The Arverni (in Latin, arverni) were a Gallic people residing in the mountains of present-day Auvergne, in the Massif Central of France. They were one of the most powerful tribes in central Gaul and faced the might of ancient Rome on various occasions. The Arverni left their name to Auvergne, meaning ‘those who are superior.’ Following the Gallic Wars, their capital Gergovia was situated on a plateau overlooking the present-day city of Clermont-Ferrand. However, it appears that before, the capital was located in the oppidum (elevated urban fort) of Corent and Gondole. Documents found about these places have led to exceptional discoveries: collective burials of horses and knights, religious enclosures intended for banquets offered by the Arverni kings in temples, coins, and remains of offerings (animal bones, amphorae).
-> See also: Vercingetorix: The Gallic Chief Who Defied Rome
Arverni Hegemony and Monarchy
The Challenging Knowledge of a Protohistoric People
Like many other Gallic tribes, the Arverni left no written records; their knowledge comes from writings left by foreign peoples: Greeks and Romans. However, it is Julius Caesar who enables us to understand the 1st century BC. The Arverni appear, at the latest, according to information sources, during their confrontation with the Romans in the 2nd century BC, according to the writings of the Greek Stoic philosopher Posidonius. He traveled through Celtic Gaul in the early 1st century BC and gathered information about earlier traditions. Although his work has disappeared, some excerpts were saved by Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, and Athenaeus of Naucratis.
Combined with other Greek (Appian) and Latin information, we can trace back to the mid-2nd century BC. According to these sources, the first mention of the Arverni predates even this period: according to Livy, after the Second Punic War, an Arverni ambassador met on the Languedoc coast with the Carthaginian Hasdrubal Barca, who came to support Hannibal Barca in Italy, and was received kindly and guided. These literary sources, censored by the biases of the time, should be compared with the increasingly accurate information provided by archaeology.
Therefore, when the Arverni entered history between 200 BC and 150 BC, they already constituted a well-identified, powerful, and politically organized people. Arverni’s cultural identity is thus much older. Archaeology confirms this antiquity: Arverni pottery is very distinctive and features highly elaborate decorations. Its origins undoubtedly trace back to the early 3rd century BC.
Arverni Hegemony, Not the Arverni Empire
Greco-Roman sources inform us that in the mid-2nd century BC, a monarchy established its hegemony over the peoples of central and southern Gaul. According to Strabo, Arverni hegemony encompassed Languedoc and the Marseilles territory, extending to the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean and the Rhine River.
The Greek term understood as hegemony, or dominance, was translated as ‘territory’ or ’empire.’ This gave rise to the erroneous idea of an “Arverni Empire” that, in the 2nd century BC, supposedly spanned an immense territory. This idea is used to prefigure early French national unity. However, the translation is incorrect.
It is necessary to understand Strabo’s passage where he describes a hegemony, referring to the diplomatic, military, and political momentary superiority of a city (similar to the hegemonies witnessed in classical Greek history around the cities of Athens, Sparta, and Thebes). It is essential to remember that the Roman generals who defeated the Arverni (in 121 BC) had a keen interest in exaggerating the past Arverni power to better reinforce Roman glory.
The fact that the Arverni held political and military power in Gaul during that time is nevertheless indisputable. They may have harbored the idea of subduing central Gaul for an extended period, establishing a vast network of alliances with more or less nearby and powerful tribes, and exerting more direct pressure on neighboring peoples like the Gabali. This hegemony was undoubtedly military and warlike; war played a significant social and political role among the Gallic aristocracy.
The historians hypothesize that this hegemony might be perceived through the Gallic coins of that era. While his hypothesis has been questioned, it is undeniable that Arverni coins reflect the prosperity and wealth of this people. Arverni coins are clearly identified with the mid-2nd century. Their iconography is typical and based on a prestigious Greek model, featuring coins bearing the head of Apollo.
The wealth and renown of the Arverni kings were, at that moment, at their peak, with the legendary generosity of Luernius (the father of the notable Arverni King Bituitus). His banquets and silver donations are known through the testimonies of Posidonius. The excavations in Corent resulted in the discovery of a sanctuary detailing these practices. It is a large square space of about 165 feet on each side, surrounded by a covered gallery and a high palisade. Forty-eight posts support a 20-foot-long portico. Two twin buildings were constructed, containing libation tubs, numerous animal remains, and coins.
The Arverni monarchy possessed charismatic power based essentially on personal prestige gained in war and the redistribution of wealth to the community through carefully organized ceremonies. Ancient texts demonstrate the importance of bards on these occasions, enhancing the king’s power by immortalizing him.
The prestige gained in war was displayed by showcasing the severed heads of the defeated. Greek texts narrate the pride of Gallic generals in displaying the skulls of enemies. Even archaeology supports this: a ceramic found in Aulnat (French commune) depicts an Arverni warrior on horseback, adorned with severed heads on his tail. The king appears to have maintained his power by asserting his martial strength against the aristocracy and cultivating generosity among the population, an indisputable support for his rule.
The Origin of Prosperity
It is evident that the Arverni prosperity was initially agricultural and demographic. Like in other regions of Gaul, settlements were organized into separate villages during the 2nd century. However, in the French cultural region of Auvergne, which is on an extremely fertile plateau, the villages are dense and closely spaced, explaining the significant troops mobilized by the Arverni kings.
This also explains the richness of their currency, especially gold. The gold in the Arverni coin could come from trade, war plunder, and mercenary operations, which were then unknown in Gaul. Nevertheless, Arverni military and diplomatic power were affected by Roman victories combined with the conquest of Gallia Narbonensis between 124 and 121 BC: Bituitos, son of Luernius, was defeated and captured.
The Arverni from 121 BC to Julius Caesar
From Monarchy to Aristocratic Rule
The Roman victories at the end of the 2nd century ended Arverni hegemony but not the power or independence of the city, which would come to an end during the Gallic War. However, the exile of Bituitos and his son after the defeat of 121 BC undoubtedly had significant political consequences for the Arverni people.
As was the case in other Celtic tribes during this time, monarchy gave way to aristocratic rule. In the 1st century BC, the Arverni were governed by an assembly of magistrates, possibly called vergobretos (as in other Gallic tribes). This rise to power of the aristocracy likely corresponded to a relative concentration of feudal property in favor of the wealthiest. The large number of names inscribed on Arverni coins from the 1st century and the mobilization of the population suggest that political power was unstable and fiercely contested. It does not seem that the aristocratic regime achieved unanimity, as supporters of a popular king were still numerous. Political tensions were evident, and Celtilo, Vercingetorix‘s father, who held a powerful position according to Caesar, sought to rule and was condemned to death by his peers.
A Sought-After Hegemony
At the beginning of his work on the Gallic War, Caesar explains that the Arverni never gave up their claim to exert military and diplomatic power in Gaul. Their most notable rivals from 121 BC were the Aedui (classical-age Gaulic people). Caesar contends that the Aedui were defeated when the Arverni allied with the Sequani and the Germani. Shortly before Caesar arrived in Gaul, the Aedui were subjected first to the Sequani and subsequently to the Germanic leader Ariovistus. The presence of the Arverni may not have seemed as notable, perhaps due to internal dissensions or their contentment with the submission of their enemies. Nevertheless, the Arverni maintained a prudent neutrality and distance from Julius Caesar.
The Gallic War and the Political Conflict among the Gauls
During the latter part of the Gallic War, the noble Arverni Vercingetorix once again claimed the kingdom for himself, challenging the aristocrats and his uncle Gobanitio. With the support of the people, he succeeded in asserting himself and was crowned king. With this political change, he led the Gallic coalition against Caesar. After the Battle of Gergovia, when Caesar came to defend his lands, he triumphed at Alesia and captured Vercingetorix.
Following his victory, Caesar demonstrated his clemency and political acumen, uniting the Arverni and granting freedom to 20,000 prisoners. Evidently, he sought to garner the support of the aristocratic faction that had been favorable to him previously.
The Arverni government was led by an assembly of magistrates and notables. Epasnactos (a Roman lackey, the commander of the Gallic rebellion who sought refuge after the Siege of Uxellodunum), described by Caesar as a great friend of Rome, took charge of the city. This fact is recorded through coins bearing the EPAD seal, which were abundantly found in Gergovia. Epasnactos demonstrated his loyalty to Rome by delivering the Cadurci leader Lucterius to Caesar in chains.
The Arverni People Integrated into the Roman Empire
A New Capital
The Arverni people were integrated into the new province of Aquitania, which at that time seemed to enjoy a certain prosperity. Their capital shifted from Gergovia to Augustonemetum (modern Clermont-Ferrand) until the end of the first century BCE; the Augustan era marked a period of relative rupture. The ancient urban layout is poorly known, but it followed an orthogonal plan like many Roman cities. Today, only a visible relic from that era remains in the city, the “Wall of the Saracens,” named so since medieval times.
Near Clermont-Ferrand, some thermal baths have been discovered. In Royat (French commune, Chamalières), a sanctuary associated with the thermal baths was uncovered, preserving numerous votive offerings currently displayed in the Bargoin Museum in Clermont-Ferrand, including one of the longest inscriptions in the Gaulish language.
There was, therefore, continuity with the past, and Romanization affected Gaulish traditions but not those of the Arverni. The sanctuary in Corent attests to this, as it was rehabilitated following the previous plan but with Roman construction techniques, including the addition of a lighthouse and two small temples. The abandonment of Corent for Gergovia and later for Clermont-Ferrand does not imply a relegation of the sanctuary’s religious function.
Discreet Notables and an Industrious People
Very little is known about the Arverni under Roman rule. It is documented that in the 3rd century, a notable Arverni named Timesitheus had some connection to power. However, Sidonius Apollinaris illustrates the significance and wealth of the Arverni nobility and their alliances with Rome. Recent excavations near Clermont-Ferrand have revealed an extensive series of rural settlements (villages) occupying the Limage countryside in the 1st century CE. Numerous villages have been identified within a radius of 12 to 18 miles from the city, with a higher density in the more fertile areas, attesting to their agricultural value and the significant demographic growth they experienced.
Many of these villages replaced La Tène-period settlements. Other continuity indicators suggest a period of concentration of rural properties in the early 1st century BCE, indicating a relative social continuity of Arverni elites between the end of the independence period and the Roman Empire era. Furthermore, agricultural production seems to have been more substantial during the 1st century CE. Existing evidence shows that in the preceding period, pastoralism prevailed. Cereal production took precedence, as evidenced by the discovery of a hydraulic mill in Martres-de-Vayre. Viticulture might have also been a focus.
The peak density of these populations appears to be in the 2nd century CE. Therefore, continuity characterizes the occupation of these villages, especially the wealthier ones, which persisted into the Late Empire and even the Middle Ages. By the end of the 1st century CE, the Lezoux (French commune) pottery workshops became significant, exporting their sigillata ceramics to a large part of the Roman West, similar to other Gallic pottery workshops like La Graufesenque (an archaeological site in France). The forms of these ceramics and the potter’s marks serve as invaluable clues for archaeologists, particularly in establishing the locations where the ceramics were found.
The Cult of Mercury
During the 1st century AD, a sumptuous temple dedicated to Mercury was constructed in the city, and its ruins were discovered at the summit of Puy-de-Dôme. Pliny the Elder describes the colossal statue crafted by the sculptor Zenodorus for this sanctuary (Natural History, 34, 45).
This might also be the sanctuary of Vasso Galatementioned by Gregory of Tours, which, in his account, was raided and burned by the Germanic people Alemanni led by King Chrocus in 259 (History, 1, 33-34). However, other sources argue that the temple of Vasso Galate corresponds to the ruins found in the Jaude district (square in Clermont-Ferrand). The Arverni Mercury would, in this case, be the direct heir to the Gallic god Lug. Descriptions characterize him as Arvernus (the tribal god of the Arverni and an epithet of the Gaulish Mercury) or Mercury Arvernorix (king of the Arverni).
Notable Arverni Figures
- Luernius: King of the Arverni in the 2nd century BC.
- Bituitus: King of the Arverni in the 2nd century BC, son of Luernius.
- Celtillus: Notable Arverni in the 1st century BC, father of Vercingetorix.
- Gobanitio: First half of the 1st century BC; uncle of Vercingetorix.
- Vercingetorix: Confederation king of the Gauls who attempted to resist Rome in the Gallic War.
- Sidonius Apollinaris, Bishop of Clermont.
- Gregory of Tours, Bishop of Tours.