Author: Bertie Atkinson

What Makes Hair Grow Curly or Straight?
- Hair structure is determined by the follicle’s shape and disulfide bridges.
- Curly hair may be influenced by the trichohyalin gene and genetics.
- Hair can be temporarily altered by changing hydrogen bonds or permanently through perming.
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Beach waves, gentle waves, curly curls, or corkscrew curls. There are many variations of curly hair. But what determines the structure into which our hair develops? Curls have cultural importance and, in certain cultures, are even seen as the epitome of beauty. 3,100 years before the Common Era, even the ancient Egyptians attempted to curl their hair artificially, as shown by clay curlers discovered by researchers in Egypt. However, not everyone needs curlers and papillotes.
The Curl Is Made by the Follicle
Every hair begins on the scalp, where a hair follicle surrounds a hair root that is embedded in the skin and has a hair shaft that protrudes from the skin. The primary determinant of the structure a hair adopts is the hair follicle from which it emerges.
Keratin protein fibrils are converted into hair in the hair follicle. Because one cysteine, an amino acid that contributes to the formation of keratin, creates a “disulfide bridge” with another cysteine, these keratin fibrils cross-link with one another. The number of these cross-links that develop between a hair’s fibers determines how curly the hair will be.
Forms of Hair
Now, if the keratin fibers are pushed closer together during hair development in the hair follicle by a certain oval and narrow follicle shape, they may generate more disulfide bridges and the hair grows curlier.
On the other hand, when a highly rounded follicle shape hinders the development of many such connections, the hair grows straight. Additionally, the follicular tunnel’s form is important. A straight follicular tunnel promotes smooth hair growth, while a curved follicle tunnel aids in the development of curls.
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Does a “Hair Gene” Exist?
Why then do some people have straight hair follicles while others have curved ones? The trichohyalin gene (TCHH), which is read out in the cells of the hair follicles, is thought to be the cause of curly hair.
Scientists believe that Europeans often have smooth hair because of a DNA mutation that assures a certain follicle form. The precise reason for the variation in hair follicle morphology hasn’t yet been definitively determined.
However, the majority of scientists concur that curly hair is mainly inherited. It is quite probable that the children’s hair will be curly if one or both parents have curly hair.
However, the hair structure that is inherited from our genes may change throughout time. Many people have straight hair as children, which starts to curl as they become older, or vice versa.
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Although there hasn’t been any conclusive study on this one, it is thought that variations in hormone balance may have an effect on hair texture.
Hairstyles Involving Curls, Such As Perms, etc.
As a result, nature comes up with many techniques to curl or wave our hair. But what about the techniques that are used at hair salons when someone wishes to alter the structure of their hair? Conventional curlers change the formation of hydrogen bonds in our hair.
These connections may be broken by the curlers’ heat, which will change the form of the hair. New bonds are created as the hair cools back down in that shape, keeping it there for some time.
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The process of straightening hair is similar.
However, because of how easily moisture may break these connections, the hair immediately assumes its previous structure.
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Consequently, trying to artificially straighten or curl the hair on a wet day is often ineffective.
Perming, on the other hand, is a longer-term solution. Strong disulfide bridges that exist between the keratin fibers are broken using so-called reducing agents.
The development of new disulfide bridges is induced by using an oxidizing chemical after the hair has been given the proper shape. The curls endure considerably longer since it is difficult for water to readily dissolve them once again.
September 3, 2022
Why Do We Get Angry When Hungry, or “Hangry”?
September 3, 2022
Are There Triple Rainbows? And How Are They Formed?
- A rainbow is formed when sunlight reflects off raindrops and undergoes refraction and dispersion.
- Double rainbows occur when light is reflected twice within raindrops.
- Triple rainbows are possible and result from three reflections of sunlight inside raindrops, but they are much fainter and rarer.
The rainbow is an amazing natural phenomenon. The conventional pattern of colorful bands results from the fundamental laws of reflection, refraction, and dispersion. And under exceptional circumstances, a double rainbow may be marveled at. How about triple rainbows, though? Can they possibly exist? Moreover, how do they form?
Formation of the Single Rainbow
A primary rainbow. (Image: Earth Science Stack Exchange)
Rainbows are one of the numerous natural beauties that everyone is in love with. When rain is falling, they emerge when sunlight reflects off raindrops. The majority of the color spectrum of light is absorbed by the raindrop, but a small percentage is reflected. Because of the sphere’s shape, the raindrop focuses these reflections at an angle of 138 degrees relative to the Sun. After that, there will be a rainbow seen in this intense beam of light.
When light travels through air and then enters water, a phenomenon known as refraction occurs, which is the bending of light. Every one of the sunlight’s colors is slightly distorted when it passes through water droplets. This phenomenon, known as dispersion, is responsible for the separation of colors in a rainbow.
In the droplets, the various sunlight wavelengths are each refracted a little bit differently. We perceive the normal color bands as a result of the light splitting into its colorful spectral components. The blue band is positioned on the inside and the red band is on the outside because the blue light has a shorter wavelength and is refracted more strongly in the water droplets.
Moving From a Single to Double Rainbow
A second, fainter rainbow arc can be seen beyond the first one; its colors are reversed so that red is on the inside. This is because the light is reflected twice within the droplet before it leaves.
A rainbow always appears facing a certain direction: It is situated at 42 degrees on the side of the sky that is directly opposite the sun. It is difficult to see a rainbow at noon because this antisolar point is hidden below the horizon when the sun is high in the sky.
But sometimes, in addition to the main rainbow, a second, paler secondary arc that resembles a mirror reflection of the first arc can be observed on the outer. This is due to the fact that its color scheme completely contrasts with the main arc’s. Because the secondary arcs cause two reflections of the photons within the droplet. The intensity of this second rainbow is lowered, and the order of the colors is changed as a result of the double reflection.
The Formation of the Triple Rainbow
$triple rainbow formation: Light paths inside droplets. The sequence and angle of a rainbow are determined by surface refraction and the quantity of internal reflections: a regular rainbow on the left, a double rainbow in the center, and a triple rainbow on the right.$
Light paths inside droplets. The sequence and angle of a rainbow are determined by surface refraction and the quantity of internal reflections: a regular rainbow on the left, a double rainbow in the center, and a triple rainbow on the right. (Credit: ISTA)
What about the triple rainbows? A rainbow may also split into two secondary arcs. This has always been recognized as theoretically possible. As a result of the sunlight being reflected three times within the droplet, a third rainbow is created. However, this time, the light beams emerge from the drop facing the sun. Therefore, we need to gaze more intently into the sunlight in order to perceive a triple rainbow.
Typically, a triple rainbow will emerge for a brief period of time when it is 40 degrees from the sun and the clouds are darker. The order of colors in the third rainbow will be just like the primary one.
The tertiary rainbow cannot usually be seen since it is only about fifth as bright as the rainbow’s main arc. It is also too difficult to see the third rainbow because it faces the sunlight. Since just five triple rainbows had been reported to science in the previous 250 years, many scientists had written them off as myths. And it should come as no surprise that the first photographic proof of a triple rainbow did not appear in a scholarly publication until 2011.
We have to be looking at raindrops at an angle of 138 degrees from the direction of the sun, or 42 degrees from the antisolar point, in order to see the arc of a natural rainbow.
Interference Arcs and Mirror Arcs
However, according to climate researchers and specialists, the far more typical occurrences of interference arcs and mirror arcs sometimes could be mistaken with a real third rainbow or triple rainbow.
When sunlight reflects off a water surface, such as a lake, the angle of entrance into the droplets changes, creating a mirror arc. Typically, the main arc and the mirror arc cross.
Contrary to actual secondary arcs, interference arcs are located on the inside of the initial rainbow and run parallel to the main arc. They create a string of successively farther-apart replicas of the initial rainbow, each of which becomes weaker and narrower. They are created by the interference—or the superposition effect—of light rays leaving the drop.
Sources:
1. Gary Waldman, 1983. Introduction to Light: The Physics of Light, Vision, and Color.
2. “Triple Rainbows Exist, Photo Evidence Shows,” 2011. ScienceDaily.
3. American Mathematical Society. The Mathematics of Rainbows.
4. Großmann, Michael; Schmidt, Elmar; Haußmann, Alexander, 2011. “Photographic evidence for the third-order rainbow”. Applied Optics.
September 3, 2022
What do Plants do Against Sunburn?
- Plants utilize photosynthesis to convert sunlight into chemical energy.
- Excessive sunlight can be harmful to plants, potentially leading to damage or destruction.
- Plants have specialized molecules, such as carotenoids, to protect themselves from the harmful effects of excess sunlight by converting it into heat.
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Sunlight is essential for photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert light into chemical energy.
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However, just as with humans, giving them an excessive amount of it could prove fatal. On the other hand, when it’s hot the plants can’t easily hide from the sun or put on sunscreen in contrast to us. What happens to plants when they are subjected to an abnormally high level of sunlight?
During the course of the day, plants carry out the chemical process of photosynthesis by utilizing the chlorophyll that is found in their leaves. They begin by converting carbon dioxide and water into glucose by utilizing the energy that is provided by the sun.
The next step in the process involves the production of additional carbohydrates, such as cellulose and starch. Besides that, they almost unintentionally produce oxygen that is required for the survival of other living things; as a result, entire ecosystems are dependent on this metabolic interaction.
The Energy Contained in Sunlight Is 1,000 Times More Than Needed
A sunburned leaf.
Even an overcast sky is sufficient for this foundation of life to continue to operate at close to a 100 percent effectiveness level. So, in reality, not that much sunlight is actually necessary. There are a great number of plants able to survive and even thrive in low-light environments, such as growing in the shade cast by other plants or near polar circles.
On the other hand, when there is no cloud cover and the scorching summer sun is shining down from a clear sky, the plant receives one thousand times more energy than usual. If chlorophyll takes in more energy than the system is able to process, then potentially large amounts of aggressive oxygen radicals will be produced.
These could cause the plant to be completely destroyed or suffer significant damage. So, the plant needs to find a way to get rid of this extra energy without hurting itself or the environment around it. Protecting plants from the sun’s harmful rays is essential to their ability to thrive in its presence.
Special Molecules to Prevent Sunburn
There is an orange molecule in plants for sunburn protection. These special carotenoids combine with green chlorophyll to form a complex. This would not be possible if only green chlorophyll were present. In this combination, the carotenoid molecule is the one that ends up receiving the sun’s excess energy that the chlorophyll molecule has taken in.
After that, the energy is converted into harmless heat, which acts as a sort of lightning conductor. Because of quantum mechanical processes, the two molecules act as if they were one, and they give back the extra light they have taken in as heat to their surroundings.
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These two molecules will not combine into a single molecule until there is excess sunlight. Even when a cloud passes in front of the sun, the two molecules separate and become two separate molecules again.
The process of photosynthesis is always able to operate at the greatest degree of efficiency without going out of control and resulting in the plant becoming sunburned because of how rapidly molecules combine and separate again.
September 2, 2022
Intelligence Boost for Down Patients
September 2, 2022
Do Fish Get Seasick?
- Motion sickness affects both humans and some animals, including fish.
- Motion sickness is caused by a conflict between sensory information.
- Fish can experience symptoms similar to human motion sickness, including vomiting and loss of orientation.
When a ship pulls out of port and the ship begins to rock in open water, many passengers start to feel sick. They frequently suffer from headaches, vertigo, and cold sweating in their palms. It frequently extends beyond these few symptoms. Motion sickness quickly develops into nausea, frequent vomiting, and the desire to pass out, which makes the journey impossible to complete. Those who have been affected only want to get to land. But is motion sickness something that only humans are susceptible to, or can animals also get it? For example, are fish susceptible to getting seasick?
Known Examples of Seasickness in Fish
Yes, but it’s possible that they wouldn’t be seasick in their natural habitat. Because if there is turbulence on the surface of the water where a fish is swimming, the fish will simply dive to avoid it.
However, when fish are snared in a fishing net in a short amount of time, this unique situation arises. Seasickness may sometimes occur even when ornamental fish are transported from one location to another in an enclosed vehicle.
The same can be said for some animals, which are sent into space as “animal space tourists” for scientific research purposes and are able to survive there despite the absence of gravity.
A conflict between visual information and the organs of balance causes motion sickness, which affects all higher animals to varying degrees. Although they can’t throw up, certain animals like rats and horses still experience the discomfort of seasickness.
How to Tell If a Fish is Seasick
A school of fish swimming in a loop. (Credit: Michael Haluwana)
But how can you tell which fish are seasick? For example, are they able to throw up as well? The animals eventually develop symptoms that are identical to those seen in people at this point.
They would begin to spin and make a variety of gestures in an attempt to reassert their authority over their surroundings. Animals who occasionally experience feelings of nausea may even turn somersaults while swimming in the water, similar to a swimming loop.
There is evidence that fish can also throw up. For instance, fish breeders will withhold food from their animals before transporting them so that they will not engage in this behavior.
There was another attempt to learn whether fish experience motion sickness. After placing almost 50 fish in a tank and boarding an aircraft, the researchers watched the fish undergo a steep dive to simulate zero gravity. A few of the fish then swam in circles, seemingly bewildered.
During the test, eight free-falling fish demonstrated seasickness. The fish looked to be vomiting and swimming in circles after their release by the scientists. This demonstrates, much like with humans, that certain fish are prone to motion sickness while others are not. This “seasick” fish would be easy prey in the wild.
According to Stuttgart zoologist Dr. Reinhold Hilbig:
“The fish lost their orientation… They completely lost their sense of balance, behaving like humans who get seasick.”
Dr. Reinhold Hilbig
This also applies to the fish in a tank on the ship during wavy seas that show signs of distress. Their distress appears to be related to the vibrations in the tank and their loss of eye contact with the motion of the water.
Why Does Seasickness Happen?
But what exactly causes humans and other animals to experience motion sickness in the first place? This frequently occurs when the input the sense organs receive does not coincide with the body’s movement and spatial location. Scientists refer to this phenomenon as a conflict between the senses.
After a brief period of time, the brain loses its bearings and is unable to determine which piece of information to trust. This is something that can happen on a rocking ship as well as in the back seat of a moving car or on the drooping wings of an airplane.
(Credit: Emory University)
Imagine that you’re on a train that’s stopped in the middle of nowhere. A train is about to leave the station on the nearby track. When this occurs, the organ of balance in the ear reports that you are not moving, whereas the eyes report that you are moving.
The brain at first has trouble making sense of this apparent contradiction. However, it eventually comes to the conclusion that the train has come to a stop and that everything has returned to its usual state after analyzing the signals from other sensory organs.
However, motion sickness is possible if the predicament lasts for an extended period of time, such as when one is on a ship experiencing a significant surge.
Due to the nature of the brain, it is likely that an individual will incorrectly diagnose themselves as having food poisoning. Then they would throw up in order to get rid of the allegedly revolting food. That can be considered a hypothesis, at the very least.
Even fish have organs to help them keep their balance. They are positioned, one on each side of the head, specifically on the left and right sides. A fish may momentarily lose its sense of orientation and feel dizzy or ill if a vortex or strong wave movement rocks it back and forth.
The investigation into the phenomenon in both people and fish is by no means complete. It is unknown, for instance, why some organisms experience seasickness even when making only very slight movements, while others do not experience this phenomenon.
The Reason for Motion Sickness in Animals
The causes of seasickness in animals are still a mystery. Many hypotheses attempt to explain why our species developed such a robust reaction. There’s some speculation that this helps shield nerve cells from neurotoxins.
Because back in the day, the only time our senses were at odds with one another, as they are during motion sickness, was when we were poisoned. Therefore, to expel the toxins, one could only vomit.
Ernest Shackleton, the intrepid explorer of the Antarctic, carried ponies with him on his journey by sea and wrote in his journals of the terrible hardships they endured in the midst of the storms. It’s rather common to see seasickness in our dog and cat friends.
September 2, 2022