Ammianus Marcellinus (330-400) was a Roman historian of Greek origin and one of the last great historians of Rome. After a significant decline in the 3rd century, the art of writing among the Romans experienced a new era of glory during the revival of the Empire, starting with the reign of Diocletian (284-305). Indeed, Late Antiquity produced many great authors who elevated Roman literary craftsmanship. For instance, Aurelius Victor wrote an abridged version of Roman history around 360, Macrobius authored The Saturnalia, and Saint Augustine penned The City of God. Ammianus Marcellinus occupies a somewhat unique place among them, and we will attempt to outline the specificities of his style and how his work fits into the broader context of Latin literature.
Ammianus Marcellinus: A Syrian in the Roman Army
Ammianus Marcellinus was born around 330 in Syria, specifically in Antioch. The son of an aristocrat, he pursued a military career as a protector domesticus, a member of the prestigious personal guard of the emperors and high dignitaries of the Empire (Emperor Jovian, for example, emerged directly from this guard at the time of his acclamation as Augustus). As a young soldier, he traveled extensively across the Roman world, gaining an excellent knowledge of it.
Attached to Ursicinus, the master of the cavalry in the East, by Emperor Constantius II, he found himself caught in the turmoil of war and narrowly escaped death during the terrible siege of the city of Amida in Mesopotamia. The city fell after many twists and turns, and Ammianus owed his survival to a postern gate that allowed him, along with a few companions (Ursicinus was not with him, as they had been separated by a Persian attack while scouting enemy positions), to flee through the scorching desert.
After reuniting with the general, he accompanied him to Gaul to address the issue of the usurpation by Silvanus, the master of the infantry and cavalry in the West, who had recently donned the imperial purple in a shadowy struggle for influence among power groups. Ursicinus and Ammianus orchestrated his assassination. While in Gaul, Ammianus also met Emperor Julian (the victor of the Battle of Strasbourg) and was by his side during his campaign against the Persians. He likely left military service around 375 and settled near Rome, where he began his literary work.
The Work of Ammianus Marcellinus
Claiming to follow in the footsteps of Tacitus, Ammianus sought to be his successor. His narrative begins with the reign of Nerva and symbolically concludes in 378. The first thirteen books have been lost, but they likely represented an abridged history of Rome, as was common in Late Antiquity (Eutropius, Aurelius Victor, etc.), as they covered nearly two hundred years of history, while the remaining seventeen books focus on the events of 353 to 378. Starting with Book XIV, he recounts history as an active participant. Thus, we encounter Caesar Gallus, appointed by Constantius II in the East, who was notorious for his cruelty, to the point that the Augustus ordered his assassination. His brother Julian was then placed in charge of Gaul under close surveillance (Constantius feared usurpation above all, having had to fight against Magnentius, the murderer of his brother Constans), where he demonstrated great military prowess.
The situation escalated, and Julian sought supreme power. Constantius died, leaving Julian as the sole heir. The legendary apostate then launched a campaign against Persia, where he lost his life. Ammianus provides a vivid description of the emperor’s final moments as he lay mortally wounded, far more convincing than the accounts of Christian authors. Subsequently, we witness the acclamation of Jovian, who signed a disastrous treaty with the Persians to end the war, as he sought to consolidate his new power in the Roman Empire. He died shortly thereafter, making way for Valentinian I and his brother Valens, the future loser at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. This is a narrative rich in twists and turns, of which we have only provided a brief summary compared to Ammianus Marcellinus’s detailed account.
Style
Ammianus’s writing is characterized by a certain archaism, adhering to classical traditions that recall the glorious ancients in this period of uncertainty. Unlike the Historia Augusta or Suetonius, he never indulges in purely defamatory or sordid commentary but strives to remain impartial. Thus, he always paints a balanced portrait of the emperors, and even those who do not earn his favor are not systematically criticized. Ammianus consistently outlines the qualities and flaws of these men to maintain a balanced perspective. For example, he offers a nuanced view of Julian, for whom he has immense admiration, but criticizes his lack of moderation in sacrifices.
Direct Involvement
The history recounted by Ammianus is also, at times, his own. As mentioned earlier, he witnessed the siege of Amida from within and provides an edifying chronicle of the event. Step by step, we can follow the unfolding of hostilities and appreciate the courage of the besieged Roman soldiers, as well as the horrors of war, including diseases spread by the decay of bodies. During his escape, we vividly sense the visual experience of Ammianus and his companions trekking through the scorching sands of the East. In their wanderings, they find a well and draw water using strips torn from their tunics, tied to a protective headgear one of the men wore under his helmet, which they used like a sponge to quench their thirst.
This is also part of Ammianus’s work: moments of everyday life, far removed from the tumult of politics and war. He enjoys taking us to the lower strata of society, particularly among the soldiers, whom he portrays with nuance and humanity. Between alcoholism and bravery, between gluttony and sobriety, he paints a striking picture of these men who spent much of their lives serving Rome, often under appalling conditions.
A Moralist
On the other hand, he detested the depraved and idle lifestyle he attributed to the inhabitants of Rome (which he denounces in a particularly scathing tirade), as well as to members of the imperial court in Constantinople, especially the eunuchs, with Eusebius at the forefront. A great moralist, Ammianus was a staunch defender of Rome’s traditional values. Throughout his work, we also encounter amusing descriptions of the various peoples of the time, from the Gauls to the Huns, which he presents following the traditional canons of Roman ethnography, often relying heavily on stereotypes. However, this is one of the few negative aspects of his work. Well-informed about the events, some of which he witnessed directly, he even honestly cites his sources, which he meticulously copies.
For example, during the rift between Julian and Constantius, letters were exchanged between the two emperors. Ammianus shares these with us, allowing us to compare them with the version provided by Julian himself in his own work; they are identical. During the exchange of correspondence, Ammianus even informs us that other, less official letters were exchanged, likely more “flowery,” which he was not permitted to consult, shedding light on his working methods. Additionally, Ammianus often indulged in digressions, offering a clear view of the knowledge of a scholar of his time. For instance, he explains his understanding of earthquakes.
The Purpose of History in Ammianus Marcellinus’s Work
Like all ancient historians, Ammianus wrote with a purpose in mind, a guiding idea that structures his narrative. For him, it was the inexorable march toward the catastrophe of 378, when the Romans were defeated by the Goths at Adrianople, and Emperor Valens fell in battle. He describes the particularly fierce battle, which was engaged before the reinforcements sent from the West could join the forces of the Eastern Augustus. Here, he clearly attributes the responsibility for the disaster to Valens, who, in his arrogance, chose to engage in battle hastily. However, Ammianus does not simply point to this defeat as the cause of future misfortunes; for him, the decisive event was the crossing of the Danube by the Goths in 376, under pressure from the Huns.
Indeed, defeated, the Goths sought asylum from Valens, who agreed to settle them in Thrace. There, starved by the state, they eventually revolted, and once victorious, they created an uncontrollable political and military force on Roman territory. From then on, Rome was under constant threat. Ammianus likely died around the year 400, shortly before the first fall of Rome in 410 to Alaric’s Goths. He remains one of the greatest Roman historians and, undoubtedly, the most atypical due to his military involvement and exceptional life.
