The Vikings surged onto the shores of England, the Frankish Empire, and even the Mediterranean. Armed with a thirst for exploration, a fearless religion, and long-handled two-handed axes, these fair-haired men from the north struck terror into the hearts of European populations and rulers, who struggled to fend off the relentless waves of raids.
One particular weapon in the Viking arsenal gave them a massive advantage: the longship. Its speed, mobility, and simple design made it ideal for swift raids along coasts and riverbanks.
Here’s a look at the five greatest strengths of the longship—key to understanding the Vikings’ success.
1. VERSATILITY
The Viking ship was perfect for rivers
Helge Ask, Reconstruction of Skuldelev 5, a smaller warship from the Viking Age, ca 1040. Image: Vikingeskibsmuseet
The long, slender hull and shallow draft of Viking ships—meaning the distance from the waterline to the keel—allowed them to navigate Scandinavia’s rivers with ease.
They could even traverse the wild rapids of Russia’s rivers on their way to trading hubs in the east. If they encountered an obstacle, Viking ships were light enough for the crew to haul over land.
During an experiment with the reconstructed Viking ship Helge Ask in 1996, researchers from the Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde successfully moved the two-ton vessel across a 300-meter-long land strip at Helgenæs.
The crew hauled the ship onto the shore and dragged it over land using wooden rollers greased with fat and oil.
2. SURPRISE
The keel was designed for ambush
The first recorded Viking raid occurred on June 8, 793, according to historical sources. On this day, Vikings attacked the monastery on the island of Lindisfarne off the coast of North England.
“The heathens desecrated God’s sanctuary, ravaged our house of hope, and trampled on the bodies of the saints,” a monk in York wrote about the Scandinavian raiders.
This and the following years of war and plundering were made possible by the unique construction of Viking ships. Thanks to their flat keels, the ships could sail right up to the shore and deploy warriors.
Experiments with reconstructed Viking ships in Denmark indicate that, from the moment the ships became visible from land, it typically took only an hour before the warriors stormed ashore.
3. FEAR
Decorations intimidated the enemy
The appearance of Viking ships struck fear into their enemies—a form of psychological warfare that gave the Vikings an additional advantage.
Shipbuilders achieved this fearsome effect by painting the ships and their accessories in striking colors and adorning them with carved motifs that signaled strength and ferocity.
Ships belonging to kings or chieftains were often fitted with a fearsome dragon head on the prow.
The Saga of Håkon Håkonsson describes how the Norwegian 13th-century king had “a dragon ship with thirty rowing benches; the heads and necks were gilded, and the sails beautifully painted. In addition, King Håkon had many other large and well-equipped ships; and in the sunlight, it seemed as if fire shone from the heads.”
4. SPEED
The sail provided propulsion—even against the wind
Experiments with reconstructed Viking ships have shown that they could tack against the wind—a feature that allowed them to continue sailing even in adverse conditions.
Although Viking ships were far less efficient at windward sailing than modern sailing vessels, their capabilities were sufficient to reach their destinations, even with some delay, under unfavorable winds.
With a tailwind, longships could achieve high speeds. Experiments suggest that a Viking ship could sail at up to 14 knots (about 25 km/h). The historian Adam of Bremen (1040–1081) wrote that a journey from Ribe to England could be completed in just three days.
5. SIMPLICITY
The longship was easy to build
Despite the Viking ship’s unparalleled seafaring qualities, its construction was simple and could be carried out almost anywhere near a waterway. All that was needed were trees, an axe, and a few other tools such as a plane.
The ship was built from oak logs, which shipwrights split lengthwise into planks. These planks were fastened to the keel with iron nails and then overlapped in layers using a technique called clinker building.
Construction could be completed in a relatively short time. The Saga of Olav Tryggvason states that Ormen hin Lange—one of the most famous Viking ships, which was likely about 55 meters long—was built in a single winter.
Have you ever felt a sharp pain in the frontal lobe of your brain, like a cold stabbing sensation, while enjoying delicious ice cream on a hot summer day or drinking cold water? If you’re reading this article, you probably have.
If so, don’t worry – you don’t need to see a doctor unless you experience this pain frequently or for extended periods. But don’t be concerned if you haven’t felt it either.
According to research, approximately 40% of the population experiences this pain, with it being more common among those who suffer from migraines; meaning the majority never experience this pain. Children are more prone to experiencing brain freeze as they may consume cold foods and drinks too quickly. The medical term for this sensation is Sphenopalatine ganglioneuralgia, but as you might have noticed, “brain freeze” is a much simpler name.
The Cause of Brain Freeze
Brain freeze typically occurs when you consume things like ice cream, very cold drinks, ice cubes, or when you inhale freezing cold air. According to research conducted in 2012 on the cause of brain freeze, this phenomenon is entirely related to blood flow. When something cold is consumed rapidly, if it suddenly and continuously contacts the palate, it triggers the trigeminal nerve (which connects the brain and face) by constricting the blood vessels leading to the brain.
The brain, disturbed by the sudden temperature change, directs warm blood to these constricted vessels. The rush of blood to these cold-constricted vessels is ultimately perceived by the nerves as pain caused by cold – that is, “brain freeze.”
According to research, the width of the area touched by the cold, the number of points contacted simultaneously, and the speed of entry are more important for brain freeze than the temperature itself. This is why ice cream of the same temperature is more likely to cause brain freeze when eaten quickly or spread throughout the mouth. The same applies to iced water.
The Solution to Brain Freeze
The way to get rid of brain freeze is quite simple. All you need to do is eliminate the cause – the cold. Since brain freeze is a “referred pain,” meaning that data input at one point causes a pain signal at another point, changing the inputs directly affects the pain. Solutions for brain freeze include stopping the consumption of the cold food or drink, moving away from the cold environment, drinking warm water, or pressing your thumb against your palate for heat transfer. Taking aspirin or painkillers won’t be very effective in alleviating brain freeze because in 98% of people, this pain lasts less than 5 minutes. By the time the medication takes effect, the brain freeze will have already passed.
Brain Freeze and Other Headaches
Unlike some other headaches that cause stomach pain or sensitivity to light/noise, brain freeze has no effect other than a stabbing sensation in the brain. If you experience vision loss, dizziness, difficulty moving or speaking along with brain freeze, it is recommended to seek help immediately. Additionally, it was found that those who suffer from various headaches and/or children whose parents have experienced brain freeze are more prone to experiencing brain freeze. Other types of headaches experienced by parents were not related to the child experiencing brain freeze, but children of parents who never experience headaches were also less likely to experience brain freeze.
Additionally, brain freeze may not only be related to humans. For example, the reactions of cats after being fed ice cream (although not recommended) and their neuroanatomy similar to ours may indicate that cats can also experience brain freeze.
Today, Greece’s landscapes are universally known; the immaculate white houses with their blue roofs are even one of the main reasons tourists set out to explore this Mediterranean country. But have you ever wondered why these dwellings scattered across the Greek islands are blue and white?
According to the Greek City Times, the colors of these houses have long been associated with those of the Greek flag, but there are also other, much more practical reasons…
Cooling the Rooms
The first reason is heat. According to a website about Greece and Cyprus, the Cycladic islands, which regularly face waves of extreme heat, were once devoid of accessible wood, and the houses were traditionally built from dark stone. The dark hue of these stones easily absorbed sunlight—and therefore heat. To remedy the stifling and unlivable interiors, locals began to paint their houses white to reflect the sun’s rays and cool the rooms.
Nowadays, as we explained to GEO in 2022, Athens, the Greek capital, is renovating many of its neighborhoods with light-colored coatings (albedo 0.55) to reduce the increasingly scorching temperatures linked to climate change.
Cholera Epidemic
The white color of traditional Greek foundations is also associated with preventing the spread of cholera during the 19th century. This disease, a major scourge of the time, is a waterborne infection that spread rapidly in densely populated areas.
Thus, explains Real Greeks, to limit the risk of large-scale transmission, past governments encouraged residents to paint their houses white. In fact, the limewash used was made from limestone, whose composition had disinfectant properties.
Blue and White, “the Colors of Patriotism”
Finally, more recently, the military dictatorship established in Greece in 1967—following the coup led by Brigade General Stylianos Pattakos—played a major role in the famous colors of Greek cities.
In 1974, six years after the coup, the military dictatorship adopted a law requiring that island houses be painted white and blue to represent the patriotic colors of the country, explains the Greek media outlet In.
Today, although the law is no longer mandatory, these colors have become an important marker of “Greek aesthetics” and, at the same time, a major tourist attraction.
The development of nuclear technology has left deep marks not only in the fields of science and the military but also in cultural and artistic spheres. Since the mid-20th century, the fear and uncertainty brought about by nuclear weapons have found a vast space in art, literature, and popular culture.
Godzilla: The Cinematic Reflection of a Nuclear Allegory
The 1954 film Godzilla, directed by Ishirō Honda, presents an allegorical take on the devastating effects of nuclear weapons. The film reflects Japan’s trauma following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II. Godzilla is depicted as a monster awakened by nuclear testing, symbolizing the consequences of humanity’s interference with nature. In this regard, Godzilla has become one of the most iconic representations of nuclear fear in cinema.
The nuclear allegory of Godzilla does not only reflect Japan’s fears but also resonates with the global anxiety surrounding nuclear weapons. The film foresees the catastrophic consequences of uncontrolled nuclear technology while also raising questions about how humanity can cope with this peril. Godzilla remains one of the strongest cinematic examples of nuclear cultural influence.
Cold War Literature: Literary Representations of Nuclear Fear
The Cold War era was a period when the fear of nuclear weapons was extensively explored in literature. Works written during this time addressed the potential consequences of nuclear war and the psychological state of humanity in the face of this looming threat. Authors such as Shūsaku Endō combined nuclear anxiety with existential concerns, offering a profound analysis of human fears.
Cold War literature not only examined the physical effects of nuclear war but also delved into its psychological and moral implications. Many works from this period emphasized the devastating impact of nuclear warfare on humanity while simultaneously carrying messages of peace and hope. Nuclear fear became one of the most dominant themes in literature during this time.
The first Fallout game, released in 1997, portrays a dystopian world in the aftermath of nuclear war. The game explores what the world might become after a nuclear catastrophe and how humanity would struggle to survive in this new reality. The Fallout series stands as one of the most significant examples of nuclear cultural influence in video games.
The dystopian universe of Fallout examines not only the physical aftermath of nuclear war but also its social and cultural consequences. The game delves into new societal structures that emerge after a nuclear disaster, the survival struggles of individuals, and the moral dilemmas they face.
The Fallout series remains one of the most compelling representations of nuclear cultural influence in popular culture.
Stanley Kubrick and Dr. Strangelove: The Dark Humor of Nuclear Fear
Stanley Kubrick’s 1964 film Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb presents nuclear war through the lens of dark comedy. The film satirically portrays the absurdity of uncontrolled nuclear weapons, emphasizing the helplessness of humanity in the face of this existential threat. Dr. Strangelove is one of the most unique cinematic representations of nuclear cultural influence.
Kubrick’s film questions not only the physical consequences of nuclear war but also its psychological and moral dimensions.
By employing dark humor, Dr. Strangelove critiques the political and military decisions that could lead to nuclear catastrophe. The film remains an unforgettable piece of cinema that underscores the cultural impact of nuclear fear.
This stunning opera house was built in the city of Harbin, known for its winter festivals. The building is located in a formerly marshy area near the Songhua River and blends organically with the surrounding landscape thanks to its flowing and curved lines.
The opera house covers an area of approximately 79,000 square meters (850,349 square-foot,) and consists of two halls: one for 1,600 spectators and another for 400.
Shanghai Tower
View from the Shanghai Tower observatory deck. Image: Wikimedia
Shanghai Tower is a majestic skyscraper in the city of Shanghai. The building stands 632-meter-tall (2,073 ft), with a total area of 380,000 square meters (4,090,300 sq ft). Upon completion, the tower ranked third in the world in height among freestanding structures.
The skyscraper houses corporate offices, entertainment and shopping centers, hotels, fitness studios, barbershops, laundries, shops, and all necessary living infrastructure.
1911 Revolution Museum
1911 Revolution Museum is a themed museum built to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the Revolution of 1911 Shouyi, Wuchang. Image: Arch Daily
Wuhan is the largest city in central China by population. It is renowned for its history, which is reflected in the magnificent large museum complex built here in 2011. It attracts numerous visitors not only with its interesting exhibits but also with its unique architecture.
This complex, with a total area of 330,000 square meters, consists of five interconnected buildings. Several lower above-ground levels and one underground level house a shopping and entertainment center, while the 12 upper floors are reserved for office space.
The city of Ordos began construction from scratch in 2003. According to plans, it was designed to accommodate almost a million residents, but currently, it has a population of only about 20,000, leading to its nickname as a “ghost city.” The museum building is its main attraction, drawing tourists from around the world.
This multifunctional sports and entertainment complex is often called the “Bird’s Nest” due to its distinctive appearance. It was created ahead of the 2008 Olympic Games to host numerous sporting events, as well as the opening and closing ceremonies. The construction of the stadium cost an estimated 325 million euros.
This hotel is curiously named “Horseshoe,” although it is actually a complete doughnut shape, with its lower segment located underwater, containing two underwater floors.
The building was designed by renowned Chinese architect Ma Yansong and completed in 2013. It cost the Sheraton chain $1.5 billion. The hotel ranks among the ten most expensive hotels in the world.
The National Centre for the Performing Arts is colloquially referred to as “The Giant Egg.” This unusual titanium and glass building is located in the heart of historic Beijing, near the famous Tiananmen Square.
The project by French architect Paul Andreu was chosen through a competition that attracted submissions from 69 of the world’s most famous experts. The large dome of the National Centre houses three performance halls: an opera hall (2,416 seats), a music hall (2,017 seats), and a theater hall (1,040 seats), all interconnected by aerial corridors.
This building is recognized as the largest standalone building in the world. Its total area is 1.76 million square meters, with a height of 100 meters (328 ft), a width of 400 meters (1,312 feet), and a length of 500 meters (1,640 feet).
The building has 18 floors and is almost entirely made of metal and glass.
Inside, there are shopping areas, offices, conference halls, a university complex, two shopping malls, two five-star hotels, an IMAX cinema, and a water park with an artificial beach.
This grand structure in Fushun resembles a ring, with an outer diameter of 170 meters and an inner diameter of 150 meters. At the top, there are observation decks accessible via high-speed elevators.
Like a needle in a haystack. Just a few hundred meters from the Berliner Fernsehturm, in the heart of the German capital, archaeologists made a surprising discovery a few days ago.
In the attic of a building in the Molkenmarkt district, an ancient Japanese sword was resting. The sword, in an advanced state of deterioration, is believed to be about four hundred years old, manufactured during the 17th century.
A Diplomatic Gift Brought Back from Japan in the 19th Century
On August 22, the Museum of Prehistory and Early History in Berlin published a statement relaying the scientists’ observations. Despite the artifact’s deterioration, researchers studying the sword managed to identify decorative copper elements adorning the hilt, which is composed of wood, bound with leather straps and fabric.
Several delicate engravings are spread across the hilt, notably chrysanthemums and waterways, often represented in the Edo culture, which extended from 1603 to 1868. For archaeologists, there is no doubt that the weapon would indeed have been crafted during this period.
The sword, rather short, is a wakizashi. This type of weapon was mainly used by certain samurai in feudal Japan, considered a traditional sword, serving as a backup to a primary weapon. The blade could be even older according to academics, having been forged a hundred years earlier, during the 16th century.
The presence of such an object in an attic bombed during World War II raises questions. Archaeologists have determined that a diplomatic mission to Japan during the 19th century would have allowed the wakizashi to be brought back to Europe. LiveScience reports that two missions named Takenouchi and Iwakura occasioned meetings between German and Japanese officials in the 1860s. It seems that despite its insular status, Japan was already maintaining relations with allied countries nearly 200 years ago.
Large spider species are found all over the world and many of them can reach quite impressive sizes. These spiders are considered one of nature’s most interesting creatures and arouse curiosity among humans. In this list, the 9 largest spiders in the world are listed in order from biggest to smallest.
Goliath Birdeater (Theraphosa blondi)
Goliath Birdeater (Theraphosa blondi). Image: Ryan Somma.
The Goliath Birdeater is famous for its gigantic size, with a leg span that can reach up to 30 cm (12 in). It has a robust and hairy body covered in reddish-brown or dark brown fur, which gives it a distinctive and imposing appearance. Despite its intimidating size, it is important to note that the Goliath Birdeater is generally docile and not aggressive towards humans.
These giant spiders are found primarily in the rainforests of South America, including countries such as Brazil, Venezuela, and Suriname.
They usually live in burrows that they dig in the ground or build in hollow logs or tree roots.
Despite its name, the Goliath Birdeater does not primarily hunt birds. Although it may occasionally eat small birds, its diet consists mostly of insects, other spiders, and small mammals.
It is an opportunistic hunter and ambushes prey that get too close to its nest.
These spiders are nocturnal, meaning they are most active at night. Goliath Birdeaters are known for their unique defense mechanism, where they can grow creepy hairs from their abdomen when threatened. These prickly hairs can cause irritation to the skin and eyes of potential predators.
While female Goliath Birdeaters can live for decades, males have a much shorter lifespan. Mating involves a complex courtship ritual and males must approach females carefully to avoid being mistaken for prey.
The Giant Hunter Spider is one of the largest spiders in the world, with a leg span that can reach up to 30 cm (about 12 in) and long, spindly legs and a relatively flat body. This spider can vary in color but usually has a brown or reddish-brown body with mottled patterns.
They live primarily in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, including countries such as Laos, Vietnam, and Malaysia. They are often seen in forests, caves, and sometimes inside man-made structures.
As the word “hunter” in their name suggests, these spiders are skilled hunters. They do not spin traditional webs to catch their prey. So spiders are agile and fast-moving hunters that can catch these animals—insects and other small invertebrates.
Giant hunting spiders are nocturnal, meaning they are most active at night. They are known for their impressive speed and agility, which they use to catch their prey. While their large size can be intimidating, they are generally not considered dangerous to humans and are likely to flee from potential danger.
It boasts a leg span that can reach up to approximately 25 cm (10 in). The name “Salmon Pink” refers to its coloration, which typically includes a pinkish hue on its body and legs combined with brownish or grayish tones.
These tarantulas are native to Brazil, particularly the Atlantic rainforests of the Parahyba region. They are primarily ground-dwelling, constructing burrows in the soil.
Despite the common name, they do not primarily prey on birds. Instead, their diet mainly consists of insects, other arachnids, and small vertebrates like rodents. They are sit-and-wait predators, staying near their burrows and ambushing passing prey.
Brazilian Salmon Pink Bird-Eating Tarantulas are typically docile and are not known to be aggressive toward humans. When threatened, they may display a threat posture, raising their front legs and showing their fangs. Like many tarantulas, they have urticating hairs on their abdomen, which can be flicked as a defense mechanism to irritate potential predators.
Brazilian Giant Tawny Red Tarantula (Pterinopelma sazimai)
The Brazilian Giant Tawny Red Tarantula is a relatively large tarantula species, with a leg span that can reach up to around 23 cm (approximately 9 in). Its name reflects its distinctive coloration. These tarantulas typically have a tawny or reddish-brown hue on their bodies and legs.
These tarantulas are native to Brazil, particularly the state of Bahia, in the eastern part of the country. They inhabit tropical forests and are often found in burrows or crevices.
Like most tarantulas, the Brazilian Giant Tawny Red Tarantula is an opportunistic predator, feeding primarily on insects, other arachnids, and occasionally small vertebrates. They are ambush predators, relying on their sit-and-wait strategy to capture passing prey.
Brazilian Whiteknee Tarantula eating a small frog. Image: Wikimedia.
The Brazilian Whiteknee Tarantula is a medium- to large-sized tarantula with a leg span that typically ranges from 18 to 20 cm (around 7 to 8 in). It is recognized by its distinct coloration, characterized by a dark-colored body with striking white bands or “knees,” on its legs.
These tarantulas are primarily found in the rainforests and tropical regions of Brazil. They often make burrows in the ground, which they use as shelters and for molting.
The Brazilian Whiteknee Tarantula is an opportunistic predator, feeding on various prey, including insects and small invertebrates. They are sit-and-wait predators, often ambushing their prey when it ventures close to their burrows.
The Colombian Giant Redleg Tarantula is a large tarantula with a leg span that can reach around 20 cm (about 8 in). Its striking and distinguishing feature is its vivid coloration. These tarantulas have dark bodies with striking red hairs on their legs, giving them the “redleg” name.
These tarantulas are native to Colombia, particularly the Andean region, but they are also found in other parts of South America. They are often discovered in mountainous areas, typically at higher elevations.
The Colombian Giant Redleg Tarantula is a carnivorous predator, feeding on a variety of prey, including insects and small invertebrates. Like most tarantulas, they employ a sit-and-wait hunting strategy, ambushing and capturing prey that comes near their burrows.
King Baboon Spider (Pelinobius muticus)
King Baboon Spider (Pelinobius muticus). Image: Wikimedia.
The King Baboon Spider is a large and robust tarantula with a leg span that can reach around 20 cm (approximately 8 in). It is characterized by its striking coloration, with a dark brown to black body and striking yellow bands on the legs. These bright markings give it a regal appearance, hence the name “King Baboon.”
This species is native to the tropical rainforests of East Africa, particularly in Tanzania and Kenya. They are often found in burrows or crevices in the ground or under logs and rocks.
The King Baboon Spider is an opportunistic predator, preying on a variety of creatures, including insects and small invertebrates. They are skilled ambush hunters, lying in wait near the entrance of their burrows to capture passing prey.
The Goliath Pinkfoot Tarantula is a relatively large arboreal tarantula species with a leg span that can reach up to approximately 20 cm (about 8 in). It gets its common name from the striking pinkish or reddish hairs on its feet, which stand out against its overall dark coloring.
These tarantulas are native to South America and are particularly found in regions such as Brazil, Venezuela, and Peru. They are arboreal by nature, which means they are well adapted for living in trees and are often found in forested areas.
The Goliath Pinkfoot Tarantula is an insectivore, preying primarily on a variety of insects, such as crickets, moths, and other arthropods. They are agile hunters, capturing prey using their silk threads as a web and ambushing them.
This species is known for being docile and is generally not aggressive towards humans. It is often kept as a pet by tarantula enthusiasts.
Cobalt Blue Tarantula (Haplopelma lividum)
A large female Haplopelma lividum. Image: Wikimedia.
The Cobalt Blue Tarantula is a medium-sized tarantula with a leg span that typically ranges from 13 to 15 cm (around 5 to 6 in). It is recognized for its striking cobalt blue color, which is the primary reason for its common name.
This species is native to Southeast Asia and is particularly found in countries like Thailand, Myanmar, and Malaysia. They are often discovered in tropical rainforests, where they make burrows in the ground or utilize crevices in rocks.
The Cobalt Blue Tarantula is an aggressive predator, feeding on a variety of prey, including insects, other arachnids, and small vertebrates. They are known for their agility and speed, effectively capturing their prey by ambushing or chasing them.
Unlike many other tarantula species, the Cobalt Blue Tarantula is known for its highly defensive and sometimes aggressive behavior. They are not typically docile and are often characterized by a strong-willed and skittish disposition.
The Cobalt Blue Tarantula is a highly prized species among tarantula enthusiasts due to its stunning blue coloration. However, its aggressive temperament makes it a challenging species to keep as a pet, and it is not recommended for novice tarantula keepers. In the wild, it plays a role in controlling insect and small vertebrate populations within its ecosystem.
In the world, there are many species of snakes capable of killing a human. This article brings you the 10 deadliest snakes based on an analysis of overall toxicity and the potential for human fatality in the absence of medicines or appropriate antivenoms. Who are the deadliest snakes in the world? We present to you the ten most dangerous and deadliest snakes on Earth, from the black mamba to the inland taipan.
A snake is considered deadly due to the potency and toxicity of its venom. Some snakes have venom that can cause paralysis (neurotoxic venom), while others have venom that disrupts blood clotting and damages tissues (hemotoxic venom).
The green anaconda (Eunectes murinus) holds the title of the largest and one of the strongest snakes globally, known for its powerful constriction.
This is the species of snake that is the longest in the world. Originating from Southeast Asia, they can measure up to 8 to 10 meters(26 to 32 feet) in length and weigh up to 160 kg (350 lbs). Devoid of venom, they belong to the constrictor family. The python strangles its prey before swallowing it whole. Its diet consists of monkeys and other small mammals.
Although attacks on humans are relatively uncommon, it is noteworthy that this snake occasionally eats people and domestic animals in Indonesia. Typically, this giant resides in forests and swamps, but due to deforestation, it is increasingly found near villages and fields.
Among the world’s largest snakes, they can exceed 26 to 32 feet in length.
Distinguished by their intricate, net-like pattern on scales.
Found in Southeast Asia, primarily in rainforests and swamps.
Green Anaconda (Eunectes Murinus)
Green Anaconda (Eunectes Murinus). Image: Dave Lonsdale.
It is the most feared constrictor snake in the world. With an average length of 6 to 9 meters (20 to 30 feets), it is smaller than the python, but its weight exceeding 250 kg and a diameter greater than 12 inches (30.5 centimeters) make it the largest snake on the planet. The anaconda inhabits the waters of South America and has only three predators: the jaguar, the black caiman, and humans. Wrapped around its prey, it tightens its grip with a force of 2 kg per square centimeter every time the victim exhales!
It can also take its prey underwater to drown it once it has sunk its fangs into its flesh. An anaconda can swallow a whole animal the size of a goat or a dog. However, even though it is theoretically capable of killing and consuming a human, such attacks are rare.
The heaviest snake globally, with some individuals weighing over 550 pounds (250 kg).
Olive-green coloration and aquatic lifestyle, residing in swamps and slow-moving rivers of South America.
A highly venomous rattlesnake, it inhabits the desert regions of the southwestern United States and central Mexico. Scientists regard it as having the most toxic venom of all rattlesnake species, consisting of hemotoxic and neurotoxic components. It averages about 100 cm (3.3 feet) in length, yet its venom is deadly.
Mojave rattlesnake bites often exhibit delayed symptoms, leading individuals to underestimate their severity. However, the venom’s effects manifest within hours, causing vision problems, speech and swallowing difficulties, muscle weakness, and respiratory failure. Remarkably, as little as 70 mg of its venom can kill 7,500 mice.
Notable for its potent venom containing neurotoxins.
Range across the American Southwest and northern Mexico.
Recognizable by its light and dark diamond-shaped patterns.
It can reach up to 5.5 meters (18 feet) in length and weigh as much as 10 kilograms, making it the largest venomous snake in the world. Although its venom may not be the most potent, each bite can deliver up to 500 mg of venom, rendering it one of the most perilous snakes globally. Theoretically, a single cobra bite contains enough venom to kill a 600-kilogram animal or around twenty people.
The venom consists of a neurotoxin that directly affects the victim’s body, leading to the paralysis of the neuromuscular and respiratory systems. In contrast to the Mojave rattlesnake, symptoms appear rapidly, and death ensues swiftly. Moreover, certain cobra species possess the ability to spit their venom up to a distance of 3 meters, causing severe eye damage.
This snake is responsible for more deadly envenomations than any other snake. Primarily found in Southeast Asia, China, Taiwan, and India, this species is considered the most dangerous viper and a leading cause of death. These deadly snakes can reach a length of 1.2 (3.95 feet) to 1.6 meters (5.2 feet) and produce a substantial amount of venom.
Symptoms of a Russell’s viper bite include excessive bleeding, especially from the gums and in the urine, a rapid drop in blood pressure and heart rate, necrosis, and kidney failure. About 29% of survivors also suffer from brain damage.
Venomous snake native to South Asia.
Identifiable by a triangular-shaped head and dark zigzag bands on its body.
Responsible for numerous snakebite incidents in its range.
Hydrophis Belcheri (Faint-Banded Sea Snake or Belcher’s Sea Snake)
Extremely venomous, it can be encountered in the seas of South Asia. Relatively small (about 1 meter in length) and slender, this snake is so venomous that a single bite can kill a person in less than 45 minutes. Immediate treatment is essential for survival. Fortunately, its timid nature mostly spares humans from its attacks.
Its venom contains high levels of neurotoxins and myotoxins. While its effects on humans are still under study, vomiting, dizziness, seizures, severe bleeding, respiratory and renal failure, and total paralysis are not out of the question.
Sea snake inhabiting the Indo-Pacific oceans.
Characterized by its narrow body and faint bands.
Highly adapted for aquatic life, possessing venom primarily used for hunting.
Eastern Brown Snake (Pseudonaja Textilis)
Eastern Brown Snake (Pseudonaja Textilis). Image: Public Domain.
The Eastern Brown Snake can mainly be observed in Australia and New Guinea, in agricultural lands and on the outskirts of urban areas, where its favorite prey, the house mouse, likes to roam. This slender snake averages 1.5 meters in length and mostly strikes at the thighs of its human victims. It is responsible for about 60% of snakebite-related deaths in humans in Australia.
When it’s about to attack, its body forms an “S” shape, and it opens its mouth wide. Its venom affects the blood system, causing coagulopathies, hemorrhages, and even cardiac arrests. No human can resist its venom for more than thirty minutes. They are very fast, capable of surpassing a running human, according to experts.
One of the world’s most venomous snakes.
Indigenous to Australia, typically brown with a slender build.
Often found in various habitats, including urban areas.
Common Death Adder (Acanthophis Antarcticus)
The Common Death Adder, Prague Zoo. Image: Petr Hamerník.
Despite its viper-like appearance, it belongs to the elapid snake family, which includes cobras and black mambas. This snake hides under decomposing foliage during the day, and at twilight, it comes out to hunt lizards, rodents, and birds. It uses the tip of its tail as a lure, waving it slowly to attract prey.
This viper can strike and inject venom into its prey in less than 0.15 seconds. It delivers a neurotoxic venom, which induces paralysis and complete respiratory failure. Despite the development of antivenoms, deaths still occur, demonstrating the potency of their strike.
Endemic to Australia, known for its deadly venom.
Recognizable by its short, stout body and triangular head.
Employ an ambush hunting strategy.
Inland Taipan (Oxyuranus Microlepidotus)
Oxyuranus microlepidotus at Australia Zoo. Image: Wikimedia.
A dark, round head, 23 rows of dorsal scales along the body, and 5mm fangs—quite reassuring, right? As its name suggests, it exclusively inhabits deserts and arid regions and is endemic to Australia (South Australia, Queensland, and the Northern Territory). A dose of its venom can kill 100 men or250,000 mice.
The effects, once again, include paralysis of the nervous system, blood clotting, and cardiac issues. Its skin color changes throughout the year to adapt to temperatures (light in summer, darker in winter). Its only predators are the mulga snake and the perentie monitor, both immune to its venom.
Dubbed the “Fierce Snake,” it possesses the most toxic venom of any snake.
Resides in the arid regions of Australia.
Camouflaged appearance, with scales matching its environment.
Black Mamba (Dendroaspis Polylepis)
Black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis), St. Louis Zoo, Missouri, United States. Image: Public Domain.
At 23 km/h, this snake has a top speed higher than the majority of humans. Originating from Africa, it can reach up to 3 meters and skillfully climb trees. Its skin ranges from olive gray to metallic brown and gets its name from the blackish color inside its mouth, the only part of its body with such a hue.
Unlike other snakes, the black mamba delivers multiple bites when it attacks. Its venom induces symptoms within just 10 minutes, including severe tingling, a metallic taste in the mouth, neurological dysfunction, blurred vision, respiratory paralysis, and an inability to speak. Humans bitten by a black mamba are completely paralyzed within 45 minutes, making it the most feared snake in the world.
Named for the dark coloration inside its mouth, not its skin.
Native to sub-Saharan Africa and known for its incredible speed.
Highly venomous, making it one of the continent’s most feared snakes.
There are several myths and misconceptions about snake strength, often portraying them as excessively dangerous or aggressive. In reality, snakes primarily use their strength for hunting and defense, and most snake species are not a threat to humans when left undisturbed in their natural habitat.
The great successes of Philip II’s son, Alexander the Great, are due in large part to the use of the xyston.
After Alexander the Great’s death, his cavalry were given a new name to honor their xystons.
From the middle of the fourth century BC forward, the Companion elite cavalry (hetairoi) and the prodromoi light cavalry (scouts) of the Macedonian army made extensive use of the xyston spear which was a long cavalry lance. “Xyston” or a “spiked stick” comes from the verb / xuô, which means “to shave.” The advantage of the Xyston over heavier lances was its light weight. This allowed it to be used one-handed, which was a great advantage for the mounted units.
Male cornel wood (also known as cornus mas or wild cornel).
The xyston probably descended from the Greek akon and palton spears. A thick and less brittle wood than the reed was formerly used in Greece to produce a spear. However, the male cornel wood (also known as cornus mas or wild cornel) may have been brought to Athens by the military leader Xenophon following his return from Asia according to his book Anabasis.
Then, this material made its way to Macedonia. Besides the forested highlands of Macedonia, Phthia (a city in ancient Thessaly), Aetolia, Arcadia, and Laconia were all good places to look for cornel wood to produce spears with it. In fact, the widespread usage of cornel wood in the fourth and third centuries BC led to the phrase being used poetically for the word “spear.”
The xyston was used as the standard weapon of the hoplites in ancient Greece. Before the general adoption of the sarissa, the xyston was in use among the Macedonian phalanxes after the military reforms made by Philip II in the middle of the fourth century BC. After the military reforms, the xyston and later the sarissa could be used against the enemies in the phalanx battle formation.
This order of battle and the discipline that went with it changed the way warfare was conducted at the time. The great successes of Philip II’s son, Alexander the Great, are due in large part to the use of the phalanx and, thus, of the xyston and sarissa. At the time of this army reform, the xyston was replaced by the longer sarissa, which reached a length of up to 20–21 feet.
Similar Spears
The Roman-Jewish historian Flavius Josephus from the 1st century AD calls the Roman pilum (javelin) a “xyston” in the First Jewish-Roman War (66–74 AD). A Sarmatian Roman heavy lance employed by Iranian cataphracts called kontos (which literally means “oar”) may have been inspired by the xyston. Around 200 BC, the xyston evolved into a very light spear, the dory.
Things That Made Xyston Special
An Ancient Greek rider likely with xyston spears. Rider, Attic red-figured cup, middle of 5th century BC.
Size and Material
The xyston, measuring about 11.5 to 14 feet (3.5–4.25 m) in length, was longer and more robust than the simpler dory spear used by the hoplites and hypaspists. However, it was also shorter than the sarissa spear (13–21 ft) which came into use later.
The male cornel wood from which it was constructed gave it elasticity, hardness, and durability, just like the sarissa.
There was no need to increase the wood’s thickness to accommodate the spear’s length for balance.
Cornel wood was also used for ancient bows due to its effectiveness compared to other woods.
Use
The xyston could be handled with either hand, or both, depending on the circumstances. It was also versatile enough to be held under or over the arm, depending on the user. The xyston was worn by Greek hoplites alongside the aspis shield and the kopis sword.
The xyston was used most extensively by the cavalry; however, it was also used by the foot soldiers. It was part of the armament of lightly armed Greek foot soldiers, such as the Evzones or the Psiloi.
One-handed use for frontal attacks is implied by depictions of Alexander the Great‘s xyston on the famous Alexander Mosaic (below) and the fresco from the Niausta tomb portraying a prodromoi or light cavalry.
Alexander’s xyston in Alexander Mosaic.
Design
Both ends, like the sarissa, were tipped with iron in a xyston. If the primary point breaks, the secondary one could be used as a backup or counterbalance. The iron spear tips needed the wood to be tapered at both ends. The lance’s profile was concave because its midsection was narrower than its ends.
Effectiveness
On the battlefield, effective charges could be made against the upper body and head of the enemy by using a xyston. This weapon was so functional that the ancient sources occasionally referred to the Companions as xystophoroi (“spear-bearers“) after Alexander the Great’s conquests because of their usage of the xyston.
When necessary, the Companions would also equip themselves with the sarissa, muchlike the prodromoi or sarissophoroi, since it was lighter, cheaper, and easier to handle.
Sarissa: The Macedonian phalanx spear was pivotal in Alexander’s victories.
Evolution: Its length increased as it adapted to changing combat strategies.
Decline: The Romans’ adaptability in warfare brought the sarissa’s eventual end.
The sarissa is a spear that was in use in the early third century BC and was between 180 and 300 inches in length (4.5–7.5 m). During Alexander the Great‘s conquests and the Wars of the Diadochi, this weapon, which had its origins in Macedonia during the reign of Philip II in the middle of the fourth century BC, was employed by the sarissa phalanxes (or “sarissa bearers”). Its proportions increased as it was utilized by the soldiers of the Hellenistic nations.
Sarissa’s Origin
Homer mentions long spears in his account of Hector and Ajax, while Xenophon mentions them in his account of the Chalybes.
The sarissa spear first emerged in the Macedonian phalanx in the years 338–336 BC. It’s conceivable that Philip II adopted the name from the Triballi, whom he fought in 339 BC; Demosthenes reports that the Triballi hit Philip II in the thigh with a sarissa, but this may be an anachronism. Plutarch first mentions Macedonians using sarissas during the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC), although they were only carried by mounted troops. Iron sarissa points, the earliest artifacts from which precise dates can be derived, have also been linked to the Battle of Chaeronea.
In 334 BC, during the Battle of Granicus, Alexander the Great defeated the Persian army with the help of his sarissas for the first time. The length of the sarissas helped the Macedonians fend off Persian attacks while being outnumbered by their foes on higher ground.
Detail of the fresco of a tomb of Agios Athanasios showing Macedonian warriors wearing sarissa.
At one end of the sarissa is a leaf-shaped or elongated diamond-shaped iron point, while at the other end is a shorter point. Iron tips were used on Alexander’s sarissas during his war in India, as mentioned by Diodorus and seen in the Alexander mosaic. Manolis Andronikos, who discovered the tomb of Philip II in Vergina, believes that the 18-inch iron spike found there belonged to a sarissa.
However, it’s possible that this is only a ceremonial weapon and not one intended for combat. Some scholars argue that this means the focal point should be smaller (between 4 and 6 inches), with particular reference to the Alexander mosaic.
The Material Used to Make the Sarissa
The original sarissa shaft was likely made of a controversial kind of wood. The male cornel tree (also called cornus mas) is said to be the source material for the sarissa, since it is thick and flexible and was brought to Athens by Xenophon following the expedition of the Ten Thousand (a Greek mercenary unit) from Asia. Then, the material would have been widely adopted across Macedonia. Because of its widespread usage, the Greek poets of the third and fourth centuries BC often used the phrase “cornel wood” to mean “spear.” The shaft of the xyston, a long lance of the Companion cavalry, is made from cornel wood.
However, another legend has it that ash wood was used instead, which is just as malleable and durable as male cornel wood. The Latin poet Stace from the first century AD is cited as the source for this belief about the Macedonians’ use of ash spears. Even if you don’t trust Stace when it comes to military hardware, this is the only ancient source that specifically mentions the kind of wood used to make the sarissa. In antiquity, ash wood was often used, and Macedonia had a plentiful supply. Theophrastus suggests that the length of the longest sarissa is equal to the height of a male cornel, which might lead to the mistaken belief that sarissas were fashioned of cornel wood.
The sarissa was originally 15 pounds (7 kg) in weight and ranged in length from 15 to 18 feet (4.6–5.3 m) (according to Theophrastus, Arrian, and Asclepiodotus). Polybius and Livy state that in the first part of the third century BC, this spear was lengthened to 25 feet (7.6 m). When considering the sarissa’s construction, it’s unclear whether this spear is a single piece or two halves connected together. The second explanation is more feasible given the difficulty of sourcing a straight and robust shaft of such length. Instead, it is more likely that the two halves were joined by a metal ring, an example of which was discovered in Philip II’s tomb.
The sarissa spear was three times longer than the regular 7-foot Dory spear used by other Greek warriors.
Phalanx formation with long sarissa spears, marching in close formation.
When sarissa bearers were arrayed in a phalanx, the sarissas of the first five ranks protruded beyond the first rank to create a wall of pikes (out of a total of 16 ranks). In order to deflect incoming projectiles, the first five ranks held their sarissas horizontally, while the last two held theirs vertically. The sarissa’s length made it effective in stopping cavalry attacks and keeping infantry at bay by presenting the adversary with an impenetrable and virtually impregnable hedge of pikes.
Heavy armor was unnecessary while using this weapon since the phalanx’s opponents were continually driven back by the formidable mass of iron and wood. Because the sarissa fighters just required a spear and light armor, a large number of troops could be recruited at a cheaper cost. Phalanx warriors only employed the sarissa in close-quarters combat; in open fields, they relied on the customary lance, the xyston.
Fighting Using the Sarissa Spear
Phalanx warriors were able to cross great distances quickly and undetected by the adversary since their sarissas protected them from melee assaults and hostile missiles. Their efficacy in charging was further improved by their enhanced velocity. Furthermore, the masses of the sarissa carriers united during the charge, allowing them to totally break through the enemy’s formation because of how closely they were packed together. The sarissa could be fastened to the ground with the help of the short point at its base, which could also be used to replace the top point if the latter ever broke.
Advantages
It was almost hard to remove the sarissophoroi, or sarissa-bearing infantry, from their defensive positions. This was due to the fact that their sarissa wall was too thick, lengthy, and compact for the attackers to break through. When deployed, the phalanx could form two columns of five rows of lances, which was twice as dense as a unit of Roman legionnaires, for example. If an enemy soldier made it between the first rank’s two sarissas, he would be met with fierce blows from the second, third, fourth, and fifth ranks, making their mission almost impossible as they were repeatedly driven back.
By substituting sarissas for the xyston, the Macedonian cavalry (Companions or prodromoi, also known as sarissophoroi) gained an edge in frontal attacks even against hoplites. The lance was held in the center, and the attack could come from above or below, as seen on Alexander’s tomb and the Alexander mosaic.
Alexander’s xyston spear.
Weak Sides
Attacking the sarissophoroi’s weak sides was the only option to defeat them, since a head-on assault would have been disastrous against their pike-studded phalanx. It seems that no frontal attack on a Macedonian phalanx was ever successful. Its main downfalls came from being surrounded, as in the battles of Cynoscephalae (197 BC), the Nile, and Corinth, or from a lack of phalanx cohesiveness, as at Magnesia (190 BC) and Pydna (168 BC).
Polyaenus recounts a ruse used during the campaign of the Spartan general Cleonymus and the Epirus king Pyrrhus in Macedonia in the 270s BC:
2.29 – At the siege of Edessa, when a breach was made in the walls, the spear-men, whose spears were sixteen cubits long, sallied out against the assailants. Cleonymus deepened his phalanx, and ordered the front line not to use their weapons, but with both hands to seize the enemy’s spears, and hold them fast; while the next rank immediately advanced, and closed upon them. When their spears were seized in this way, the men retreated; but the second rank, pressing upon them, either took them prisoner, or killed them. By this manoeuvre of Cleonymus, the long and formidable sarissa was rendered useless, and became rather an encumbrance, than a dangerous weapon.
However, the Spartans were not dealing with the Macedonian phalanx here. The strength of the phalanx in the battle of the Romans against the Macedonian army in 168 BC is described by Plutarch:
The Macedonians in the first lines had time to thrust the points of their sarissas into the shields of the Romans and thus became unreachable for their swords. The Romans tried to sword away from the sarissa, or bend them to the ground with shields, or push them aside, grabbing them with their bare hands, and the Macedonians, clenching their spears even tighter, pierced through the attackers, – neither shields nor armor could protect from the blow of the sarissa.
The Reason Why Later Sarissas Were Made Even Longer
Following Alexander the Great’s conquests, armies from India to Sicily adopted phalanx formations modeled after those of the Macedonians. Battles between Alexander’s successors, the Diadochi, occurred in Paraitakene (317 BC), Gabiene (316 BC), Gaza (312 BC), and Ipsus (301 BC), were the scenes of the first Macedonian-style phalanx fights.
However, the phalanxes were rendered mostly ineffectual in these “fratricidal” fights, with comparable and extremely light equipment causing mutual destruction upon collision. When two soldiers with identical sarissas collided, they could no longer avoid each other’s hits, lowering the spear’s effectiveness.
The sarissas of phalanxes in various Hellenistic kingdoms became steadily longer to outdistance the enemy’s shorter pikes and counteract this trend. By 274 BC, during the early years of the reign of Antigonus II Gonatas, sarissas had grown in length from 16.5 to 25 feet (5–7.5 m). Even with extensive training, subsequent sarissas were too heavy and unwieldy to handle, despite their appearance being quite light and controllable.
Because of this, these soldiers were eventually relegated to defensive roles on the battlefield. To be more effective against other phalanxes, they gave up mobility and flexibility. In addition, shields and armor were fortified greatly to compensate for the phalangites’ vulnerability to strikes from opponents using equally long sarissas. In addition to their very long pikes, phalangites in wars like Pydna (168 BC) and even earlier at Cynoscephalae (197 BC) were almost as well armed as Roman legionnaires.
A Decrease in the Use of Sarissa
The Romans finally triumphed over these phalanxes because they had become too large and cumbersome to be effectively used (in stark contrast to Alexander’s phalanxes).
The Roman legions were far more adaptable, allowing them to surround the phalanxes and assault their flanks. Seleucid phalanxes played a crucial defensive role in both Magnesia (190 BC) and Thermopylae (191 BC), when they stood immobile behind their barrier of points. At Pydna (168 BC), the Macedonian infantry was hampered by its own disordered bulk, rendering it unable to respond as quickly as it had against the Persians and Greek hoplites.
Alexander’s phalanxes never appeared to be hampered by such challenges, as they were able to successfully traverse the East despite its harsh geographical conditions, fight in forest-covered Macedonia, cross rivers in the midst of battle (Granicus and Hydaspes), and face a much larger enemy (battles of Ipsus and Gaugamela) without experiencing cohesion problems, and were consequently undefeated for the first two centuries of their history. Despite his unreliability, Livy said that the late phalanxes were “unable to make a half-turn.”
While the Roman armies emphasized movement and adaptability, the Hellenistic rulers’ never-ending armament competition only reduced the phalangites’ durability, mobility, and the sarissa’s tenacity. The phalanxes envisioned by Philip II had died out by the end of the third century BC. Even after the Kingdom of Commagene was dissolved in 72 AD, the sarissa was still in use in certain areas. This was true even after the acquisition of the Kingdom of Egypt by Rome in 30 BC.
The sarissa had a major impact on the Swiss pikemen of the Middle Ages. Through their victories against greater European forces, they helped hasten the end of the chivalric period. Swiss pikemen, widely regarded as the best infantry of their day, broke away from the Holy Roman Empire and fought as mercenaries throughout Europe.
The Seven-Branched Sword was presented as a diplomatic gift to Japan by Baekje.
It had a ceremonial role in rituals, rather than practical combat use.
The inscriptions on the sword offer insights into ancient diplomatic ties.
The Seven-Branched Sword is an ancient iron sword that originated at Isonokami Shrine in Tenri City, Nara Prefecture, Japan. This cold weapon measures 29.5 inches (74.9 cm) in length and has six branches of blade edges, three on each side of the sword. You can think of the main blade as the “seventh” branch. There are inscriptions in gold inlay on its blade. The Seven-Branched Sword was designated as a Japanese National Treasure in 1953.
Origin and Use
The Isonokami Shrine where the Seven-Branched Sword is currently located.
The exact origin of the Seven-Branched Sword has been forgotten, and it was referred to as the “Six-Pronged Spear” in Isonokami Shrine. This sword was used as a ceremonial object in rituals, particularly during a ceremony where the first seedlings of the year were planted in the fields. Thus, the sword had more of a symbolic or ceremonial role than being a practical edged weapon.
The Seven-Branched Sword may have been presented by the Korean kingdom of Baekje (18 BC to 660 AD) to Japan, and it is associated with diplomatic exchanges between Baekje and Japan during ancient times.
Why the Seven Protrusions?
A replica of the Seven-Branched Sword, National Museum of Japan. (Photo, WaffenSS, CC BY-SA 3.0)
The Seven-Sons Mirror, or the Seven-Little-One Mirror gifted alongside the sword, is described as having seven protrusions, which aligns with the “seven sons” theme in Korean folklore. The same theme might be the reason why the Seven-Branched Sword has seven protrusions.
This bronze mirror and other artifacts were reportedly unearthed from the Daisenryo Kofun of the mid-5th century (a kofun is an “ancient grave”), and they are believed to be related to the reign of Emperor Nintoku (r. 313–399), the 16th Emperor of Japan.
Still, there is speculation that these artifacts were purchased in Kyoto by Okakura Kakuzo, a Japanese art critic, and do not precisely align with the tomb’s construction period.
There have been two separate attempts at restoring or reproducing the Seven-Branched Sword, one in 1980 and another in 2005. Due to a lack of information on the original production process, a new one has been implemented during these restorations.
Inscriptions on the Seven-Branched Sword
The sword has inscriptions on its blade, with a total of 61 characters inlaid in gold. Due to corrosion and damage, 49 characters are legible, 4 are entirely unreadable, and 8 can be partially deciphered.
The Chinese inscriptions are said to have been written by the monarch of Baekje when he presented the sword to the king of Wa (Japan) in the third century AD.
The sword is constructed of “one hundred layers of steel” and can penetrate “one hundred enemies”, according to the inscription. The first of its type, this sword was commissioned for the King of Wa by the King of Baekje. The inscription states that the sword should be handed down to the “next generations”.
Various interpretations of the year mentioned in the inscriptions suggested varying dates as the origin of the sword, such as 268 AD, 369 AD, or 468 AD in the Chinese calendar. The specific construction year of the Seven-Branched is yet to be resolved.
Significance of the Sword
The Seven-Branched Sword is a valuable artifact. It provides insights into the relationship between ancient Japan and China during the 4th century. It is one of the few surviving written historical records from that period.
According to the Nihon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan), the sword, along with a mirror called “Seven-Little-One Mirror,” was presented to Japan as a diplomatic gift from Baekje. The idea that “Tai” may be a unique Baekje-era name suggests once again that the sword may have been created in the context of Baekje’s internal politics.
Despite its large, deadly size, this sword was likely used more for symbolic purposes than practical combat.
Physical Features
A photograph of the Seven-Branched Sword from 1930 could show the original weapon.
The original Seven-Branched Sword is still in existence today, and it has been guarded in the Isonokami Shrine ever since it was introduced there. However, the sword is not visible to the general public. It has the following physical features:
Total length: 29.5 in (74.9 cm).
Blade: 25.8 in (65.5 cm), double-edged and slightly curved with a central ridge.
Tang: 3.7 in (9.4 cm), it does not have a hole for fixing the sword.
Weight: 4.03 lb (1.83 kg).
Material: Iron.
Branches: The branches are 3.9 in long (10 cm) and 1.2 in wide (3 cm).
History of the Seven-Branched Sword
Envoys from Baekje under the command of Chikuma Nagahiko traveled to Japan in the ninth month on the tenth day of the 52nd year of the Japanese empress Empress Jing’s reign, according to the Chronicles of Japan (Nihon Shoki). They presented the Seven-Branched Sword, the Seven-Little-One Mirror, and various precious items to the Japanese court.
Chikuma Nagahiko mentioned that there was a river to the west of his country, and its source was an iron mountain in Kokuna. This river was so distant that it would take seven days to reach it. He offered to provide the iron from this mountain to the Japanese court.
Therefore, the Seven-Little-One Mirror and the Seven-Branched Sword were described as treasures made using the iron from Tetsuzan (“Iron Mountain”) in Kokuna.
Chikuma also conveyed that the connection between his country and Japan, given by the heavens, was essential for the stability of Japan. He advised the Japanese court to maintain good relations, gather tribute regularly, and continue the exchange. Following this, annual tributes and exchanges between Baekje and Japan continued.
Chikuma Nagahiko later took action against the Korean Kingdom of Silla after it seized tribute from Baekje in 247 AD, according to the Japanese chronicles.
In the 49th year of Empress Jingū’s reign, Japanese forces were dispatched to Takachimura and attacked the Silla Kingdom. Baekje generals like Kira Sho and Sasha Nuguai also cooperated in defeating Silla forces, resulting in the subjugation of several regions.
There are various interpretations regarding the exchange of the Seven-Branched Sword:
Some believe it was a gift from Eastern Jin to Japan.
Others suggest that Baekje offered and gifted it to Japan.
The historical context of Baekje facing the threat of an invasion by the Korean Kingdom of Goguryeo might have led to their alliance with Japan, resulting in the creation of the Seven-Branched Sword. In this interpretation, this ornamented sword was a valuable gift exchanged between the two countries as equals.
According to the scholar Kosaku Hamada, the exchange of the Seven-Branched Sword, which was created by Eastern Jin in 369 AD, was a diplomatic move. He believes it solidified an alliance between Baekje and Japan and established a southward diplomatic line involving Japan, Baekje, the Gaya Confederacy, and the southern Chinese states, which lasted into the early 6th century.
Another scholar, Yoshitane Sakamoto, interprets the sword’s inscription and suggests that Baekje received titles and status from Eastern Jin, and out of joy and respect, they gifted the ornamented Seven-Branched Sword to Japan. The inscriptions on the sword contain historical clues related to Baekje’s military achievements and alliances.
How Old is the Seven-Branched Sword?
In the original inscription on the sword, the Seven-Branched Sword appears to be associated with the year 369 AD. There is a mention of the “Baekje King” and “Crown Prince,” who received investiture from Eastern Jin, which indicates a connection between the sword and Baekje royalty.
The negotiations between Baekje and the Eastern Jin Dynasty are initially recorded in the Book of Jin as starting in 372 AD. Therefore, the Eastern Jin may have already acknowledged the Geunchogo of Baekje as a king before this formal investiture.
The sword’s inscription includes the term “Prince King”, which is suggested to refer to the “King of Wa” mentioned on the reverse side of the sword. This is actually of higher status or significance than the King of Baekje.
Baekje established a close relationship with the Wa Kingdom in the history of early Japan to counter the threat from the Kingdom of Goguryeo. In 369 AD, Wa and Baekje allied to launch an expedition into the Korean Peninsula, with Baekje emerging victorious against Goguryeo.
When the Korean Kingdom of Baekje began to pay tribute to the Chinese Eastern Jin around 372 AD, the Seven-Branched Sword might have been presented as part of this diplomatic relationship. The bronze mirror was also presented alongside the sword, and it is currently believed to be housed in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.
The name “Hwando” means “rounded sword,” and it referred to various Korean long swords.
Hwando has a smaller blade curve than the katana.
It is worn with a cord around the waist and has a painted scabbard with tassels.
The Hwando was a curved sword with a single outer edge that was popular throughout the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties in Korea. The sword was between 25 and 40 inches in length, depending on whether it was used by cavalry or infantry. The blade of this sword has a curve like that of a saber or scimitar. A Hwando appears very similar to the Japanese katana.
Origin of the Name
The name “Hwando,” which means “rounded sword,” is said to have been named after either the rounded curvature of the blade or the ring on the scabbard from which the sword was hung at the waist. Both infantry and mounted soldiers of the time utilized Hwando swords.
The term Hwando was also sometimes used during the Joseon era to refer to a wide variety of outer-edged long swords, including many distinct sorts of swords used for martial arts and combat training. That’s why the name Hwando actually referred to more than just one sort of Korean sword.
History of the Hwando Sword
The name “Hwando” first appeared in historical records during the reign of King Chungnyeol in the 3rd year of the Goryeo Dynasty (1277, April). In this record, envoys Yu Hong and Holno were sent from Yuan (Mongol) to King Chungnyeol, and King Chungnyeol ordered Lee Chang-mo to make 1,000 Hwando swords in Chungju. There are also records in the “Yuan Shi” (History of Yuan) mentioning someone offering Hwando swords to the “Great Khan” of the Mongols during the reign of King Sejo. It is presumed that the name Hwando was introduced during the late Goryeo period, possibly due to Mongol influence.
The Chinese characters for Hwando can be translated as “rounded sword,” suggesting a curved blade, as seen in existing Hwando artifacts and records. Another interpretation attributes its origin to the ring on the scabbard, where the sword is hung from the waist. There is also a theory suggesting it originated from the ring shape of the pommel.
During the Joseon period, the term “Hwando” was used generically to refer to long swords with outer edges. Various types of swords, such as Unggeom, Paedo, Baeggeom, and swords listed in the “Muyedobotongji” (Comprehensive Illustrated Manual of Martial Arts) like Yedo, Ssangsudo, Ssanggeom, and even Waeggeom, were all collectively referred to as Hwando. Even during training, everyone trained using only one type of Hwando, and not only Japanese swords and Jurchen swords, but even Western swords from the late Joseon Dynasty were all referred to as Hwando indiscriminately in the annals.
The shape of the Hwando sword is similar to the Japanese katana sword, but the curvature of the blade is smaller, and closer to a straight sword compared to the katana. The “Goryeo Dogyeong” describes the pre-Mongol invasion Korean sword as “hoengdo” (horizontal sword), which resembles the katana from the Tang Dynasty onwards. This “hoengdo” has a rounded tip and is tied horizontally under the armpit with a leather sheath.
The influence of the saber from the Central Asian steppes, which entered through Mongolia, is thought to have caused the straight hoengdo to develop a curved blade. This type of “hoengdo” was introduced to Goryeo, becoming the model for the Hwando sword.
In the early Joseon Dynasty, the Hwando was known for its significant curvature and relatively short length. The recorded specifications in the “Munjongsillok of Annals” state that the blade length of the Hwando for infantry was 14 inches and for cavalry was 13 inches.
The handle length was 10.3 inches for infantry and 6.5 inches for cavalry, which, when converted, equated to a total length of approximately 22 inches for infantry and 19.3 inches for cavalry. This length was shorter compared to the Japanese katana.
Reason for the Shorter Sword Length
It was believed that a straight and shorter blade was more effective for combat. Weight was also a consideration, as the early Joseon military standards included carrying armor, two bows, about 20 arrows, and the Hwando sword. Therefore, soldiers preferred lighter swords.
However, after the Imjin War (Japanese invasions of Korea), it was realized that the relatively shorter Hwando was inconvenient compared to Japanese swords, especially the katana. Consequently, in the later Joseon period, there was a trend towards longer Hwando swords.
Unlike the Japanese katana, the Hwando sword is worn by threading a cord through two loops attached to the scabbard and tying it around the waist. There was a separate belt made of cowhide or deer skin for wearing the Hwando sword, and the scabbard was wrapped with cloth and painted black or orange. A cord called “Hongjo Sooara” was passed through a hole in the middle of the scabbard, and two tassels adorned the hilt.
What Made Hwando a Remarkable Sword?
The Hwando sword was an example of efficiency in hand-to-hand combat at a time when conventional weaponry was being phased out in favor of modern rifles and artillery. These swords, which were generally 28 inches in length, were ideal for troops who needed to be nimble while wearing bulky armor and wielding many different weapons. During the Japanese invasion of Korea in 1592, the Hwando’s length suddenly increased to almost 36 inches before shrinking down to its more manageable size.
The steel was used in their construction, and they were bolstered with sharkskin or hemp fabric for extra strength. The orange swords were reserved for generals close to the monarch, and the black swords were carried by regular generals and troops. Some ornamental examples were adorned with sea turtle shells, gold, silver, or jade.
In 2017, President Putin delivered a historic Hwando sword to President Moon Jae-in.
