefront of military technology in 1939–1940, the Maginot Line is entirely obsolete in the face of new artillery and the realities of the Cold War and the atomic bomb era.
In the 1960s, the military gradually abandoned the Maginot Line. Many fortifications were simply left to decay and fall into oblivion. Some of them are still in use by the military, like the Hochwald fortification in Alsace, which currently houses one of Europe’s most significant radar bases. Others have been acquired by enthusiasts’ associations, restored, and opened to the public. It is now possible to visit some of these sites that played an important, albeit often overlooked, role during the 1940 campaign. The fortress troops ultimately lived up to the motto of their corps, “On ne passe pas!” (They shall not pass).
Featured Image: A5 Bois du Four Maginot Line, Wikimedia, CC BY-SA 4.0.
Combat between German and French forces at Verdun raged from February 21 to December 18, 1916. The Germans launched an assault meant to “bleed the French army dry.” In short order, General Pétain was given responsibility for defending this section of the front, and he organized the front’s supply by building the “sacred way,” a road that was widened and maintained to allow two lines of trucks to pass each other without stopping. French resistance forces were able to slow the German advance, but at an unbelievable cost in lives and injuries. France’s victorious offensive at Verdun was widely regarded as a turning point in World War I (1914–1918).
Why Was the Battle of Verdun Fought?
Assaulting French soldiers emerge from their trenches during the Battle of Verdun, 1916.
Since the Battle of the Marne, the war of movement had been transformed into a war of positions: the combatants buried themselves in trenches, fought in horrible conditions, folded in the mud in the midst of rats, were surrounded by corpses that were not always possible to evacuate, and above all, survived in fear. General Erich von Falkenhayn planned to “bleed the French army white” on the Verdun salient with the fire of thousands of cannons, meaning to exhaust it both morally and physically before completely defeating it. The Kronprinz, William II’s eldest son, who was also intent on destroying the French army and who described Verdun as the symbolic “heart of France,” backed him up in this mission.
The location on the Meuse in Lorraine and its fortifications made it a strategic issue and a matter of national honor for the French, and the Germans knew this. The military history of Verdun’s defense was extensive, beginning with the construction of fortifications in the 14th century and continuing with the construction of an underground citadel under Louis XIII, its consolidation under Louis XIV with Sebastien Le Prestre de Vauban, and its reinforcement once more at the end of the 19th century. The Prussians besieged and conquered the city twice: in 1792 and again in 1870.
Due to the salient in the front and the dividing Meuse River, Verdun was a very difficult battlefield to defend. The Germans were also aware of the difficulty the French would have in reaching the Verdun-based troops due to the lack of a proper railway line.
Since Joffre believed the Verdun defenses to be nearly invulnerable, he failed to adequately staff the forts with sufficient numbers of men and equip them with adequate weapons. Also, in August 1915, military leaders decided to relocate around forty heavy batteries and twelve field batteries to safer areas. A battle in Champagne was expected, so the outbreak of fighting at Verdun came as a shock to the French.
A Meticulously Prepared Offensive
The German high command had decided in December 1915 that Verdun would be a decisive battle, and they had prepared for it accordingly. German forces were increased from six to eight divisions, and concrete tunnels were constructed as close as possible to the French positions. The German army was spread out over a dozen-kilometer-long front, and 221 artillery batteries were set up to support them. These plans were kept secret, but the French intelligence services were aware of an attack on February 11. Although some reinforcements were dispatched to the site just in case, military authorities didn’t put much stock in this unexpected information. The assault was delayed for a few days due to bad weather.
A German artillery barrage began at 7:30 a.m. on February 21. It had over 1.2 million cannons, including 13 mighty 420-mm Krupps. Bombs rained down on the three French divisions that were stationed along this fifteen-kilometer front. With only 65 artillery batteries and 270 cannons, von Falkenhayn planned to wipe out as much of the enemy infantry as possible. After nine hours of bombardments, German artillery finally gave way to infantry: German infantrymen launched themselves against French positions, and, for the first time, the formidable weapon of the flamethrower was used.
Two million shells were fired at French positions in the first 48 hours of the war, and the French front was pushed back about ten kilometers in that time. German artillery was relentless, but the French defenders’ tenacity in the face of isolation and a lack of leadership surprised the occupiers. Joffre ordered the French to resist at all costs, declaring with resolve, “They will not pass!” on February 25, after the French had lost 20,000 men and the fort of Douaumont had fallen. In order to defend Verdun, he put General Philippe Pétain in charge, with support from Generals Nivelle and Mangin of the 2nd army.
Pétain Organized the Defense
Pétain had a plan to close the gap the enemy had left and establish communication with the rear starting on February 26. Over the course of 24 hours, reinforcements and supplies of food and ammunition were brought in via the 6,000 trucks that took the “sacred road” connecting Bar-le-Duc and Verdun. They brought back a lot of wounded soldiers when they got home. From that point on, weekly transports included 90,000 men and 50,000 tons of equipment. Additionally, Pétain established a rotation of units that led to two-thirds of the French army taking part in the fighting at Verdun in an effort to minimize losses within each division and provide some respite for the poilus in the area around Bar-le-Duc.
The French army grew from 230,000 to 584,000 strong between February and April, with the artillery nearing 2,000 pieces, of which a quarter were heavy weapons. But the Germans continued to show their strength; on February 27, they captured the fort of Douaumont, which had been defended by only 60 men. The Germans launched their attack on the left bank of the Meuse on March 6 and quickly gained control of Cumières Wood on March 7, Mort-Homme Ridge on March 14, and Hill 304 on May 24.
The German offensive launched in the early spring was repelled on both the eastern and western fronts, and by the end of March, the enemy’s breach had been sealed. Despite the initial setback on April 9, the Germans rallied quickly, and General Mangin was unable to retake Douaumont between May 22 and May 24. Massive casualties were sustained in the so-called “hell of Verdun,” but the war of attrition nonetheless continued. The Germans captured Vaux Fort on June 7, and at the month’s end, they launched a fresh assault on Thiaumont, Fleury, and the area around Froi-deterre.
The Germans advanced three kilometers, endangering French positions on the right bank of the Meuse, and the terrible phosgene bombs made their first appearance. But the situation on the Somme, further north, gradually shifted the balance of power; on July 1, the French and British forces launched a massive offensive that compelled the Germans to reduce their numbers in Verdun in order to hold their positions on the Somme.
The Battle of Verdun Turns to the Advantage of the French
On July 11, the Kronprinz attempted a fresh assault on the fort of Souville in Verdun, but the French artillery response and counterattacks saved the situation just in time. In light of the setbacks suffered by the German forces, Marshal Hindenburg, aided once more by General Ludendorff, relieved General von Falkenhayn of his command on August 29, 1916.
General Robert Nivelle, who had replaced General Pétain as head of the 2nd Army (Pétain was given command of the Army Group Centre), began a counteroffensive against Verdun on the 24th. After losing ground steadily since February, this allowed the Allies to turn the tide and recover quickly, retaking the forts of Douaumont and Vaux within a matter of hours and two months, respectively. Along the right bank of the Meuse, between Champneuville and Bezonvaux, the front had steadied.
The French triumphed at Verdun on December 18, 1916.
The “Massacre” of Verdun
Considering the previous ten months of bloodshed and 37 million shells fired, this victory was monumental. Despite nearly 380,000 dead, missing, and wounded, France maintained its advantage in the Verdun region. It was a double loss for Germany: first, they were unable to break through the French front, and second, their casualty count (estimated at 335,000 killed, missing, and wounded) was nearly as high as France’s. After the Somme, the Battle of Verdun was the bloodiest in World War I.
KEY DATES OF THE BATTLE OF VERDUN
Fort Douaumont before the battle (German aerial photograph).
German forces stormed and captured Douaumont Fort on February 25, 1916. General Pétain was given control of the fortified Verdun area after the French army suffered this symbolic defeat.
The Germans made a small gain for their efforts on April 9, 1916, when they captured the Mort-Homme observation point. General Pétain issued a historic rallying cry the following day: “Courage, we will get them!”
On May 1, 1916, General Joffre appointed General Nivelle to replace Pétain because Joffre found Nivelle more offensive than Pétain.
On May 22, 23, and 24, 1916, General Mangin, acting on orders from General Nivelle, led a major French offensive that ultimately failed to retake the Fort of Douaumont. No adequate artillery preparations were made.
On June 7, 1916, the defenders of Vaux Fort signed a document surrendering the fort. When they realized they wouldn’t have enough water to make it, the local troops under Major Raynal’s command surrendered. The Germans took control of the area.
Following a nonstop barrage of poison gas shells on June 23, 1916, 60,000 German soldiers attacked along a 6-kilometer front. Fleury was taken. Despite this, Germany’s efforts to capture Verdun persisted in failing, producing disappointing results despite the enormous effort.
The German army’s final offensive began in the Souville sector on July 12, 1916. There was no success. The enemy’s greatest advance during the Battle of Verdun occurred here. This was yet another setback for Kronprinz Wilhelm of Prussia’s troops, who had been told to stick to defensive measures.
Douaumont after the battle.
After months of planning the “artillery fire” phase, the French forces successfully retook Fort Douaumont from the Germans on October 24, 1916, effectively ending the Battle of Verdun.
Battle of Verdun at a Glance
What was the Battle of Verdun?
The Battle of Verdun was a major battle fought between German and French forces during World War I. It was one of the longest and deadliest battles of the war and took place in and around the city of Verdun in northeastern France.
What was the significance of the Battle of Verdun?
The Battle of Verdun is considered significant because it became a symbol of the tenacity and resilience of the French forces. It also represented a turning point in the war, with both sides suffering heavy casualties and the battle ultimately resulting in a stalemate.
What were the objectives of the German offensive?
The German objective was to capture the strategic city of Verdun and inflict heavy casualties on the French army, hoping to break their morale and force them to divert resources from other parts of the front.
What was Falkenhayn’s strategy in the Battle of Verdun?
German General Erich von Falkenhayn’s strategy was to engage the French in a battle of attrition at Verdun, hoping to bleed the French army and force them to commit significant resources to defend the area. His intention was to wear down French morale and create a favorable situation for German victory elsewhere
What role did trench warfare play in the Battle of Verdun?
Trench warfare was a defining characteristic of the Battle of Verdun. Both sides constructed extensive networks of trenches, which served as defensive lines and provided protection from enemy fire. The battle involved fierce fighting over small sections of land between the opposing trench systems.
Bibliography:
Martin, W. (2001). Verdun 1916. London: Osprey. ISBN 978-1-85532-993-5.
Windrow, M. (2004). The Last Valley: The Battle of Dien Bien Phu. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-84671-0.
Horne, A. (2007) [1962]. The Price of Glory: Verdun 1916 (pbk. repr. Penguin ed.). London. ISBN 978-0-14-193752-6.
From July to November of 1916, the Allies and the Germans fought in the Somme region of northern France in the bloody and protracted Battle of the Somme. The British first engaged some 40 tanks on September 15 at Flers, and the ensuing bloodbath was a turning point in the war. But this initial major Franco-British offensive, led by General Foch and Douglas Haig, did not result in any significant Allied advances on the Western Front (contrary to the expectations of the general staff). Joffre called off the offensive on November 18, 1916, due to bad weather, the exhaustion of the troops, and the small amount of territory gained.
What was the goal of the Battle of the Somme?
According to the command, the lack of resources was to blame for the failure of the Allied offensives in 1915. Generals believed they could win with heavy artillery preparations, which would clear the way for the advance of the troops as production of guns and shells increased. On December 6, 7, and 8, 1915, the Allies convened at Chantilly, in the French Grand Quartier Général under the command of General Joffre, with this goal in mind.
Each of the major players in World War I—the French, the British, the Italians, and the Russians—had the same idea: to launch an offensive at the same time on multiple fronts. The Russians would launch a general attack in the east; the Italians would launch an attack on the Isonzo; and the French and British would launch a massive offensive on the Somme at the end of spring or the beginning of summer 1916. At the same time, the Germans, influenced by Falkenhyan, decided to “bleed the French army dry” by leading an assault on Verdun.
The Battle of Verdun altered the original plan
Due to the unexpected start of the Battle of Verdun on February 21, 1916, plans were severely hampered. While the Somme offensive was planned as a joint French and British effort in which both sides would play an equal role, the French demanded in February that the British contribute more to the offensive through the head of the French Military Mission to the British Army. The attack’s front was also drastically shortened, from 70 to 40 kilometers, with the British portion reaching 28 kilometers; the Battle of the Somme would henceforth be fought primarily by the British.
The area of Albert, which the Allies control, and the surrounding area of Péronne (controlled by the Germans), would be where the operation would take place. There was a lot of room for interpretation in the objectives, which Jean-Jacques Becker claims were as much about wearing down the German army as they were about finding the decisive battle that would lead to final victory.
Harmful attack, but not much accomplished
Several days of intensive artillery preparation culminated in an assault on German defenses by French and British armies on July 1, 1916. Although the French VIth saw some success in the south, the British army suffered catastrophic losses, with 10,000 dead and 60,000 wounded by July 1. The attackers were met with partially intact defenses and German machine gun fire despite the extensive preemptive bombardment.
The battle, which spanned a significant amount of time, can be broken down into three distinct parts: the initial offensive, which occurred from July 1 to 20, the long stagnation that occurred from July 20 to September 3, and the slight advancement that occurred from September 3 to November 18. The British lost 420,000 men, including over 100,000 dead, and the French lost 200,000 men, including over 100,000 dead, for an advance of only a few kilometers. Over 500,000 German soldiers died in the conflict.
The British Army deployed tanks (Mark IV) for the first time on September 15, 1916, at Flers. Many of them were unable to reach the front lines, but others made remarkable progress. In spite of this, there weren’t enough of them, and they were too sluggish and unreliable.
Its many flaws, especially its slowness (barely 6 km/h on the road), gave it an effect that was more psychological than real, with most of the examples involved in the fighting being destroyed or captured. This was also true of the French and German tanks that appeared a few months later. A few months later, tanks finally became a game-changer.
By the end of 1916, it appeared that the Somme offensive had failed because the enemy lines were not breached. With Germany’s continued occupation of northeastern France, the balance of power remained in the hands of the central powers. Worse, it appeared that neither side could win the war decisively.
Battle of the Somme; a turning point
The Battle of the Somme was a turning point in the Great War for a number of reasons. While the Battle of Verdun is not prominent in German accounts of the war, the Battle of the Somme is. While fighting on French territory, German soldiers saw themselves as defending their homeland from the British invaders and took a defensive position in underground shelters.
The French were discouraged after the failure of the Somme, and this fed a weariness that began at the end of 1916 and was expressed more forcefully in 1917. The volunteers, who made up the bulk of the troops sent and were decimated on July 1, 1916, were replaced by conscripts, whose formation had begun at the start of 1916, and the Somme marked the beginning of the end for the volunteer army.
The French and British worked together exceptionally well on the Somme, marking a turning point in the war. The French and British armies had to employ liaison officers to facilitate better communication between the two sides as liaison tactics began to be put into practice. The Somme campaign failed and cost a lot of lives, but it showed Allied commanders that they needed to work together better and train harder to defeat the Germans. It’s true that the Allies were able to learn from this massive material battle, especially with regards to the use of artillery, which ultimately led to their victory in 1918 despite the terrible weather and serious tactical errors.
Memory of the Battle of the Somme
British people’s recollections of World War I will always include the bloody Battle of the Somme. The first day of the offensive was the bloodiest day in British history, and many accounts detail the carnage that ensued. When the Scottish lieutenant and his two men finally reached the German lines, the man in charge is rumored to have exclaimed, “My God, where are the rest of the boys?”
Also quickly remembered was the Somme Battle. The Thiepval (Somme) Memorial, by Edwin Lutyens, was built between 1928 and 1932 at the behest of the British government. The monument, which stands at 45 meters tall and is shaped like a triumphal arch, honors the 73,367 British and South African soldiers who lost their lives on the Somme. Nearly 160,000 people visit the memorial annually, and it is located next to a military cemetery that adheres to British standards, meaning that all names are engraved on uniform steles regardless of the person’s rank or grade.
In addition, the “circuit of remembrance” of the Battle of the Somme has been developed, making it possible to see the scars left by the Great War on the landscape and to see the most significant memorials to the conflict: Somme commemorations have recently taken place at the Ulster Tower (Irish memorial) and the ANZAC memorial (Australian and New Zealand memorial).
TIMELINE OF THE BATTLE OF THE SOMME
The British failed on July 1st, 1916
The Allies began their assault early in the morning after several days of artillery preparation were delayed, in part, by bad weather. The British, carrying more than 30 kilos of equipment, moved at a snail’s pace because their command didn’t want them to disperse or think about the decimated German forces from the previous days’ bombardments. The majority of British casualties were the result of German machine gun fire.
July-August 1916: The slow progression
The British command wanted to halt the attack on the Somme front after the disastrous results of the July 1st offensive, but Marshal Joffre, commander-in-chief of the French armies, refused. During the subsequent two months of attacks and counterattacks, both sides made only minimal gains (at Langeval Wood for the British and Flaucourt Plateau for the French, respectively) and suffered significant casualties.
Movement of German Troops
However, the German general staff was concerned that the front lines on the Somme had been breached. As a result, in the month of July, the decision was made to pull thirteen divisions back from the Verdun front and two from the Ypres sector. This relieved some of the stress on the Allies at Verdun. In the weeks that followed, other divisions were scheduled to be deactivated as well. The German writer Paul Zech, who survived Verdun and was sent as reinforcement to the Somme front, testifies in a letter, “Here, everything is brought to its extreme: hatred, dehumanization, horror, and blood (…).” I don’t know anymore what can happen to us.
September-October 1916: intensification of the allied offensives
Several German positions were quickly taken despite the persistent rain and the battlefield’s transformation into a quagmire. On September 9, the British recovered Ginchy, in particular. On September 15th, they deployed their first tanks, which they dubbed “tanks” Mark I, with mixed results due to their clumsiness, but which did allow them to seize a number of positions (Courcelette, Martinpuich…). The French were successful in capturing large portions of territory from the Germans and capturing thousands of prisoners. On September 25th, the British and the French launched a combined offensive that would continue until September 28th. They allowed the Allies to retake Combles and Thiepval and strengthen their positions, but their strength waned in October.
November 1916: Against all odds, the end of the battle
However, despite some Allied victories in November, the fighting appeared to stall. The weather turned bad in the second half of the month, bringing icy rain, blizzards, and snow to the soldiers and effectively halting any offensives. This, oddly enough, was the catalyst for the end of the Battle of the Somme, as on November 21, General Haig, commanding the British army, decided to end the offensive. On the 11th of December, 1916, General Foch, who was in command of the French army on the Somme, did the same thing. On December 18, French Army Chief of Staff Marshal Joffre declared an end to the Somme offensive. The primary goals of Bapaume and Péronne were not accomplished by this war of attrition, which resembled Verdun.
Western Europe, but also Eastern Europe and the Balkans, was ground zero for World War I (known as the First World War, Great War, or WW1), which raged from July 28, 1914, to November 11, 1918. It quickly gained the label “world war” because of the participation of the majority of the world’s leading powers at the time. Many historians call it “The Great War” because they believed it would be the final conflict in their country. World War I was fought between central empires like Germany, the Ottoman Empire, and Austria-Hungary and the Allies like France, the United Kingdom, Russia, and the United States. It was characterized by the mobilization of so many soldiers, trench warfare, and the introduction of new weapons like airplanes, tanks, and gas, and it resulted in the deaths of 18 million people (military and civilian alike). When the Allies won the war, a lot of the old empires fell apart and were replaced by new countries.
How did World War I start?
It all started with an assassination attempt on June 28th, 1914, which triggered a major crisis across Europe. Sarajevo was the scene of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Habsburg, heir to the throne of the Austria-Hungary (Austro-Hungarian Empire), by a Bosnian Serb student. The latter group was advocating for Serbia to annex Bosnia. On July 28, 1914, the Austria-Hungary Empire used this as justification for an attack on Serbia.
The Serbs wanted to recover Bosnia, which had been annexed by Austria-Hungary, so that they could gain access to the Adriatic Sea and unite all the Slavs of the Balkans under a single kingdom. It was the catalyst for the political maneuvering that ultimately led to World War I. On July 30, Russia began mobilizing its military forces to aid Serbia. Austria-Hungary’s ally, Germany, went to war with Russia and then France. Thereafter, the United Kingdom declares its allegiance to France. Germany invaded Belgium on August 4, 1914. Next up was the Ardennes Offensive.
What were the causes of World War I?
Examining a world map from the start of 1914 was essential for comprehending the factors that led to the outbreak of World War I. Many people lived in what was then known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire (Austrians, Hungarians, Czechs, Romanians, Poles, Serbs, etc.). The Russian Empire, Prussia, and Austria-Hungary all had a piece of Poland. There was a change in Turkey’s name to the Ottoman Empire. At the end of the war in 1870–1871, Germany had taken Alsace and a portion of Lorraine from France. Tense diplomatic relations were a result of territorial disputes between multiple countries and empires.
Who were the actors in World War I?
At the outset of World War I, in 1914, two alliances squared off against one another:
The United States, Japan, Portugal, Belgium, Italy, Romania, Greece, Brazil, and many other countries backed the Triple Entente, which was made up of the United Kingdom, France, and the Russian Empire.
The Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria supported the Triple Alliance, which consisted of the German, Austria-Hungary, and Italian Empires, and which joined the Triple Entente in 1915.
All these nations quickly went to war with one another because of the complex web of alliances that existed between them.
Verdun and the other battles of 1914–1918
French soldiers attacking from their trench
During World War I, battles were fought simultaneously on numerous fronts. A front line was forming on the western border of France and Italy. From the Baltic to the Black Sea in the East, the Russian Empire was at odds with the Triple Alliance. A third great front was present in the Balkans. However, the World War I was felt on every continent, particularly in Africa and the Middle East, and on every ocean. There were three distinct eras of World War I on the Western Front. The months of August through November of 1914 were characterized by constant troop and supply shifts. These rapid advances in a war of positions from the end of 1914 to March 1918 will be halted, however, by the use of new, very deadly weapons (heavy artillery, shells, etc.). As a result, the fighting evolves into a trench war. In March of 1918, tanks and planes began arriving in large numbers, marking the beginning of maneuver warfare.
In light of these three main epochs, the following is a list of the most significant battles fought on the Western Front during World War I:
The First Battle of the Marne killed 250,000 people between September 5 and September 12, 1914.
The Dardanelles campaign, which lasted from February 1915 to January 1916, claimed the lives of 250,000.
The Battle of Verdun took place from February 21 to December 31, 1916, and caused 700,000 deaths.
From July 1st to November 18th, 1916, the Battle of the Somme kills 1.2 million people.
The Battle of the Chemin des Dames took place from April 16 to May 9, 1917, and resulted in 180,000 French deaths.
On July 18, 1918, the Second Battle of the Marne occurred, killing 200,000 people.
Was World War I a total war?
One could say that World War I was a total war because it affected every aspect of life in the countries that were involved.
Military mobilization: The European conflict exploded onto the world stage with the involvement of the colonial empires (France, Britain, and Russia), the United States, and Japan. Each nation sent a sizable number of its men to the battlefield.
Economic mobilization: The war effort receives significant contributions from all belligerent nations’ industrial output. The French government had also begun issuing loans to the general public. Civilian life was also affected. Male farmhands and factory workers have been replaced by female counterparts. Rationing was the norm because food supplies were more difficult to distribute.
How did World War I end?
In 1917, American troops arrived on the Western Front. While Germany and Austria-Hungary continued to fight on the Eastern Front, Russia, caught up in communist revolutions since March 1917, withdrew its forces. When the Germans tried to push through to the West in 1918, the Entente powers made a breakthrough instead. Unsettled by the uprising, Germany requested an armistice, which was signed with representatives of the new German Republic on November 11, 1918, in Rethondes, France.
How many people died in the World War I?
One of the deadliest wars ever was World War I, which claimed more lives than World War II. A total of 18 million people, including 10 million soldiers, lost their lives as a result. The French military suffered a loss of 1.4 million men and women. Two million German soldiers were killed in action. Keep in mind the 21 million wounded, especially the “gueules cassées,” or amputated or disfigured soldiers. Europeans began to feel the effects of the Spanish flu in April 1918, which continued through the summer of 1919. The physical resilience of the population had been depleted by years of fighting. More than 2 million people in Europe would have died if this virus had spread.
The results of World War I
Many lives were lost and many bodies were broken during World War I. The affected nations were unsettled and saddled with debt. There was a lot of damage as a result. Not least, it had a geographic impact:
The French states of Alsace and Lorraine were reclaimed by the French government.
Austria and Hungary emerged from the fragmentation of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. New nations were created from the remaining parts of the empire: Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Poland, etc.
The Ottoman territory was split up, occupied, and ultimately lost. In 1923, Turkey came into being.
After the German Empire fell, a new country called the German Republic was formed, but it quickly lost land to Poland in the form of Alsace-Lorraine and the “Danzig corridor.”
Finnish, Belarusian, Ukrainian, Lithuanian, Latvian, and Estonian nationalists successfully pushed for independence from the Russian Empire, which had also become a Republic.
The Treaty of Versailles, signed on June 28, 1919, exacted a steep price from Germany. The brand-spanking-new German Republic was taxed heavily. Its colonies were destroyed, and its military was whittled down to nothing. Adolf Hitler would later use German resentment of the “diktat” of Versailles to his advantage during the 1930s.
TIMELINE OF WORLD WAR I
May 25, 1882: Birth of the Triple Alliance
It was in 1882 that the Triple Alliance (or Triplice) between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy was formed for defensive purposes. Thus, Germany was bolstered in the face of an antagonistic France that had not been friendly since the war of 1870, and Austria-Hungary found allies in the face of threats posed by Russian expansionist policies in the Balkans. The Italians, for their part, craved power above all else so that they could better counter France’s colonial agenda. All of them took part in cutting diplomatic ties with France. The signing of this treaty was crucial in setting the stage for World War I. It was broken in May 1915 when Italy sided with the opposing camp.
French and Russian military officials signed an agreement on August 18, 1892
A diplomatic and military agreement between France and Russia allowed them to end their diplomatic isolation from the Triplice. This treaty not only formalizes a military partnership but also sets out the parameters for the Empire to take out a loan from Russia. The relationship between the two countries and Britain got better over time, which led to the Triple Entente and made things more tense before World War I.
April 8, 1904: Signature of the Entente Cordiale
The European situation was becoming increasingly tense, and the Triple Alliance posed a threat of an imbalance of power among the other countries, so the United Kingdom and France were able to reach an agreement to end their colonial disputes. Thus, the two powers initiated a rapprochement in four articles covering topics such as fishing in Newfoundland, control of Egypt for one country and Morocco for the other, and the formation of what would be called the “Triple Entente,” a military alliance with Russia.
March 13, 1905: Reinforcement of the Blockade of Germany
A decree issued by France stipulated that all goods originating from or destined for Germany would be intercepted, further solidifying the country’s policy of economic warfare and blockade against the country. The German declaration of war in the English Channel and the waters near France and the United Kingdom on February 4 prompted the signing of this treaty. When the French got similar orders from the British on February 9, they worked together with them to make a plan.
The Triple Entente was founded on August 31, 1907
France and the United Kingdom had been informally discussing military cooperation for a year before Britain signed an agreement with Russia. This deal not only allowed the three countries to connect indirectly, but it also defined the spheres of influence of each nation in Afghanistan and Iran. After that point, France’s allies included the Russian Empire, the British Empire, and finally France itself. This agreement was crucial in light of the war that broke out seven years later.
July 1, 1911: Episode of the Gunboat “Panther”
Colonial rivalries sparked a severe crisis at a pivotal time in the buildup to World War I. As an official measure, Germany dispatched the gunboat “Panther” to the port of Agadir. A message was sent to France, which had backed Sultan Moulay Hafiz against a Berber uprising by sending an armed ship. Their sights were set on Morocco, and Germany did not take kindly to France’s efforts to increase its military presence and, by extension, its influence there. The strength of the Entente Cordiale was underlined by the United Kingdom’s intervention on behalf of France, and everyone made preparations for war. Eventually, Germany caved into economic pressures and retracted its position in the fall.
On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand was murdered in Sarajevo
While in Sarajevo, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie of Hoenberg, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, were murdered by 19-year-old Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip. The attack ignited Europe, which was then split between the Triple Alliance (Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Italy) and the Triple Entente (Russia, France, and Great Britain). World War I began after Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28. Over the course of four years, 18 million lives will be lost.
The 28th of July, 1914, saw the declaration of war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo prompted Austria-Hungary to declare war on Serbia a month later. As the chain of alliances widens, the conflict will become more widespread: on the one hand, the Triple Entente (Russia, France, and Great Britain); on the other, the Triple Alliance (America, Japan, and Germany) (Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Italy).
First Day of War: August 1, 1914
The Germans declared war on Russia, and the French ordered general mobilization four days after Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia in response to the assassination of the Archduke of Austria in Sarajevo. The invasion of neutral Belgium by German troops began on August 4, following Germany’s August 3 declaration of war against France. All of Europe’s major powers expect the war to be brief.
German forces invaded Belgium on August 4, 1914
Even though Belgium claimed to be neutral, German troops invaded under the Schlieffen plan. When France and Russia joined forces, this strategy was born. To avoid a frontal assault, the Germans planned to avoid the “risky” French zones. Even though the army led by King Albert I put up a fierce fight, much of the country was still occupied. The Canton territories of Eupen, Malmedy, and Saint-Virth were formally recognized as part of Belgium after World War I thanks to the Treaty of Versailles. The country of Belgium now had a mandate over the country of Ruanda-Urundi (later Rwanda-Burundi). Conflict will eventually force it to abandon its neutral stance.
The First Battle of the Bulge began on this day in 1914
In spite of their best efforts, French forces were unable to halt the advance of the German army. Movement was a core principle for both sides, and the battles were planned in accordance with each camp’s underlying theory. In the so-called “battle of the borders,” the French were initially defeated and forced to retreat. This led to their defeat in the Ardennes, a battle they would later go on to win in the Marne.
August 30, 1914, Russian defeat at Tannenberg
A month had passed since the war began. When the French asked the Russians to open a front in the East, they did so in order to get Germany to split its forces. The Germans were able to attack and push the Russians back at Tannenberg in East Prussia because they intercepted Russian messages. In addition to capturing 500 cannons, the Germans also managed to capture over 92,000 Russian soldiers.
The Triple Entente was formally established on September 3, 1914
By bolstering their military pacts, France, the United Kingdom, and Russia provide the Triple Entente with a solid political foundation. They’ve agreed to forego signing any bilateral accords.
The French won the Battle of the Marne on September 12, 1914
We’re now a month into this war. In the face of the German offensive, French General Joffre and British General Maunoury, leading the Franco-British forces, were forced to continually withdraw from the Belgian border. Joffre made the decision to launch a counterattack and had new troops brought in from Paris in taxis (the cabs of the Marne). There was a decisive defeat for the Germans, and they were forced to retreat. The French army managed to escape.
October 5, 1914: First air combat
In World War I, a German Aviatik piloted by Lieutenant Von Zangen was shot down near Reims by a French Voisin III piloted by Sergeant Frantz and Corporal Quénault. As far as we know, this was the first aerial battle ever fought. Prior to the outbreak of the first international conflict, it was common practice to use military aircraft to take photographs of the locations of the combatants. They served as informants but had no weapons.
17 October 1914: The locks stop the German advance on the Yser front
By opening the locks and flooding the plain, the Belgian army was able to cut off the Germans’ access to the sea. Even though they were outnumbered, the Belgians were able to stop the enemy from moving forward and set up a strong barrier thanks to this planned flooding. This was done after their victories in the Marne.
The Germans won the Battle of Coronel on November 1, 1914
A battle broke out off the coast of Chile when two battleships from the esteemed Royal Navy ran into German cruisers. The two British ships were sunk without too much damage by German Vice Admiral Maximilian von Spee. People still talk about how shocking this victory was, and in the Battle of the Falklands Islands, the Royal Navy got its revenge.
On November 5th, 1914, France and Great Britain declared war on Turkey
After Russia went to war with the Ottoman Empire, England and France joined in two days later. On October 28, Turkey joined Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy in World War I as part of their Central Powers.
The Battle of the Falklands began on December 8th, 1914
After the British navy spotted two German ships, they pursued them and fought a German squadron led by Vice Admiral Maximilian Von Spee a few hours later. The United Kingdom successfully defended itself from this attack near the Falkland Islands. The Royal Navy gets its revenge on the vice admiral, but more importantly, the British are able to maintain control over important trade routes.
April 22, 1915: The first use of asphyxiating gas
The Germans introduced a new weapon into the trench warfare in Ypres (Belgium): asphyxiating gas. At first, the Allies’ defense against these gases was limited to goggles and pads. Then they will put on masks for safety. In the years 1915 and 1916, nearly 100,000 soldiers were killed by this poisonous weapon, which had been outlawed by the Hague Declaration of 1899. The Geneva Protocol of 1925 and United Nations Resolution 2603 of 1969 contain more recent provisions regarding gas use.
Landing at Gallipoli, April 24, 1915
Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) at the trenches of Gallipoli during World War I. Taken on June 17, 1915 by Haydar Alganer.
The Allies’ naval expedition through the Dardanelles encountered Ottoman resistance and underwater mines on its way to Constantinople. Seventy-five thousand reinforcements were dropped off at Gallipoli. The Ottomans beefed up their security in anticipation of the Allied invasion. Although reinforcements were sent in August, that month brought no noticeable improvement. Despite a total of 200,000 casualties and 120,000 wounds, the offensive was unsuccessful. Between December and January of 1916, the Allies withdrew.
7 May 1915: A submarine sinks the “Lusitania”
Off the coast of Ireland, the German submarine U-20 torpedoed the British liner Lusitania as it sailed from New York. When the ship sank quickly, 1,198 people, including 128 Americans, lost their lives. American public opinion was already leaning toward supporting military action against the “Central Powers” before this tragedy struck, but it shifted dramatically afterward. Kaiser Wilhelm II ordered a full submarine war to begin again in 1917, prompting President Wilson to declare war on Germany.
On May 23, 1915, Italy and Austria-Hungary went to war
Italy went to war with Austria-Hungary, a country it had been allied with the year before. The agreements signed a month earlier in London with the Triple Entente allowed for this about-face against an ally that it had never taken to its heart. The latter capitalized on Italy’s desire to expand its influence into parts of Austria-Hungary, most notably Istria. At the beginning of the war, Italy was a part of the Triple Alliance but had not yet joined the conflict. Since it considered these allies to be the aggressors, it owed them nothing.
October 6, 1915: Austria-Hungary invades Serbia
More than a year after the Austro-Hungarian Empire declared war on Serbia, that country began to feel the effects of the conflict that had engulfed Europe. Austria-Hungary didn’t actually invade Serbia until fourteen months after it declared war on the country. In one day, Belgrade will be no more.
On October 12th, 1915, Edith Cavell was brutally murdered
Edith Louisa Cavell, an English nurse, was shot to death by German troops in Belgium. She faced accusations that she aided the Allied forces in reaching Holland to resume fighting there. The occupied Belgian territory where a prominent Brussels hospital’s head nurse was employed. Because of what she did, 170 men made it to the Netherlands in a matter of months. There was no denial on her part when she was taken into custody. Rather, she was completely forthright with Germany about everything.
Paris was attacked by a German zeppelin on January 29, 1916
Twenty-six people were killed and thirty-two were injured when a German zeppelin dropped bombs on the neighborhoods of Belleville and Ménilmontant. However, it went down on the return trip. It was decided to switch to a combination of cannon (the Grosse Bertha) and aerial bombing because the previous strategy was too expensive and ineffective.
In 1916, on February 21, the Battle of Verdun began
At 7:30 a.m., German infantrymen, led by Chief of Staff Erich von Falkenhayn, attacked the Verdun forts and trenches. For a distance of nearly 15 kilometers and for nearly 9 hours, German artillery pounded the three French divisions present. Hill 304 lost 7 meters of elevation due to the heavy artillery fire. German forces launched an initial push to the south bank of the Meuse, capturing a number of positions. Philippe Pétain, the French army’s general, oversaw the country’s response. Ten months from December 15th, 1916, would pass before the Verdun battle would be declared over. More than 700,000 people lost their lives, making this one of the deadliest battles of World War I.
On February 25, 1916, Pétain assumed command of the French forces at Verdun
Four days after the German offensive began, General Philippe Pétain was put in charge of defending Verdun. As soon as he took command, he instituted a rotation of men at the front along the Meuse’s banks. He restocked the forts’ arsenal and sent in the air force to scout the opposition. His victory at Verdun earned him the title “Man of Verdun” among the French.
April 10th, 1916: “We’ll get them!” Pétain’s legendary order
Pétain held regular meetings with his troops and communicated with them daily. In his 94th general order, issued on April 10, 1916, he congratulated the French on their victory the day before and urged the French soldiers to be courageous, writing, “We’ll get them!” The newspapers printed these three words on the front page, and they were soon being shouted and sung in the trenches and even in the rear.
Nivelle took over as leader on May 1, 1916
To his dismay, General Pétain was promoted and ordered to abandon Verdun. He was relieved of command and given the role of supervising General Nivelle. In contrast to Verdun, which was criticized for being too defensive, Nivelle was a bold offensive operation that didn’t care about casualties. Pétain will live on in the hearts and minds of the victors of Verdun.
The Battle of Jutland, May 31, 1916
Ships of the German High Seas Fleet, June 1916.
It was off the coast of Denmark that 37 British and 21 German ships engaged in a naval battle known as the Battle of Jutland. Since the British fleet was larger, they attempted to surround the German fleet. The latter, however, avoided it through strategic retreat and ultimately forced the enemy to call off the battle after suffering heavy casualties. The loss of life was staggering, with 3,000 German sailors joining the 6,800 British sailors who perished. The Royal Navy was embarrassed, but the German fleet failed in its attempt to dominate the North Sea because it could not break the British blockade.
The Germans were at Verdun’s gates on June 23, 1916
Very close to Verdun, the Germans launched an attack that von Falkenhayn hoped would prove decisive after they had been hit with phosgene, a toxic gas. Unfortunately, the gas eventually dissipated, and their opponents had managed to reorganize in the meantime. Mangin immediately responded the following day with counterattacks. These attempts also failed, however.
The first day of the Battle of the Somme was July 1, 1916
The British troops began their assault on the enemy after a week of bombarding the German lines. Nearly 20,000 British soldiers were killed that day, and the Allies advanced no more than ten kilometers in ten days, but the battle was only just beginning; it would last until November 18. In just five months, over a million people will have died on the battlefield for nothing.
On July 11, 1916, the German army launched its final offensive at Verdun
A final assault was launched by General von Falkenhayn to take Verdun. The British attack on the Somme was quickly defeating the German forces, and time was running out for him. He was in a good spot, but he needed to make it count. When he met opposition at the fort of Souville, he had to retreat. After losing so many men in the Battle of the Somme, he had to adopt a defensive strategy going forward.
The first tanks showed up on September 15, 1916
It was at Flers in World War I that the British army first deployed tanks (in the Somme). In Villers-Bretonneux, France, on April 26, 1918, tanks fought each other for the first time in a major conflict. In 1918, tanks were pivotal in breaking the front lines.
French victory at Verdun, October 24, 1916
After gaining the upper hand in August, the French launched a massive offensive to retake Vaux and Douaumont. The front was 7 kilometers long and very effective. The Germans were forced to retreat, and the French easily captured Douaumont after losing Thiaumont. However, the French did not reach Vaux until November 3. It was clear that the Germans were outnumbered and would have to withdraw from the conflict, which would eventually lose some of its intensity by the end of the year.
February 1, 1917: Germany strengthens the submarine war
Kaiser Wilhelm II decided to use the isolation of the United Kingdom as a means to weaken it. To cut off the island’s supplies, he declared total submarine warfare. The United States voiced strong objections, severed diplomatic ties, and urged other nations to follow suit. Wilson, realizing he needed the public’s backing to join the war against the Central Empires in April, did just that.
America goes to war with Germany on April 6, 1917
In 1914, the United States declared its neutrality.With their population on the verge of starvation, the Germans resumed full-scale submarine warfare against the British Navy in January 1917. This military action shocked the American public and ultimately led to the United States declaring war on Germany. About two million troops were dispatched to Europe.
April 9, 1917: Founding Canadian Victory at Vimy
3,500 Canadian soldiers stormed Vimy Ridge after two weeks of heavy bombardment of enemy lines. German trenches, barbed wire, and machine guns protected the area. Even though the majority of the day’s objectives were accomplished by nightfall, fighting would continue for another few days. Over and above anything else, this victory became a potent symbol for the burgeoning nation of Canada. The lowering of the flag to half-staff on April 9 became a national day of remembrance as the Peace Tower, a memorial to the fallen of World War I and a symbol of international harmony, was constructed on that date.
April 16, 1917: Defeat of the Chemin des Dames
Nivelle’s primary goal, part of a much larger Allied offensive plan, was to retake the Chemin des Dames. This attack did not go as planned and ultimately ended in deadly failure. Most significantly, it marked the beginning of widespread mutinies in France and heralded Pétain’s ascension to power.
May 1917—Mutinies in the French camp
Many French soldiers refused to attack after the disastrous Chemin des Dames battle and subsequent attacks, leading to the growth of mutinies. After more than two years of war with little to show for it, both sides began to experience a phenomenon characterized primarily by a reluctance to attack rather than a heightened focus on defense. Minor agitations, typically in the rear, are to be expected over the next two months due to the challenging context and the fatigue of the horrors of war. For the sake of example and to restore order, 42 poilus will be shot, based on somewhat arbitrary selections. After the war, they were able to start over and become productive citizens again.
Arabic triumph at Aqaba, July 6, 1917
Because of their desire to create a new front against the Ottoman Empire (which was allied with Germany and Austria-Hungary), the British allied with Arab countries that were working to establish an independent state in the region formerly controlled by the Ottomans. The Ottomans were defeated by the Arabs at the Battle of Aqaba. They were led by Lawrence of Arabia.
Guynemer passed away on September 11th, 1917
The French fighter pilot was killed while piloting his Spad over the Belgian city of Ypres. After being “shot down” seven times, the body of the “ace of aces,” who had 53 victories to his name, was never located.
November 17, 1917: Clemenceau is recalled to the government
It became clear to President Raymond Poincaré of the Third Republic that only Georges Clemenceau could rally the French parliament around the Sacred Union and guide France to victory, so he reinstated Clemenceau as head of government. Clemenceau, also known as the “Tiger,” ended the political unrest by becoming President of the Council and Minister of War.
December 15, 1917—The Armistice of Brest-Litovsk
The revolutions of February (called March by the Gregorian calendar) and October 1917 rocked the Tsarist Russian Empire. As one of their first acts in power, the Bolsheviks ratified the “peace decree” on December 15, 1917, at Brest-Litovsk, which led to an armistice with the Germans and the Austrians (now in Belarus). The Russians ceded several territories during this agreement, and other provinces, including Finland and Ukraine, took advantage of this agreement to declare independence from Russia. Upon Germany’s defeat in 1918, Russia planned to reclaim some of the territory it had given up in 1917.
January 8, 1918: Wilson unveils his plan
In his “Fourteen Points,” President Wilson of the United States lays out his plan for restoring peace and rebuilding Europe. On January 18, 1918, he presented his principles to the United States Congress. These included free economic trade, democracy, disarmament, the right to self-determination of peoples, reshaping borders, etc.
It was on March 3, 1918, that the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed
The fighting on the Eastern Front ended on March 3, 1918, when the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed by the Central Empires (a coalition of the German Empire, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria) and the newly formed Bolshevik Republic of Russia. Russia had no choice but to agree that Poland, Ukraine, and Finland were independent countries.
March 21, 1918: Start of the last German offensive
In France, the Germans began an offensive that would signal a massive series of attacks lasting until July and result in the Allies’ second defeat on the Chemin des Dames that same month. The Empire’s plans, however, were foiled by the arrival of American troops, equipment, and tanks. All of these offensives yielded gains that were sometimes substantial but never game-changing. Instead, they drained the military’s resources and occasionally put them in jeopardy.
March 26, 1918: Foch commands the allied forces
Panic among the Allies was caused by the German offensive on the Somme, which aimed to split the front in two. At the meeting in Doullens, civilian leaders from the Allies put Foch in charge of the Western Front, where he oversaw Douglas Haig for the British and Philippe Pétain for the French.
On April 21st, 1918, the Red Baron was killed in combat
Manfred von Richthofen, better known as the “Red Baron,” was a legendary fighter pilot in the German Air Force. He was a World War I ace who participated in and won 80 air battles before his red plane was shot down over the Somme region on April 21, 1918.
June 26, 1918: Big Bertha bombs Paris
A German army cannon, nicknamed “Big Bertha” after the daughter of industrialist Krupp, wreaked havoc in Paris. The device can launch shells over 100 kilometers away and to an altitude of 30 kilometers.
Decision by the Allies to counterattack, August 8th, 1918
The Battle of Amiens began on August 8, 1918, when French and British forces attacked near Montdidier in the Somme department. On September 8, 1918, the German forces had to retreat behind the defenses they had built between 1916 and 1917 because they were so tired.
November 9, 1918: The Kaiser leaves his empire
The German navy mutinied, and Berlin erupted in rebellion as Germany was about to lose the war. Wilhelm II of Germany abdicates and takes his family to the Netherlands. Scheidemann, the socialist, declares a republic. On the second day, he planned to approach the allies with a request for a ceasefire.
World War I officially ended on November 11, 1918
At the start of November 1918, Germany requested an armistice with the Allies. Years of war and blockade have weakened the country, and now the “German revolution” will bring about a change in political regime. On November 11, 1918, the armistice was signed in a wagon in Rethondes, in the Compiègne forest.
The German fleet was sunk in Scapa Flow on June 21, 1919
The German navy, gathered in the Scottish port of Scapa Flow, refused to surrender its ships to the victors and instead scuttled. The entire German fleet, with the exception of the submarines, was docked here.
The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919
Germany was forced to accept harsh terms when it signed the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. To begin, everyone agreed that the war was entirely Germany’s fault. It was forced to pay astronomical war reparations. Alsace-Lorraine and the “Danzig corridor,” which provided Poland with a sea route, were among the territories it lost. It lost its colonies and was coerced into dominating the Western Hemisphere. At last, Germany was partially demilitarized, and its weapons were removed.
World War I at a Glance
What was World War I?
World War I was a global conflict fought between 1914 and 1918. It involved many countries, primarily in Europe, and was one of the deadliest wars in history. It was triggered by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in 1914.
Who were the Central Powers and the Allied Powers in World War I?
The Central Powers consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. The Allied Powers included France, Britain, Russia (until 1917), and later, the United States and other countries that joined in opposition to the Central Powers.
When did World War I end?
World War I ended on November 11, 1918, with the signing of the armistice between the Allies and Germany. This armistice effectively marked the end of the fighting and led to the subsequent peace negotiations.
What were the Western Front and the Eastern Front in World War I?
The Western Front was the name given to the battle lines in Western Europe, primarily in France and Belgium, where trench warfare was waged between the Allied and Central Powers. The Eastern Front refers to the war fought between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Bulgaria against Russia and its allies in Eastern Europe.
What were the consequences of World War I?
World War I had far-reaching consequences, including the redrawing of national borders, the collapse of empires, the loss of millions of lives, significant political and social changes, and the seeds for future conflicts. It also accelerated technological advancements, particularly in warfare.
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