Author: Hrothsige Frithowulf

10 Questions About Japanese Culture and Their Answers
Are the Japanese Pagans or Buddhists?
Autumn Scenery at Takao Takao Shukei. Artist: Nomura Yoshimitsu (1870-1958)
Depending on whether you consider Shinto, the indigenous religion of Japan, to be a form of paganism, the issue of religion often baffles even the Japanese. A 2018 NHK survey found that 62% of Japanese people call themselves atheists. The other 31% are Buddhist, 3% are Shintoist, and 1% are Christian. Nonetheless, the majority of respondents (74%) believe that the Japanese islands are inhabited by “myriad gods” and make pilgrimages to Shinto shrines.
The “myriads of gods” include both local deities and national icons whose shrines may be found all across the country. The sculptures of foxes that serve as messengers for the deity Inari, who is in charge of success and wealth, make his temple most easy to locate. The most well-known Inari shrine is Kyoto’s Fushimi Inari Taisha. The scene in Rob Marshall’s Memoirs of a Geisha (2005), in which the film’s young heroine sprints through a tunnel of brilliant orange torii gates, contributed to Fushimi’s increased visibility. As the gateway to a holy site, they an act of worship to the gods.
Japanese people rush to Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples on the first few days of the new year to buy an amulet and get their yearly o-mikuji prediction. The ministers of shrines and temples put religious goshuin seals in special pilgrimage notebooks for a modest price, and collecting them has become trendy in recent years. Shinto shrines and Buddhist shrines (butsudan) are common fixtures in Japanese households (kamidan). Shinto and Buddhism cohabit peacefully, a phenomenon known as syncretism. Even though the majority of Japanese people are not Christians, a sizable number of them choose to celebrate Christmas and be married in Catholic churches. In a nutshell, Shinto deities Kami and Buddha, along with other religions, cohabit in Japan.
In the 6th century, the ruler of the ancient Korean kingdom of Baekje presented the Japanese king with Buddhist sutras and a statue of Shakyamuni Buddha, marking the beginning of the official history of Buddhism in Japan. For fear of angering the local kami, the old priesthood clans opposed Buddha worship. And when smallpox broke out, the statue of the “foreign deity” was dumped in the Naniwa Canal as a preventative measure. However, Buddhist doctrine quickly established itself in Japan, spawning several new schools of thought and becoming inextricably linked to Shinto.
If the new faith was so superior, then why didn’t it replace the old one? Because it was thought that gods, like people, were subject to the law of karma and suffered in an endless cycle of rebirths, Buddhist teaching was crucial in helping the kami deities achieve enlightenment. So, Buddhist sutras were recited to the Shinto deities in Shinto shrines. As a result, the deities gained status as the Buddhist guardians, and shrines to them were built on the premises of Buddhist places of worship.
Second, the rudimentary beliefs in the kami deities were developed into a sophisticated theory of the “way of the gods” under the influence of Buddhism and its intricate system of dogmas and rituals. Most notably, it detailed how the Buddha and bodhisattvas It detailed how the Buddha and Bodhisattvas, who were too lofty for commoners, took human form as Japanese deities to spread Buddhist law. There developed competing interpretations of Japanese mythology in the 15th and 16th centuries, suggesting that the Buddha and bodhisattvas were actually reincarnations of Japanese deities.
Finally, Buddhists handled funerals, protecting the kami deities from the grim reality of life’s final chapter. Ultimately, blood and death are the primary sources of kegare (Japanese for “bodily pollution”), and the Japanese gods will not accept it. This is why people are asked to wash their hands and spit in special stone bowls before entering a Shinto shrine.
The government chose to divide Shinto from Buddhism during the start of the Meiji period (1868–1922), when the cult of the emperor, a descendent of the sun goddess Amaterasu, who heads the Shinto pantheon, became the state doctrine. Shinto shrines that had acquired Buddhist temples, sculptures, and sutra scrolls were destroyed as part of an effort to “expel Buddha” from the domain of Shintoism.
Following the Japanese surrender in World War II, the Emperor renounced his position as “revealed deity” (arahitogami), Shinto was no longer recognized as the official religion of the country, and Buddhist preachers were called back into service. Currently, Shinto and Buddhism may live side by side without any problems.
Do they commit hara-kiri today?
Seppuku with ritual attire and second. This is from a play in the Meiji Era. Source: Gutenberg
Suicide through harakiri (or seppuku in Japan) is a demanding ceremony that takes a lot of physical strength and energy. It is not done nowadays. The samurai have always been the only ones allowed to cut open their abdomens to prove their mental and spiritual purity. For example, a samurai would carefully tuck the sleeves of his waist-length garments behind his knees so that his body wouldn’t slide backwards during the ceremony, which was frowned upon during the Edo era. Death through seppuku is not instantaneous but rather a drawn-out ordeal. In order to complete what he began, namely, to cut off the head, a kaishiku assistant is required.
Author and samurai values advocate Yukio Mishima (1925–1970) was one of the last people to take his own life by cutting into his stomach (seppuku). On November 25, 1970, he and his fellow Shield Society members attempted to overthrow the government. When things didn’t work out, Mishima took his own life. But not very successfully; a helper botched the initial attempt to sever his skull.
Is it true that Japanese women are not free and are submissive to their husbands?
Midnight: Mother and Sleepy Child, Kitagawa Utamaro, 1790.
According to Olympic Games organizing committee director Yoshiro Mori in early February 2021, women take too much time thinking and are late to meetings. Even though Mori lost his job because of what he said, the comments were a stark reminder of the difference between men and women in Japanese culture.
In the World Economic Forum’s Gender Equality Index for 2021, Japan placed 120 out of 156 countries. For a country with a mature economy and a lot of women in school, the gap between men and women is shockingly big.
It was found in August 2018 that Tokyo Medical University has been intentionally underrating female applicants’ admission exam results for several years. That’s because, according to their explanation, many women choose to put their medical careers on hold while raising families. The result might be a scarcity of doctors, nurses, and other hospital workers. Women not only have fewer employment and career options but also typically receive a lower income than males in the same position, and this is not exclusive to the medical industry.
Do Japanese women who are married always stay away from work after giving birth? 82% of Japanese young women continue to work after marriage, and 57% of those women want to resume their careers after delivering a child, according to a 2020 Social Survey conducted by the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare. A separate study indicated that even though many women would want to stop working if their partners made more money, over half of those women still intended to do so. Women often hope that their spouses will pitch in with childcare duties. However, in practice, it is the woman who bears the brunt of responsibility for childcare and housework. As a result, this becomes the leading cause of women leaving the workforce.
Confucianism had a significant impact on how gender roles were divided in Japanese society. Although the Meiji reforms adopted Western liberal concepts and provided women with some rights, the ideal of the “Good Wife and Wise Mother” (ryosai kembo) remained the most important female virtue. One of the primary guides to the education of ladies up to World War II was The Great Learning for Women (“Onna Daigaku,” first published in 1716). It is commonly believed that the great Confucian scholar Kaibara Ekken (1630–1714) wrote this book. In this work, the Confucian scholar states that “a woman’s purpose is to serve people.” When she is living at home with her parents, she serves them; when she is married, she serves her husband and his parents. To be submissive and humble is the path of a lady. Additionally, the supreme deity of the Japanese pantheon, the “gracious sun goddess Amaterasu,” “woven her celestial robes.”
Patriarchal behaviors have not entirely vanished; women are still routinely discriminated against in the workplace and at home, even though Japanese women have the same rights as men and are not required to follow their husbands in everything.
Who is Geisha?
Kotoba no hana [Flower of Words]. Yanagawa Shigenobu II (active circa 1830–60). Image: Christie’s
A geisha, as opposed to a courtesan (yujo), is a “man of art.” The first geisha were mostly male actors who performed sexually explicit skits for the brothel patrons. By the middle of the 18th century, geisha had relocated from the pleasure districts to the flower districts (hanamati), and the geisha profession had emerged as a distinct occupation. Geishas were primarily responsible for entertaining visitors through the tea ceremony, chatting, singing, dancing, and playing the three-stringed samisen. Also, they were not allowed to profit from their bodies in any way.
Most people outside of Tokyo (formerly Edo) and the surrounding Kanto area don’t know what a “geisha” is. Their trainees are known as oshaku, or “pouring sake,” or as hanyoku, or “half-precious” (since their services cost half as much as a geisha’s). Geisha are known as geiko in the Kyoto-centric Kansai area, while their trainees are known as maiko (“dancers”).
Historically, girls from low-income backgrounds were offered employment in geisha houses (okiya); today, however, girls as young as 15 or 16 choose geisha work as a career path after graduating from high school. In the Hanamati, geisha and their trainees have their designated areas. Apprentices often train for two years before becoming maiko by giving their first public performance as dancers. She also gets a fancy new kimono and a custom-made tortoise comb from the geisha who trained her. Her new name is based in part on the name of her teacher (Kanzashi). The girl spends the last month leading up to her debut (misedashi) attending tea house banquets and learning from the other maiko and geiko there. Maiko gets compensated for signing up at a specific geisha office. Learning to be a geisha often takes between five and six years.
Maiko is easily distinguished from a geisha by her brighter ensembles and hairdos. The getta (platform sandals) are taller, the sleeve length of the kimono is longer, and the belt reaches nearly to the floor. In contrast to geishas, whose hair is usually a wig, students usually get their real hair done.
Geishas are becoming a dying breed as fewer and fewer young women choose to pursue the profession. In Kyoto, there are only 169 geiko and 68 maiko who are officially recognized.
Do modern Japanese people wear kimonos?
Beauty in the Snow. Artist: Kikugawa Eizan
Geishas, noh performers, and kabuki actors all wear kimonos to work. The kimono is also traditionally worn at formal events like weddings, funerals, college commencements, and other such ceremonies. Kimonos are also commonly worn at formal events, including weddings, funerals, college commencements, and other ceremonies. Girls should wear the furisode, a colorful long-sleeved kimono, at their coming-of-age ceremony since it is customary to do so before marriage.
About 80% of Japanese women and 40% of men have tried on a kimono at some point in their lives. However, this traditional attire is costly, so most people only wear it on rare occasions or opt to rent it. Putting on a kimono correctly may be challenging, so much so that classes are offered to teach the proper way to do it. The yukata is yet another example. During summer festivals, women wear this style of kimono because of its lighter fabric. Yukatas are traditional bathrobes used by guests at hot springs and hotels.
Taking a stroll around Kyoto’s historic alleyways while dressed in a kimono or yukata has grown increasingly popular among both sexes in recent years.
Why do the Japanese always bow down?
Illustrations of Japanese Life, 1896, 1st Edition, K. Ogawa.
The act of bowing is not only essential to social interaction in Japan and East Asia but also serves as a valuable social marker that helps us gauge a person’s status and select an acceptable behavioral template. One common example is that the younger or lower-status person will bow first in a social situation. His bow will always be slightly lower.
In daily life, a bow can stand in for a variety of spoken expressions, including a request, a thank you, or an apology. A short, high nod means you’re glad to see someone, while a long, low nod means you’re sorry.
In the 12th century, the military elite refined the bowing ceremony into its present form. There were specialized academies for teaching this skill, as well as archery and horseback riding. One of the most well-known is the Ogasawara family’s etiquette academy. Business etiquette is still taught by the modern-day offspring of that ancient samurai family.
Since the bow always indicates social hierarchy, the handshake’s lack of popularity in Japan can be attributed to the fact that it represents equality. As long as traditional forms of power and government control are kept in place in Japan, the bow will continue to be used.
Don’t the Japanese use chairs and beds?
Traditional Japanese Edo Period house.
In Japan, chairs and beds are more like accessories than necessities. European-style furniture, including chairs and beds, began appearing in many aristocratic homes in the early Meiji era. Even though most modern Japanese homes are furnished in the European style, some still maintain rooms decorated in the traditional Japanese manner, complete with tatami mats and a tokonoma alcove adorned with ikebana and a scroll of paintings or calligraphy.
In contrast to detached homes, studio apartments have such little square footage that a standard bed won’t fit. A futon may be used as a mattress at night and folded up and stored during the day. The poll found that just 40% of Japanese respondents were interested in sleeping on a futon, while 60% preferred a bed or standard mattress. It is common to use a low table and zabuton cushions instead of a high table and chairs (sometimes with a wooden back). The kotatsu is a low table used in the wintertime that has a blanket draped over an electric (or less commonly, a charcoal) heating source and a tabletop put on top of it.
The traditional Japanese concept of space does not imply cumbersome and bulky objects. Wabi-sabi emphasizes refined minimalism and a sense of wholeness in a home, so extraneous pieces of furniture are out of place. To quote the great Tanizaki Junichiro, “When Europeans view a Japanese home space, they are stunned by its artless simplicity,” from his classic “Praise of the Shadow.” They find it peculiar because all they can see inside are blank gray walls.
Do the Japanese drink only sake or do they also drink other alcohols?
“A drunkard vomiting at Naito Shinjuku”, Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839-1892). Image: Egenolf Gallery
There is no alcoholic beverage more well-known in Japan than sake. Among Japanese people, it is known as nihonshu or washiu, while “isake” is a generic term for alcohol. Since sake is manufactured by pasteurization rather than distillation, the common translation of “rice vodka” is inaccurate. Sake, like wine, is produced by fermentation, specifically mold fermentation; however, in this case, the mold is naturally occurring. Originally made as an offering to the gods at Shinto temples, at the Tokyo shrine gate of Meiji Jingu, you may view rice wine gifts in the form of barrels braided with straw rope.
In addition to sake, the Japanese also consume shoyu, a stronger liquor distilled from rice, rye, and sweet potatoes (with an alcohol content of 20–25 degrees). Most of it comes from Kyushu, Japan. Awamori, distilled from raw rice, has an alcohol content of 30 to 60 degrees and is produced on Okinawa, a southern Japanese island.
In contrast, beer is a popular drink among Japanese people. It’s far superior to wine and umeshu plum liqueur. Whiskey is the drink of choice for those who appreciate superior beverages. It is estimated that Japan produces 5% of the world’s total supply of this beverage. As an illustration, Suntory’s 17-year-old whiskey, promoted by Bill Murray’s character in “Lost in Translation,” became so famous that the business ceased making it due to overwhelming demand.
Do the Japanese eat sushi and rolls?
Two Young Men and Several Women Dining at a Tea-house on the Bank of the Sumida River, Kubo Shunman. Image: ukiyo-e.org
Nigiri-zushi is the most common sushi style in Japan, while the Japanese more commonly refer to sushi as sashimi (a piece of fresh fish on a ball of cooked rice). Until the 19th century, sushi fish was fermented rather than uncooked.
Both high-end sushi restaurants, where the customer often leaves the decision up to the chef (with phrases like “At your discretion” or “Omakase”), and low-end sushi kaiten-zushi restaurants, where customers select their sushi from plates on a moving conveyor belt, serve the Japanese delicacy. The supermarket sells sushi kits, and customers eagerly await the nightly price decrease and the arrival of the desired sticker proclaiming the discount. Even though sushi might be pricey, it’s still more like quick food than fine dining.
Why do the Japanese go to see trees in bloom?
Cherry-blossom Time at Naka-no-chô in the New Yoshiwara, Utagawa Hiroshige. Image: ukiyo-e.org
This custom goes back centuries. During the Heian period (794–1185), the plum gave way to the decorative cherry, the sakura, a habit that had been imported from China in the 8th century. While there are 110 poems about plum trees in the 8th century’s “A Collection of Myriads of Leaves” (“Manyoshu”) but only 43 about cherries, there are 70 songs about cherries but only 18 about plums in the early 10th century’s “Collection of Old and New Songs of Japan” (“Kokinwakashu”). The simultaneous blooming of cherry trees inspired the term “hanami” (meaning “flower appreciation”).
According to legend, King Saga ordered the first hanami celebration to be staged in 812 at the Shinsen-en garden of the Kyoto Imperial Palace to celebrate the blossoming of a cherry tree. The aristocracy’s appreciation for the sakura’s ephemeral beauty stems from the Buddhist concept of the impermanence of all things and the aesthetic category of mono no aware, “the melancholy attraction of things” in a constantly shifting world.
As early as the 8th century, the Japanese noticed that epidemics often broke out in the spring when the cherry blossoms were ending. Because of this, a myth developed suggesting that the waning flowers’ disembodied spirits were to blame for the epidemic. Due to this, ceremonies called “flower soothing” (tinkasai) were performed by the Imperial Court’s Office of Temples and Sanctuaries (Jinggikan). A visit to Imamiya Shrine in northern Kyoto on the second Sunday of April will allow you to witness this rite as it is practiced now.
For the affluent, the transient beauty and ephemeral nature of life reflected in the cherry blossoms were a sobering reminder, while for the common folk, the flowering trees had a more celebratory significance. They thought that the gods of plenty would come down from the hills to the rice paddies in the spring. They made their temporary home in the sakura (from the words sa, meaning “deity of fertility,” and kura, meaning “dwelling place”). The gods were welcomed with offerings of food and music left at the base of flowering trees. As long as the sakura were in bloom, the god would stay, which would lead to a good harvest.
During the Edo era, cherry picking was practiced by people from all walks of life (1603–1867). To share his enthusiasm for cherry blossoms with the people of Edo, the monk Tenkai (1536–1643) transplanted trees from Mount Yoshino (Nara Prefecture) to the grounds of Kan’eiji Temple in Ueno Park. During cherry blossom season, the shrine quickly became a popular gathering spot for locals. The monks at the monastery where raucous cherry blossom walks were held complained to Shogun Tokugawa Yoshimune in 1720, prompting the Shogun to order cherry trees to be planted across Edo to inspire widespread celebration. Ueno Park in Tokyo is one of the most popular urban parks in Japan and was recommended as one of a hundred great places to see cherry blossoms in 1990 by the Japanese Cherry Blossom Association.
January 23, 2023
Did Ancient Runners Run Slower Than Today’s Athletes?
January 22, 2023
How Long Did It Take Napoleon’s Army to March on Moscow?
Supply levels, hostile activity, and, to a lesser extent, road conditions, all played a role in the pace at which the forces advanced. With rest days and major engagements factored in, the average daily speed of the French army’s march to Moscow was a little over 10 kilometers. The distance that the battling forces of French invasion of Russia (known in Russian historiography as the Patriotic War of 1812) had to traverse was unparalleled. While the Russian army was able to start the war on its soil, the troops of Napoleon’s Grand Army had a far longer journey to make before they could assemble in the Grand Duchy of Warsaw and Prussia.
The narrowing space between the front and back lines during Napoleon’s 1812 campaign in Russia is indicative of the army’s diminishing size. The temperature scale along the bottom of the statistical map is connected to the data on the retreat. Taken from an 1869 edition of a map by Charles Joseph Minard. Source: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Download full size
In the second half of 1810, the French Emperor began planning a new expedition against Russia. However, the first few months were dedicated to preparations for the coming Great Army, with the majority of the recruits still residing in the German and Italian nations, France, and Spain. In the spring of 1812, army movements became more frequent. Sergeant Burgon of the Imperial Guard wrote in his memoirs that in March the regiment he was a part of, which had been stationed at Almeida, Portugal, got orders to move toward the Niemen River and cross it on June 25.
Their unit took nearly three months to travel 3,000 kilometers at an average speed of 30 kilometers per day. However, this is more of an outlier than the rule, as other units did not go so rapidly or over so little distance. Examples include the Grand Army’s First Corps, which was organized in the middle of 1811 on the Elbe and arrived at the frontiers in early June 1812. Of the Great Army’s entire strength of some 680,000 men, around 450,000 were tasked with crossing the Russian border along a front that was around 500 kilometers wide sometime in late June or early July.
Supply and communication problems faced by the Grand Army
The pace at which a military force marched was determined by a number of factors, including the territorial control of the force in question and the make-up of the unit’s corps, detachment, or division. The availability of food and forage in the regions the troops traversed was a significant constraint. Different types of troops sometimes moved at different speeds and in different groups because they had different food needs.
After the campaign had begun, the Great Army’s progress was largely determined by the Russian army’s movements. When feasible, soldiers sought to forage and gather food locally. Soldiers on the front lines had to rely only on supplies that could be acquired in the seized territory since supply carts carrying food for troops and horses as well as military supplies could not keep up with the advanced forces.
The continual need to keep an eye on the adversary meant that they had little time for gathering supplies and foraging. Occasionally, the leading units would do forced marches of up to 60 kilometers, but this pace could never be maintained.
The troops needed to rest after just a couple of such quick marches, and the enemy would not allow them to keep up such a pace indefinitely. Multiple skirmishes could take place in a single day. On August 14, for example, General Dmitry Neverovsky’s detachment in Krasny, near Smolensk, had a 20-kilometer retreat, constantly fighting with the enemy, who, despite numerical superiority, were unable to overturn the Russian soldiers.
Reserves could be moved at a more or less consistent rate behind French lines. From the frontier to Smolensk, where it met the main troops of the Emperor, Marshal Victor’s corps advanced at a rate of 25 to 30 kilometers per day.
The couriers carrying imperial communications traveled far more quickly, covering the distance between Moscow and Paris in 14 or 15 days thanks to a well-organized system of relays. On the other hand, in Russia, replacement messengers were only needed every 30–40 kilometers, and in Western Europe, every 170 kilometers. Napoleon Bonaparte‘s decision to abandon the troops after the Berezina campaign required him to travel roughly 2,500 kilometers back to Paris in just 15 days.
Bibliography:
1. Dominic Lieven, Russia Against Napoleon: The True Story of the Campaigns of War and Peace, 2011.
2. Nikolai Promyslov. (2014). The image of Russia in French public opinion, 1811-12. Kritika.
January 22, 2023
Russian Plans for the Conquest of Constantinople
Ivan the Terrible (1547–1584)
Ivan the Terrible of Russia (“Ivan the Terrible”) demonstrates his treasures to the ambassador of Queen Elizabeth I of England. Source: Russian Museum
Ivan the Terrible (Ivan IV Vasilyevich) did not even consider claiming the Byzantine Empire after accepting the tsarship as the true heir of the Roman-Byzantine rulers (most were of Greek descent). Of the rights of Constantinople’s rulers, he assimilated only one: the right to be regarded as the representative and protector of universal Orthodoxy. The tsars in Moscow did not see themselves as freeing Orthodox countries from Turkish rule.
“It is desirable that you also receive mercy from God, like a cup full of dissolution, and get rid of blasphemous languor in these days, and when we hear about this, we will rejoice and bring a song of victory to God to the glory and honor of His name,” Ivan the Terrible wrote to the patriarch of Constantinople after the conquest of Kazan and Astrakhan.
It was the subjugated Orthodox peoples themselves who, beginning in the 16th century, started to pressure Russian rulers into playing the role of liberators from Turkish rule.
The Patriarch of Constantinople called Ivan the Terrible “the hope of all Christian families, whom he will deliver from barbaric hardship and bitter work” in his letter approving the royal wedding. He writes that he and the entire council pray to God to strengthen his kingdom and raise their hands: “May He deliver all Christian families everywhere from the foul barbarians, raw-eaters, and terrible pagan Hagarenes.“
Alexis of Russia (1645–1676)
Alexis of Russia.
The legend of Moscow’s tsar as the ultimate conqueror of the Turks gained steam throughout the course of the 17th century. In the overthrow of Polish rule by Bohdan Khmelnytsky’s uprising, the Byzantines or Eastern Romans were given optimism that Tsar Alexis of Russia would also attack the Turks after annexing Little Russia (or Ukraine).
Khmelnitsky and Moscow relied heavily on the help of Patriarch Paisius of Jerusalem as a mediator. The Patriarch of Constantinople and many other Byzantines, both religious and not, also pushed for Russia to take over Malorossiya (or Little Russia).
Peter the Great (1682–1725)
Portrait of Peter the Great by Jean-Marc Nattier, 1717.
Peter the Great had designs on the Balkans and the Middle East, despite his preoccupation with the conflict in the Great Northern War. For instance, the Russians lost access to the Sea of Azov after their 1711 Pruth River Campaign, but the victorious Russo-Persian War (1722–1723) brought the Russian forces to Dagestan and the Caspian Sea.
Conditions apparently prompted the first Russian monarch Peter the Great to attempt to conquer Constantinople. This idea served as inspiration for the German Field Marshal Münnich in Russia, and it was through Münnich that Catherine the Great (Catherine II) learned about Peter the Great’s military preparations.
Once, at the celebration of Pavel Petrovich’s (Paul I of Russia) birthday, Münnich told Catherine the Great:
“I desire that when the Grand Duke reaches seventeen years of age, I can congratulate him as Generalissimo of Russian forces and take him to Constantinople to listen to mass in the cathedral of St. Sophia. They may call it a chimera, much like they did when the Rogervik Baltic port was built. I can only attest to the fact that Peter the Great, from the time he laid siege to Azov in 1695 until his death, never wavered in the pursuit of his most cherished objective: the conquest of Constantinople, the expulsion of the Turks and Tatars from Europe, and the restoration of the Christian Roman Empire. I can, most gracious empress, propose a plan for this vast and important enterprise. Unfortunately, after spending several years developing this strategy in exile, it was—already written—destroyed when I switched to my new fortification scheme. It’ll require some time for reflection and redrawing.“
Anna of Russia (1730–1740)
Anna of Russia, the empress of Russia.
During the Russo-Turkish War of 1735–1739, which most lauded Burkhard Christoph von Münnich, Anna of Russia also considered an attack on the Turkish capital. Alexey Veshnyakov, an assistant to the Russian resident in the Ottoman Empire, wrote to St. Petersburg a letter in which he imagined the Turks’ demise in Crimea. He said, “They cannot do otherwise so as not to risk everything, i.e., to initiate a formal war against the state, as everyone understands perfectly well that even Constantinople will be not far from ruin at that time.“
Münnich outlined a general strategy for the war in a letter to Ernst Johann von Biron in the spring of 1736. In 1736, the self-confident commander appointed the capture of Azov; in 1737, the Crimea; and in 1738, Moldavia and Wallachia. About the next year, he wrote:
“For 1739: the banners and standards of her army are being hoisted… where?—in Constantinople. In the first, oldest Roman-Christian church, the famous Hagia Sophia, she is crowned as a Roman empress and gives peace… to whom?—to a world without limits, no—to people without numbers. What glory! What an empress! Who will then ask, who deserves the imperial title? Is it the one who is crowned and anointed in Frankfurt, or the one who is in Istanbul?“
Catherine the Great (1762–1796)
Catherine the Great.
During the Russo-Turkish War that raged from 1768 to 1774, Catherine the Great focused only on securing Russia’s access to the Black Sea. However, the empress indicated through her military commanders that the war was being undertaken for the freedom of the Orthodox peoples of the Balkans from the oppression of the Ottomans.
Inspired, hordes of Byzantine nationalists flocked to the Russian flags, while the local intellectual elite was also buoyed. In July 1771, Catherine of Russia invited the scholar and clergyman Eugenios Voulgaris to visit her. While there, Voulgaris voiced his disappointment to the royal audience that Catherine was not a Byzantine empress, saying, “Byzantine, after God, looks up to you, prays to you, falls to you.“
Following that, the clergyman outlined his plan for resolving the “Eastern Question”. As Voulgaris put it:
“… The division of the Turkish provinces in Europe, together with the creation of a small independent Principality of the Byzantine Nation, could help to maintain a real European balance in the future.”
Bibliography
A .A. Kochubinskij. Count Andrey Osterman and the partition of Turkey. From the history of the Eastern question. Five Years War (1735-1739).
Nikolai Fedorovich Kapterev. The Nature of Russia’s Relations with the Orthodox East in the XVI and XVII Centuries, Sergiev’ Posad, M. S. Elova, 1914.
January 20, 2023
Was Alexander the Great Gay? The Actual Answer
One of the greatest conquerors, Alexander the Great, has been the focus of considerable conjecture, and the question of whether or not he was gay remains one of the most contentious. According to several historians, Alexander had a great affinity for men; however, others believe that this is a result of a misreading of the historical record.
Alexander’s close ties with men like Hephaestion and Bagoas have been interpreted by some as proof of his homosexuality, while others have argued that they were merely close companions.
Another common argument against Alexander’s claimed homosexuality is that he was married many times to different women and had at least one child from them, Alexander IV. That is why whether Alexander the Great was gay or not is still an open question today.
Alexander the Great’s Relationships with Men
Alexander’s relationship with Hephaestion
Throughout his life, Alexander the Great is said to have had a number of close relationships with men. Hephaestion, Alexander’s closest friend and confidant, stood out among these friendships. It was said that Hephaestion and Alexander had been close since they were kids, almost like brothers. Alexander was so devastated by Hephaestion’s death that he advocated worshipping him as a god.
Queen Sisygambis mistakes Hephaestion for Alexander, but Alexander answers, “Never mind, Mother, for actually he too is Alexander.” Image: Wikimedia.
Before Plutarch and Arrian, the Roman historian Curtius authored The History of Alexander in the first century AD where he discussed Alexander and Hephaestion in his writings.
According to Curtius,
“Hephaestion was by far the dearest of the king’s [Alexander’s] friends; he had been brought up with Alexander and shared all his secrets. No other person was privileged to advise the king as candidly as he did, and yet he exercised that privilege in such a way that it seemed granted by Alexander rather than claimed by Hephaestion.”
Quintus Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander, 3.12.16.
Hephaestion is later compared to a young man called Euxenippus by Curtius in Book 7. Some researchers think he was the Persian eunuch that Alexander personally liked, Bagoas:
Therefore, he [Alexander] received the envoys of the Sacae courteously and gave them Euxenippus; to accompany them; he was still very young and a favorite of the king [Alexander] because of his youthful beauty, but although in handsome appearance he was equal to Hephaestion, he was not his match in a charm which was indeed not manly.
Quintus Curtius, History of Alexander, Volume II: Books 6-10, The University Of Michigan Libraries.
Alexander and Hephaestion, “Family of Darius Before Alexander” by Charles Le Brun, 1660.
Curtius here appears to be making a reference to the possible sexual motivations for Alexander’s preference for Hephaestion over Euxenippus. And perhaps this could be why Alexander found Hephaestion’s death so devastating. Curtius was cautious in describing the nature of the connection between Alexander and Hephaestion. Perhaps it was because in the 4th century BC Greece, the concept of sexual intercourse between adult males was not commonly tolerated.
Diodorus Siculus, a historian from Sicily, lived between 90 and 30 BC. Despite living two centuries after Alexander, he is still one of the closest ancient historians to the time period of Alexander’s life. The Macedonian general Craterus was one of the most devoted and loyal friends of Alexander, but according to Diodorus, Craterus was merely “king-loving” (philbasileus), while Hephaestion was “Alexander-loving” (philalexandros).
Alexander threw himself into preparations for the burial of Hephaestion. He showed such zeal about the funeral that… it left no possibility for anything greater in later ages… …when one of the companions said that Craterus was loved no less than Hephaestion, Alexander had answered that Craterus was king-loving, but Hephaestion was Alexander-loving.
Diodorus. 17.114.(1-2)
After Hephaestion passed away at Ecbatana due to fever, it was a blow to Alexander, during which he refused to eat or drink and spent three days flat on the ground in sorrow.
The chroniclers of the past often sought to portray Alexander the Great in a positive light while overlooking any perceived “shortcomings” he may have had. This includes whether Alexander the Great was gay. It’s still worth noting that this is not concrete evidence to suggest that Alexander and Hephaestion had a romantic or homosexual relationship.
Alexander’s relationship with Bagoas
A eunuch and Persian, Bagoas the Younger was another individual Alexander had a close friendship with. Allegedly romantically involved, Bagoas worked as Alexander’s personal attendant and was designated a courtier. Following the victory, Bagoas the Younger was presented to Alexander the Great by King Darius III’s court of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. Typical of ancient Greek culture, Alexander had a liking for young boys, and Bagoas soon became his closest confidant.
According to Plutarch, the Macedonians once cheered to bade Alexander kiss Bagoas in a public event:
We are told, too, that he was once viewing some contests in singing and dancing, being well heated with wine, and that his favourite, Bagoas, won the prize for song and dance, and then, all in his festal array, passed through the theatre and took his seat by Alexander’s side; at sight of which the Macedonians clapped their hands and loudly bade the king kiss the victor, until at last he threw his arms about him and kissed him tenderly.
Plutarch – Life of Alexander (Part 7 of 7)
Alexander the Great’s Marriages and Children
As counterevidence to the claim that Alexander was gay, many point to his many marriages to women and the children he had with them. Over the course of his brief life, Alexander married Roxana, Stateira, and Parysatis. And it’s not 100% definite that all of them were committed partners of his. Alexander’s sole known child, Alexander IV, was born to his Bactrian wife, Roxana, after his death in 323 BC. Historians have speculated that Stateira could have been pregnant when she died.
Alexander’s Sexual Orientation Explained by the Cultural Aspect of Greeks
Males often had intimate, sexual connections with other men in ancient Greek society. Such pairings weren’t automatically seen as signs of gay or bisexual orientation, but rather as a natural part of life. Because of this, it’s crucial to think about how the ideas and customs of the period affected Alexander’s personal connections. These close friendships often characterized ancient Greek society, and that’s why there wasn’t always sexual tension between them.
Was Alexander the Great Gay or Straight?
Historical accounts indicate that Alexander had a voracious sexual appetite and a constant presence of women in his life. As he grew older, he reportedly indulged in the company of concubines every night. In conclusion, it is impossible to state with certainty whether or not Alexander the Great was gay or even bisexual, despite evidence suggesting he had intimate ties with men. Alexander’s sexuality is still a mystery and a hotly disputed issue among academics.
January 20, 2023
What Did Alexander the Great Look Like?
January 20, 2023
10 Oldest Companies in the World
The world’s oldest hotel: Hayakawa, Japan, 705
Nishiyama Onsen Keiunkan. Source: RocketNews24
Until 2011, the world’s oldest hotel (and the oldest company overall) was considered to be the Japanese traditional inn, Ryokan Hoshi. It was opened in the city of Komatsu in 717 AD and for 13 centuries offered visitors accommodation near hot springs. The Guinness World Records awarded it the title of the oldest hotel in 1994. Following this, Hoshi joined the so-called “Enoch” club, which unites companies that are over 200 years old.
However, in 2011, the Guinness World Records reconsidered their decision and gave the title of the oldest hotel to the Nishiyama Onsen Keiunkan ryokan in the village of Hayakawa in central Japan. This hotel, established in 705 AD, has been owned by the same family for 53 generations and remains a classic ryokan, offering traditional services, furnishings, and hot spring baths.
The world’s oldest bank: Monte dei Paschi di Siena , Italy, 1477
Monte dei Paschi di Siena Headquarter’s Main Entrance, Palazzo Salimbeni, Siena. Source: Herbert Frank
Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena was founded in 1477, nearly 120 years earlier than its closest competitor on the list of the world’s oldest banks, the German Berenberg Bank. The bank was established in the Republic of Siena—an Italian city-state that existed from the 12th to the 16th century and was considered one of the largest financial centers in the Italian territories. Banking had been flourishing there since the 12th century, with the city’s banking houses operating throughout Western Europe, providing loans to the Vatican, emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, and the French royal court.
Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena was created in the twilight years of the Republic of Siena and initially functioned as a monte di pietà—a type of charitable pawnshop where a person could borrow money by leaving property as collateral worth one-third of the loan. If the borrower failed to repay, only that portion of the property was sold at auction, and no further measures were taken. For a long time, the church supported such monte di pietà, as it disapproved of usury and encouraged financial assistance to the needy. However, by the 17th century, Monte dei Paschi di Siena had transformed into a full-fledged bank and underwent multiple reorganizations. Today, it has branches in 20 cities across Italy and is known for its extensive collection of Italian paintings amassed over the bank’s history.
The world’s oldest pharmacy: Town Hall Pharmacy, Estonia, c. 1420
Town Hall Pharmacy. Source: Visittallinn.ee
The Town Hall Pharmacy (Estonian: Raeapteek) has been located on the Town Hall Square in Tallinn since at least 1422. Over six centuries of its existence, it has changed ownership dozens of times. The most notable owner was Johann Burchart Belavary de Sykava, originally from Hungarian lands. A chemist and doctor, he moved to Tallinn in the 1580s, and in 1583, the city council appointed Burchart as the chief pharmacist of Tallinn, leasing him the Town Hall Pharmacy.
For over a century, his descendants leased the pharmacy from the city until 1688, when Johann Burchart IV managed to buy it. The enterprise was passed down through the family until the mid-19th century. However, in the 1890s, Johann Burchart X passed away without a male heir, and his sisters were forced to sell the business in 1911. After changing hands several times and being state-owned at one point, the pharmacy reopened at its original location in 2003 following a long renovation.
The world’s oldest watchmakers: Gallet & Company, Switzerland, 1466
Final assembly of watches in the La Chaux-de-Fonds workshop (c. late 19th century).
Little is known about Humbertus Gallet, considered the founder of Gallet & Co. In 1466, he was granted the right to live in Geneva, where he began practicing watchmaking, which he later passed on to his son. Several generations of the Gallet family continued making watches, and in 1826, a direct descendant of Humbertus Gallet, Julien Gallet, officially registered the trademark and moved the company from Geneva to the Swiss city of La Chaux-de-Fonds, known today as a factory-town for watchmaking, where about a third of the working population is employed in the watch industry. This fact even led La Chaux-de-Fonds to be mentioned in Marx’s “Capital,” where he analyzed the division of labor in the city’s watch factories.
From the late 19th century, Gallet & Co. began to consider the United States as its primary market. The factory’s most famous model, the Flying Officer Chronograph, was created in 1939 at the request of Harry Truman (then a senator from Missouri) for combat pilots. One of its unique features was a rotating bezel with city names, which allowed pilots to easily calculate time zone changes. Truman himself, who became the President of the United States in 1945, also wore these watches, and they are now housed in his museum.
The world’s oldest newspaper: Post- och Inrikes Tidningar, Sweden, 1645
Post- och Inrikes Tidningar no 15, 9 April 1645.
The newspaper Ordinari Post Tijdender (“Regular Mail Times”) was founded by order of Swedish Queen Christina in 1645, nine years after the establishment of the Royal Post Office, which also still exists today. Initially, the newspaper was the main source of news in Sweden, and collecting these news items was largely assigned to local postmasters, who were instructed to gather all news that came their way and send it to the editorial office. The same post offices were responsible for distributing the newspaper; they were obliged to display fresh issues in public places.
In 1821, the newspaper merged with another Swedish newspaper, Inrikes Tidningar (“Domestic Times”), resulting in a new publication called Post- och Inrikes Tidningar (“Post and Domestic News”). Afterward, the newspaper underwent two more significant changes: in 1922, unable to compete with commercial newspapers, it began publishing only government decrees and court decisions, and since 2007, it has been available only in digital form.
The world’s oldest shipbuilders: Camuffo, Greece, 1438
View of the entrance to the Arsenal, 1732, Painting by Canaletto.
Camuffo, the oldest shipbuilding company still in operation today, was founded in 1438 on the island of Crete, which then belonged to the Republic of Venice. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the strengthening of the Ottoman Empire in the Aegean Sea, the founder’s son moved the shipbuilding operations to Chioggia, near Venice. At that time, Chioggia was the largest trading port in the Adriatic Sea, and Camuffo craftsmen ensured orders for the construction of fishing boats, barges, pleasure boats, and transport vessels in the Venetian style for several hundred years.
Today, the company, owned by 18 generations of the same family, produces only three models of motor yachts ranging from 18 to 20 meters in length. Even now, the construction of these yachts involves the use of many valuable types of wood, earning Camuffo the nickname “the Stradivarius of the Sea” from industry journals in the second half of the 20th century, a title they still use in their marketing materials.
The world’s oldest carrier: Shore Porters Society, Scotland, 1498
Shore Porters Society, Aberdeen, Scotland.
The Shore Porters Society of Aberdeen, Scotland, was founded six years after Columbus’s first voyage to America, and its name has remained unchanged since then. For a long time, the company was simply an association of Aberdeen harbor workers, but by 1666, it had grown so large that two divisions were created: a transport management division, which owned horses and carts, and a property and warehousing department.
Until the mid-19th century, the Shore Porters Society was owned by the Aberdeen city council, but then the company became a private partnership, which slightly altered its profile. Today, in addition to transportation services across the UK, porter services, and home moving services, the company also specializes in the expert transportation of antiques and artworks. Its services are used by both private buyers and auction houses.
The world’s oldest gunsmiths: Bartolomeo Beretta, Italy, 1526
At the Beretta gun factory. 1960s.
The history of Beretta began in 1526 when gunsmith Bartolomeo Beretta from Gardone, Italy, received an order from Venice for 185 barrels for arquebuses — smoothbore matchlock guns. For this, he earned 296 Venetian gold ducats, and the contract that sealed the deal is still kept in the company archives. Later, in 1571, the gunsmiths again served Venice by casting cannons for the Venetian fleet, which took part in the famous Battle of Lepanto.
The battle in the Ionian Sea between the Holy League and the Ottoman Empire ended in a crushing defeat for the Turks, with the Venetians distinguishing themselves heroically. Over the next five centuries, the company, whose owners remained members of the Beretta family, flourished. Today’s head of Beretta, Ugo Gussalli Beretta, is a direct descendant of the founder Bartolomeo Beretta, and one of his two sons is expected to inherit the management of the company in the future.
The world’s oldest publishing house: Cambridge University Press, England, 1534
Cambridge University Press.
The Cambridge University Press was founded by order of King Henry VIII in 1534, when the monarch granted the university a charter giving it the right to “print all kinds of books.” However, the first printed books appeared half a century later, after Thomas Thomas, a scholar, became the printer of Cambridge. In May 1582, he took office, and the first book — “Dialectica” by French philosopher Pierre de la Ramée — was printed by him in 1585. In 1591, Thomas’s successor, John Legate, printed the Cambridge Bible, which began the centuries-long tradition of Bible publishing by the university.
Since then, Cambridge has published dozens and hundreds of books annually, including works by John Milton and Isaac Newton, as well as scientific periodicals, monographs, reference books, and English textbooks now distributed worldwide. However, it wasn’t until 1992 that Cambridge University opened its own shop in the historic city center at 1 Trinity Street. It is known that various booksellers have traded at this same location since 1581, which leads some researchers to consider this shop the oldest bookshop in the UK.
- Johannes Gutenberg: The First Printing Press and Publishing
- Books in the Middle Ages
The world’s oldest manufacturer of musical instruments: Zildjian, Turkey, 1623
Avedis Zildjian III in front of the Zildjian Quincy Factory.
Zildjian is often called one of the oldest companies in the United States, although it was established in 1623 in Constantinople. It was founded by an Armenian named Avedis living in the Ottoman Empire, who was engaged in alchemy and, according to legend, sought a way to turn base metals into gold. During one of his experiments, he discovered an alloy of copper, tin, and silver that produced a pure and beautiful sound.
Avedis began making cymbals and chimes from this alloy, which reportedly caught the attention of Sultan Osman II, who gave Avedis the surname Zildjian, derived from the root “zil” (meaning “cymbals”) and the affix “dji” (meaning “maker”), to which the sultan added the characteristic Armenian surname suffix “ian.” Soon after Avedis began making cymbals, Osman II was killed by mutinous Janissaries. For over two centuries, Zildjian’s descendants made various percussion instruments, including military cymbals used to intimidate enemies.
Only in the 19th century did the company fully switch to making musical cymbals, and in the early 20th century, Avedis’s descendants moved to the United States. There, in September 1929, the company was registered under its modern name — the Avedis Zildjian Company, or simply Zildjian. Since then, it has gained worldwide fame and has become a significant part of American musical culture. During World War II, when copper was considered an important strategic resource and its purchase was restricted for companies, the U.S. government granted Zildjian special permission to acquire raw materials.
January 18, 2023
14 Popular Rumors and Myths About Catherine the Great
January 17, 2023
Did Catherine the Great Eat Dirt in Real Life When Pregnant?
Did Catherine the Great eat dirt in real life when pregnant? It is not true that Catherine the Great, Russia’s imperial ruler from 1762 to 1796, ate dirt when pregnant. This disorder is called pica and can be related to pregnancy, but there are no historical documents or evidence regarding Catherine the Great having pica disorder. Thus, it is safe to say that Catherine the Great never ate dirt in real life, whether pregnant or not. That is why many viewers considered it to be an amusing addition to the show, The Great.
Did Catherine the Great Eat Dirt?
Catherine the Great’s dirt-eating habit was first mentioned in the pilot episode of season 2 of The Great, titled “Heads It’s Me.” And in subsequent episodes, Catherine the Great is seen being served even more dirt. Actress Elle Fanning, who plays Catherine the Great, actually ate dirt and sucked on rusty nails (potentially to consume more iron) to get into her character.
But Catherine II never engaged in such unusual conduct, at least according to history. And even though Catherine the Great did not eat dirt in real life, eating dirt and other non-food stuff when pregnant is a known phenomenon among women in history.
The idea of Catherine the Great consuming dirt in the show is not only unproven, but it also poses a significant risk to her health. Battlefield areas are known to be contaminated with various harmful substances like blood, feces, urine, and more, which, if ingested, could lead to a plethora of illnesses.
Pica, Catherine the Great’s alleged disorder, has been around for a long time, and studies on it have revealed that there is no obvious explanation for it. Because when it comes to eating dirt, why pregnant women have such strange food cravings is still a mystery.
- Also Read: 14 Popular Rumors and Myths About Catherine the Great
The Reasons for Catherine’s Dirt Eating
VCG Wilson/ History.com
Since a baby’s development depends on iron, it’s possible that a pregnant woman’s body can tell her to eat dirt. This is similar to when you lack calcium and crave ice cream or protein and crave meat. Although it was never explained, this could be the reason behind Catherine’s dirt-eating habit in the series The Great.
However, knowing that dirt contains iron is necessary in the first place to start a craving for it; therefore, this explanation doesn’t hold much water. And it would have been required for us to eat dirt every day if our bodies possessed this information. That’s why it’s not clear whether anemia (iron deficiency) leads to pica or if pica leads to anemia. Just like Catherine the Great in the series, literally hundreds of thousands of pregnant women suffer from pica, and many are concerned and dismayed by their odd appetites. Now that we know if Catherine the Great ate dirt or not, what exactly is pica?
What is Pica?
A person with pica has an inordinate need for both food and non-food objects. One of the oldest reported examples of pica, in a pregnant woman in the 6th century AD, has been a part of the medical literature for decades. A large number of cases of pica have been reported since then, with patients reporting eating everything from ice cubes (pagophagia) to clay (geophagia) to chalk, cigarette butts, hair, lead, and laundry starch.
Pica is most prevalent among people with developmental impairments; however, it has been documented in people of different ages, genders, and races, with a greater prevalence among those with less affluent backgrounds. Pica affects young children at a rate of 25%–33% worldwide, pregnant women at a rate of 20%, and people with learning difficulties at a rate of 10%–15%. Only a small group of people with pica have a low iron count.
What Did Catherine the Great Eat?
Catherine the Great’s later years were marked by a palate simplification comparable to that of Peter the Great. Historians claim that her go-to meal was a bowl of venison tongue sauce over boiling meat and cucumbers. As the Russian queen of the 18th century, Catherine the Great of Russia was renowned for her opulent lifestyle, which was reflected in her dining habits.
One of her favorite dishes was the luxurious combination of sturgeon and champagne soup. She also had a penchant for pickled beef and minced game meat cutlets. Despite her reputation for promoting diverse culinary experiences, Catherine had a special appreciation for traditional Russian cuisine. She was particularly fond of simple, hearty meals such as cabbage soup (shchi) and porridge.
The Dirt Eating Around the World
If you find Catherine the Great’s dirt craving odd, this phenomenon is actually prevalent. The consumption of dirt, also known as “geophagia,” is a prevalent occurrence in areas that are plagued by poverty and starvation. People suffering from iron deficiency anemia may turn to eating dirt as a source of nutrition. In certain regions of Africa, pregnant women frequently partake in the practice of consuming dirt, often driven by a desire for the specific taste and texture of the dirt.
The dirt of choice for many is typically red dirt, and there are various cultural, religious, and even medicinal reasons for this behavior. Some people believe that dirt consumption can benefit the growing baby, however, it can be detrimental when the dirt is contaminated with pollutants or parasites.
Why Pregnant Women Eat Dirt
The doctor is testing the urine of a pregnant woman who is most likely experiencing food cravings. (Credit: Wellcome Collection)
Geophagia, or the habit of eating dirt, is a type of pica that is often attributed to a shortage of iron and other nutrients for pregnant women. A pregnant woman may feel compelled to eat dirt due to its high mineral content since elements like iron, calcium, and zinc are needed for the baby’s development.
They are more likely to suffer from pica since their bodies have higher dietary requirements, and this may indicate that their bodies are not getting the proper nutrients. However, only a small percentage of people with pica are iron deficient, and scientists have been unable to explain why pregnant women eat dirt for that reason.
Pregnant women from poor and malnourished societies where eating dirt is commonplace or sacred also exhibit geophagia. Eating dirt to get the nutrients one needs is not rare in areas like that. However, pregnant women shouldn’t consume dirt since it could contain hazardous pollutants or parasites.
Weird, Unusual Conducts of Catherine
Despite the fact that Catherine the Great is portrayed as eating dirt in The Great (which is not that unusual for pregnant women), in her life she was mostly far away from such “odd” or “weird” conduct. Catherine the Great, the Russian monarch who ruled the country the longest at the time, was born the oldest daughter of a poor Prussian nobleman. After her birth in 1729, Sophie von Anhalt-Zerbst had her pick of eligible suitors thanks to her mother’s illustrious family tree.
Catherine’s run of scandalous relationships is perhaps what brought her the most fame. The empress was said to have had 12 lovers, but contrary to common belief, she was not a sexual pervert. Catherine the Great was portrayed negatively due to the fact that her son, Paul I of Russia, fostered a culture of palace intrigue that included rumors that she enjoyed collecting erotic furnishings and false accusations that she was a nymphomaniac or libertine.
Did Catherine the Great Have Illegitimate Children?
Catherine’s association with Orlov produced a boy named Alexei Grigorievich Bobrinsky and a daughter who perished in infancy. Vasily Shkurin’s family, a former valet for the Empress, fostered the boy. Later, Alexei studied abroad with Vasily’s sons and adopted the surname Bobryk, the name of the property that was given to him. Elizabeth Temkin, who was born in 1775, was yet another supposed Catherine descendant. But considering that Catherine was around 45 years old at the time, and that Temkin’s mother was probably one of Potemkin’s lovers.
Catherine the Great Was One of the Smartest People in Europe
Catherine the Great was undeniably a smart and perceptive person, but intelligence is notoriously hard to measure. She admitted that her mind was not creative in the usual sense, but that it was receptive to and made excellent use of the ideas of others. Her enthusiasm for building “Spanish castles,” as she called them, typified the rationality and idealism of the Enlightenment.
January 17, 2023
How Tall Was Alexander the Great?
How tall was Alexander the Great? One of the most well-known military commanders in history, Alexander the Great is revered for his many victories and the massive empire he established. One thing that has long baffled historians and researchers is how tall Alexander the Great really was. Fortunately, there are a number of accounts and estimations that make pinpointing this ancient leader’s actual stature easier than expected.
How Tall Was Alexander’s Father?
The armor of Alexander the Great’s father, Philip II of Macedon. (Image: Discover Greece)
For comparison, Alexander the Great’s father, Philip II of Macedon, is believed to have worn the armor on display in the Royal Macedonian Tombs in Vergina, Greece, which was found in the burial chamber of the king. It is believed that the armor is only a good fit for someone around 1.8 meters (5 feet, 11 inches) tall. This was first thought to be true based on his bones, and it makes Alexander’s father so much taller than the average man at the time.
Alexander the Great’s true height is a common subject of discussion. The destruction of his tomb in Alexandria and the subsequent loss of his remains, which would have provided irrefutable proof of his height, make this question harder to answer.
The ancient people who lived on the Mediterranean’s periphery were, on average, much shorter than people are now. People who ate more meat and fat were also often taller than those who didn’t. When the Romans first came across the Germanic peoples, they were astounded by the height of their men and women.
How Tall Was Alexander the Great?
According to historical records, Alexander the Great’s height was between 1.62 and 1.65 meters or 5’4″ and 5’5″. This conclusion is based on anthropological research from the modern day, historical occurrences of Alexander’s time, and the reports of ancient historians like Plutarch, who said Alexander was “less than average height” but “well built” (Plutarch, Alexander 4.3).
But how tall was the typical Greek or Macedonian during Alexander the Great’s day? According to anthropological examinations of ancient Greek skeletons, the average height of a male in the Classical period (510–323 BC) was 170 centimeters (or 5’7″). Alexander the Great (356–323 BC) lived during this period. The same figure was 172 centimeters, or 5’7.7″, for male Hellenistic-era ancient Greeks (323–32 BC).
Alexander the Great’s reconstructed Linothorax linen armor. (Photo: Mark A. Geranios, Mosaic: Public Domain)
Historian Peter Green depicts Alexander in Alexander of Macedon as being quite short, even by Macedonian standards. Alexander was definitely not taller than 5’7″ because historians initially got this value from analyzing his contemporary artwork. However, the majority of the Macedonians he fought alongside were well-nourished, robust, and probably taller than he was. This seems logical, considering that medieval knights’ armor was typically sized for males of around 65 inches in height.
The average height of soldiers enlisting in the French and English armies in the 1850s was still 5 feet 5 inches, and it was 5 feet 3 inches for the Italian army. According to Suetonius, Caligula plundered Alexander’s grave, taking the general’s armor. When Caligula attempted to wear Alexander’s armor, he failed because it was too small for his tall stature. Although Caligula (born in 12 AD) towered above the typical Roman, the Romans were notoriously short at the time. According to what has been unearthed thus far, a typical Roman male was roughly 5 feet 5 inches tall, and the soldiers were a bit taller.
Alexander the Great’s bronze relief. (Photo, Tilemahos Efthimiadis, CC BY-SA 2.0)
The Greeks of the North, like the Macedonians, probably stood a little taller and had more farmland at their disposal than their southern counterparts. And since Alexander was known to be physically fit and athletic, you may expect that this would have made him taller than the average person of his time. But this was not the case at all; in fact, he was shorter than the average Greek, but by how much?
Historical Accounts of Alexander the Great’s Height
Since authentic documents and measurements from the time period are lacking, it is impossible to ascertain Alexander the Great’s height. According to the accounts of the famous historians Diodorus, Arrian, and Curtius, his friend, the nobleman general Hephaestion, was taller than Alexander.
This fact comes from an encounter between Alexander the Great, Hephaestion, and the captured Persian royal family after the Battle of Issus (333 BC). Queen Sisygambis, a member of the royal Darius family, thought Hephaestion was King Alexander because Alexander himself was significantly shorter than Hephaestion.
Ancient Persian reliefs, such as that of Darius the Great at Behistun, show that the Persians have long taken pride in their height. The tale of Alexander the Great’s failed effort to sit on the throne of the Great King of Susa is commonly recounted as an example of his short stature. Rejoicing at the result and the surrender of Susa, the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, Alexander stood on Darius III’s throne in March 324 BC, but his feet did not even touch the ground.
Queen Sisygambis mistakes Hephaestion for Alexander since he is the shorter one. Hephaestion points out Alexander. (The family of Darius in front of Alexander by Justus Sustermans). (Image: CC0)
A servant placed a stool under Alexander’s feet to maintain his dignity. This caused a reaction from one of Darius III’s former servants, as the stool was intended for Darius III. General Philotas went on to point out that Alexander’s use of the stool symbolized his victory over the previous Persian ruler. This incident is widely acknowledged in various Alexander biographies, including Philip Freeman‘s Alexander the Great, page 195.
If the story about this occurrence is to be believed, Alexander was shorter than the average ancient Persian ruler of the period. But the ancient Persians were not sea people like Greeks, Romans, or Egyptians, and on average they were taller than other nations.
Conclusion Regarding Alexander the Great’s Height
A 15th-century manuscript depicts Darius’ murder and Alexander’s presence at the dying king with his short stature.
Alexander the Great was probably between 5 feet 4 inches and 5 feet 5 inches tall, (1.62 and 1.65 meters), which would have put him below the average height for his time, just as Plutarch said.
Alexander the Great had a significant influence on world history, regardless of how tall he was. His military successes paved the way for the global dissemination of Greek civilization. The fact that sculptures and other works of art depict Alexander as a larger-than-life figure contributes to his legendary status.
FAQ
How Tall Were the Ancient Athenians?
According to anthropological examinations of ancient Greek skeletons, the average height of a male in the Classical period (510–323 BC) was 170 centimeters (or 5’7″). Alexander the Great (356–323 BC) lived during this period. The same figure was 172 centimeters, or 5’7.7″, for male Hellenistic-era ancient Greeks (323–32 BC).
Was Alexander 5 Feet Tall?
Alexander the Great’s father, Philip II of Macedon, was 5 feet, 11 inches tall, and the average height for men was 5’7″. Since Alexander was only “less than average height,” according to Plutarch, he was definitely not 5 feet tall.
What Is the Height of the Alexander?
According to historical records, Alexander the Great’s height was most likely between 5’4″ and 5’5″ (1.62 and 1.65 meters).
How Big is Alexander the Great?
According to Plutarch, Alexander was “well built,” but his height was probably around 5’4″ and 5’5″ (1.62 and 1.65 meters). So, Alexander the Great was most likely average in size when it came to how big he was.
References
Featured Image: CC0, The Family of Darius before Alexander by Paolo Veronese 1570
January 16, 2023
Why Were the Pharaohs Not Called Pharaohs?
January 16, 2023
Stalin’s Height: How Tall Was Stalin?
January 16, 2023
How Tall Was Genghis Khan? The Great Khan’s Height
- Genghis Khan’s exact height is unknown, but estimates range from 5’6″ to 5’8″.
- Genghis Khan’s family, the Borjigin clan, was known for producing tall individuals with striking features.
- Genghis Khan imposed a ban on creating images of himself during his lifetime.
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How tall was Genghis Khan? Genghis Khan, the first emperor of the Mongol Empire, is a focal figure in global history. That is why the height of the emperor is also a topic of debate. The exact height of Genghis Khan was never recorded. Despite that, several historians place his height between 5’6″ and 5’8″ (1.68 and 1.73 m). Even though a clear answer to this question is elusive due to lack of hard facts, there are some convincing points, and clues regarding the Great Khan’s height.
Historical Records on How Tall Genghis Khan Was
The statue of Genghis Khan at the Government Palace in Ulan Bator. Image: Abhijit Chavda-YouTube.
Even though Genghis Khan’s actual height is unknown, Genghis is actually described as “tall” in contemporary Chinese documents. The truth is, people in Mongolia come in various shapes and sizes, so it shouldn’t come as much of a surprise that some of the world’s tallest men today also call this nation home.
However, considering the diminutive size of Mongolian horses, Genghis Khan probably wasn’t too tall either. The Mongols’ success was largely due to the size of their horses. The native Mongolian horses that Genghis Khan’s army rode into battle on were small, but powerful. Their horses were between 12 and 14 hands in height (48–56 inches, 122–142 cm).
On the other hand, the European riding horses are bigger, standing 16–18 hands (64–72 inches, 163–183 cm). For comparison, the average height of a British male citizen during Genghis Khan’s time was around 5 feet 8 inches (1.73 m), as the skeletal evidence suggests.
Many Mongols get their impressive strength by participating in archery and wrestling, two of their ancient activities. Genghis Khan’s siblings were outstanding wrestlers, and he thus inherited their power.
When put in perspective, the typical height of a man in China has increased from 5’3″ to 5’7″ (160 to 170 cm) just during the 19th century. Since Temujin (Genghis Khan) was simply described as “tall” by the Chinese, it is also possible that he stood at a height in the range of 5’7″ to 5’9″ (170–175 cm).
However, these are just estimations, and they cannot be absolutely precise. It is impossible to estimate Genghis Khan’s height with certainty because of the lack of reliable documents and measurements from the time period.
The Impact of Genghis Khan’s Origin on His Height
Battle between Mongols & Chinese (1430). Jami’ al-tawarikh, Rashid al-Din.
The Russian historian Lev Gumilyov (1912–1992) asserts that the warriors of Genghis Khan’s army were predominantly tall, fair-haired individuals with blue or green eyes. This is also supported by the frescoes found in Manchuria.
Genghis Khan himself belonged to the ancient Borjigin family, which translates to “blue-eyed” and was known for producing tall, robust individuals with reddish blonde hair and striking blue or green eyes.
Additionally, men of the Borjigin clan were known for their long beards and wide foreheads. This description is also echoed in the works of Persian scientist and physician Rashid al-Din (“A Compendium of Chronicles“) and Italian traveler Marco Polo, who both depict Genghis Khan as a European-like figure.
The Avars, a group of migrant warriors from Mongolia, were known for their large physiques. This is evidenced in both Russian and Frankish chronicles, which describe the Avars as formidable opponents on the battlefield.
A Turco-Mongol or Tatar king is depicted in Russian epics as a towering figure with the head of a beer kettle, the eyes of a beer bowl, and broad shoulders spanning the length of an “oblique sazhen” — roughly 2.5 meters (8.2 feet).
He is also described as having a body like a haystack. Overall, this Tatar king is portrayed as a giant of a man, with a huge frame and striking features. Because of Genghis Khan’s massive frame, other populations naturally feared the Mongols.
The Truth About the Chinese Sources Regarding Genghis Khan’s Height
Genghis Khan’s 40-meter (130 ft) tall statue in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. (François Philipp, CC BY 2.0)
Genghis Khan, the Great Mongol, was renowned as the greatest warrior, so it stands to reason that he was also a formidable and imposing physical man with a well-developed chest and powerful arms. And just like today, most Chinese men during Genghis Khan’s reign favored a slimmer physique.
Genghis Khan’s physical size definitely left a positive impression on Chinese historians, since their records portray Genghis as tall and stocky. For the Chinese, to look at Genghis was to see a prototypical Mongol wrestler.
The Chinese frequently claimed that the Mongols were godlike in stature and appeared massive. This, of course, includes how tall Genghis Khan was. This makes sense, considering the Mongols’ penchant for large stature due to their diet and a lot of fighting.
And back in Genghis Khan’s day, almost every Mongol was a wrestler. Given their fondness for red meat, it should come as no surprise that Mongol wrestlers tended to be more muscular than most other people.
Arguments for Genghis Khan’s Height
Genghis Khan in the movie Mongol.
Some historians contend that Genghis Khan was likely taller than believed. They reference paintings and monuments of Genghis Khan that portray him as a towering presence. But Genghis Khan may have stood tall in his own right since many of the Mongol troops in his army were said to be quite tall. For instance, in the Chinese records, Mongols are described as very tall troops.
These days, a typical Mongol stands between 160 and 180 centimeters (63 and 71 inches) tall. However, this doesn’t mean much since the average height of people in a nation can increase or decrease a lot in relatively short periods of time.
For example, the skeletal evidence suggests that the average height of Englishmen increased from 167 centimeters to 170 centimeters (about 5 feet 5 inches) during the Roman colonization of Britain (200–410 AD). And the Norman invasion in 1066 also coincided with a rebound in the average height of British males.
Average heights had risen to 172 (67.7 inches) centimeters by the end of the early medieval period; by the 1100s, they had risen to 173 centimeters (68.1 inches), approaching the heights attained at the turn of the twentieth century.
On the other hand, scholars who believe Genghis Khan was shorter than traditionally thought point out that Genghis was a nomadic warrior and that a lower height could have been more advantageous for horseback riding and other tasks for people like Genghis.
Even if Genghis Khan was tall for his people, he probably would have been shorter than many world leaders of the time since the average Mongolian man of his era was about 5 feet, 4 inches (162 cm) tall.
How Tall Were Mongol Warriors?
The appearance of Mongol warriors from the Genghis Khan: Conquest & Culture exhibit. (Andrea Olson, EastIdahoNews)
Historians frequently describe the Mongol warriors of Genghis Khan’s army as predominantly tall. Today, the average height of men in Mongolia is 170 centimeters (5’7″).
Given the recentness of the Mongol invasions and their still similar lifestyle, the Mongols’ height and physicality are likely to have remained similar since Genghis Khan. According to that, most Mongol warriors at the time could be taller than 1.75 meters (5′9″), if not close to 1.80 meters (5′11″).
Nutrition, lifestyle, and selection all have a role in growth. Frankish peasants, who seldom ate meat, were around 10 centimeters (3.9 inches) shorter than their feudal rulers throughout the early Middle Ages.
Because of their meat-based diet, the Mongols were expected to be physically larger than European nobility at the time. The Mongols’ bigger torsos would have made them seem towering to their foreign adversaries. Plus, their hefty frames and strong limbs make up for their lack of height.
How Tall is Genghis Khan’s Statue?
A 130-foot (40-meter) stainless-steel monument of Genghis Khan and his horse dominates the Mongolian steppe. The horse’s head has a walkable deck. (CC0 Image by Unsplash)
The Genghis Khan Equestrian Statue is a massive sculpture made of stainless steel that stands 130 feet tall and shows the great ruler riding a horse. This monument has the title of being the highest equestrian statue in the whole world.
It is perched atop a hill at a site named Tsonjin Boldog, barely 54 kilometers (33 miles) from Ulaanbaatar, the capital of Mongolia, where it is said that Genghis Khan discovered a whip. The discovery of the whips was a sign of impending power, wealth, and achievement. The height of the tourist center alone is 10 meters (33 feet).
Why Are Mongolian Horses Short in Height?
It’s possible that smaller horse breeds evolved as a result of having to adapt to harsher natural temperatures and fewer nutrition sources, which is why the Mongolian horse is shorter in height than many other breeds. Despite being a small horse with a short and huge neck, the Mongolian horse has exceptionally developed forequarters.
Their hips and shoulders are broad, their backs are short, and their legs are robust. Mongol horses became excellent warhorses because of their fortitude, stamina, and ability to forage for themselves. The Mongol horse’s slowness in comparison to other breeds it encountered in battle was its worst shortcoming as a military horse.
Why Are Asians Shorter Than Western People?
Those of Asian heritage tend to be shorter in stature than the average person. This is because, during the previous ice age, people in Asia benefited from maintaining their core body temperature by having a smaller, more compact body shape. The dietary habits of Asian culture also contribute to the height gap, since they usually consist of less dairy and protein than Western diets.
When East Asians take the same quantity of calcium as their Western counterparts, they tend to be of similar height. While Asians are becoming taller, Americans are shrinking today. Individuals from more prosperous socioeconomic situations tend to be taller simply because they have greater access to nutritious food.
What Did Genghis Khan Look Like?
The possible look of Genghis Khan. (Image)
Surprisingly little is known about Genghis Kahn’s life or appearance. There are no surviving pictures or sculptures of him from his time period. However, Genghis Khan’s Mongol warriors were mostly tall, fair-haired men with blue or green eyes.
Genghis Khan was a member of the Borjigin family, which is translated as “blue-eyed” and was known for producing strong, tall individuals with reddish blonde hair and blue or green eyes.
When it comes to Genghis Khan, the reports paint a picture of a towering, powerful man with a big, bushy beard and a thick, flowing mane of hair. 14th-century Persian historian Rashid al-Din reported that Genghis had red hair and green eyes.
Despite the fact that Al-Din never actually met the Khan, it is possible that members of the ethnically diverse Mongol people may have such stunning traits.
Why Was Genghis Never Portrayed?
Genghis Khan’s official portrait, painted after his death under the supervision of his grandson Kublai Khan. (Image)
Genghis Khan, the chief of the Mongols, imposed a strict ban on the production of any artwork that depicted his image, including statues and coins. However, after his passing, the first representations of him were released.
Only Kublai Khan, Genghis Khan’s grandson, who had spent 12 years in close proximity to him, was able to paint a portrait of the legendary leader. The artist was closely supervised by Genghis Khan himself as he created the painting. The portrait, which dates back to 1278, was later colored in the 14th century.
Conclusion
The historical sources are not particularly reliable, and it is difficult to conclude how tall Genghis Khan was. But most sources agree that Genghis Khan was between 5’6″ and 5’8″ (168 cm and 173 cm). Despite his diminutive height, Genghis Khan was one of history’s most influential leaders due to the powerful Mongol Empire he founded and expanded to enormous size, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death.
When it came to his “height,” Genghis Khan was unquestionably a “towering” figure who had a significant impact on the world as it is now, regardless of how tall he really was. With his leadership and military skills, Genghis Khan was a key part of the Mongol Empire’s growth both in Asia and Europe.
References
Featured Image: Xuanyi/chinadaily.com.cn
Ancient Turks – Lev Gumilev, AbeBooks.
Highs and lows of an Englishman’s average height over 2000 years – University of Oxford.
Average Height by Country 2023 – Worldpopulationreview
A Compendium of Chronicles – Rashid al-Din Hamadani
January 14, 2023
Hitler’s Real Last Name: Schicklgruber
January 14, 2023
6 Misconceptions About the Nazi Regime
After the collapse of Nazi Germany, many Germans sought to excuse their actions during the regime by claiming that “not everything was terrible under Hitler.” Despite the atrocities committed and the millions of deaths and sufferings, they did not speak out against the regime for the entire twelve years, instead choosing to focus on the personal benefits they may have gained, such as employment and personal contentment.
Allegedly Positive Aspects
The longstanding loyalty of Nazi Germany’s citizens to their government may be difficult to fathom until you consider the possibility that the dictatorship also had positive aspects. However, the purported benefits of Nazi authority were not made up after the fact.
The Nazi propaganda spent years reinforcing the myth that Adolf Hitler brought law and order to the streets, invented the autobahn, and saved the German economy out of a crisis. The Nazis expertly appropriated the achievements of the Weimar Republic and continued to build on them. Some discoveries were downplayed, while others were ignored entirely.
Nazi Propaganda Has Been Partially Successful to This Day
The Nazi propagandists were so effective that the myths they spread about the positive things that Hitler and his government did for the Germans are still, to some extent, ingrained in people’s minds. A 2007 study by Forsa found that one in four people thought some good could have come from living under Nazi tyranny.
A poll conducted in Austria in March 2013 is even more current and disturbing. 75 years after the “Anschluss” of the Alpine Republic to Hitler’s Germany, about 42% of people still think that the “Third Reich” definitely had some good things about it. Here are six myths the Nazis spread through propaganda and some people still believe today.
1- Hitler Invented the Autobahn
Hitler at the groundbreaking ceremony for the Reichsautobahn from Frankfurt via Darmstadt and Mannheim to Heidelberg.
The statement “The autobahns are a legacy of Hitler’s rule” is often used as an example of the belief that there were some positive aspects of the Nazi regime, also known as the “Third Reich.”
However, while Adolf Hitler’s brilliant theory that a criminal dictatorship can be excused on principle because it constructed roads and bridges is perhaps debatable, it is also demonstrably false. Hitler neither invented nor built the first autobahn, even though Nazi propaganda said otherwise. The notion of the autobahn had already existed during the period of the Weimar Republic. This makes sense, as it would take a long time to organize and launch such a massive undertaking.
On September 23, 1933—over six months after becoming Reich Chancellor—Hitler began construction of the “Reichsautobahn,” connecting Frankfurt and Heidelberg by way of Darmstadt and Mannheim. A lot of propaganda was produced, hailing the “Führer” as the brains behind the first person to construct this groundbreaking technology.
However, the future German chancellor, Konrad Adenauer, was previously the Lord Mayor of Cologne, and the first section of the autobahn, from Cologne to Bonn, was opened to the public on his watch in 1932. This road used to be a highway, but the Nazi regime changed it to a rural road.
2- Hitler Led the Economy Out of the Crisis
Germans burning their worthless money in the economic crisis during the Weimar Republic.
Another Nazi myth that had a lasting impact is related to the construction of the first autobahns. The Nazis claimed that building the autobahns would provide employment for the large number of unemployed people, thereby helping the German people to regain access to income and food during the global economic crisis. However, this was a false claim made by the Nazis.
The global economic crisis started at the end of the 1920s, which was responsible for the loss of employment for large segments of the population. In 1932, there were approximately 12 million working Germans, compared to more than 6 million unemployed. The Nazi regime gained immense power during this time of turmoil. The Nazi Party had a meteoric rise in the polls during the 1930 and 1932 Reichstag elections.
The Economy Began to Recover Even Before the Nazi Regime Took Hold
In fact, after the fall of 1932, there were the first signals of economic recovery. According to current research, the seasonal increase in the unemployment rate was not as severe as it had been in past years, especially in the fall and winter.
Almost immediately, the NSDAP saw a severe drop in support at the November 1932 election. In reality, Hitler’s popularity had been on the decline for some time prior to his recommendation as Reich Chancellor by former Chancellor Franz von Papen, banker Kurt Freiherr von Schröder, and leaders of Rhineland-Palatinate heavy industry to Reich President Paul von Hindenburg. On January 30, 1933, the latter officially swore him into office.
The German economy was already on the mend when the Nazis took control. Afterward, the Nazis claimed all the glory for the country’s booming economy. The Nazis’ favorite device for claiming credit for the economy was really a Weimar-era invention: job-creation schemes. The idea was conceived by Kurt von Schleicher, the last Chancellor of the German Democratic Republic, with the primary goal of combating unemployment.
Without the War, Nazi Germany Would Have Been Bankrupt
Hitler temporarily continued to manage the programs implemented by von Schleicher’s specialists, but he now carried out these tasks in a more public manner. The current research indicates that the highly publicized construction of highways had a minimal impact. At any given time, there were never more than 130,000 people working on highway construction.
Magnus Brechtken, who is Deputy Director of the Institute of Contemporary History in Munich and Berlin, says that the large-scale rearmament of the Reichswehr was “far more important” for the steady drop in unemployment.
However, the Nazis spent significantly more money on this than the state did. Rearmament was paid for with borrowed funds. “Without the commencement of the war in 1939, Germany would have gone bankrupt shortly after,” the historian explains.
Women Had to Give Up Their Jobs for Men
By discouraging women from seeking employment, the Nazi regime was able to make unemployment appear lower than it actually was. It was a lie, but it helped spread the idea that the Third Reich had a good program for finding jobs.
3- Women Were Highly Valued During the Nazi Era
Certificate of the Cross of Honour of the German Mother during World War II.
“There is no greater nobility for a woman than to be the mother of the sons and daughters of a people.” This Adolf Hitler quote from May 9–15, 1938, is illustrative of the Nazi idealization of women.
The women under the Nazi regime were urged to have as many children as possible so that the “Aryan race” would continue to exist and, if the children were boys, they could fight for the “Führer.” Ultimately, the Nazi government considered women exclusively as childbearing machines. The Nazis established a veritable religion around the “German mother.”
They began celebrating Mother’s Day as a religious holiday in 1934, one year after declaring it a national holiday the previous year (1933). And in 1938, in the run-up to the war, Hitler issued a decree endowing the “Cross of Honor of the German Mother,” to be bestowed on women with at least four children.
During World War II, millions of German women were honored with this medal, which varied in quality from bronze to gold based on the number of children they had.
They Were Thrown Out of the Labor Market
In order to be able to commit themselves entirely to their position as mothers, working women were to exit the labor market, which at the same time opened up employment for jobless males. The Nazi regime intended to attain this result, and they intended to do it in part through propaganda. In addition, the Nazi regime passed laws that made it nearly impossible for most women to ever work.
However, the Nazi dictatorship could not sustain its ideology in the long run. Because military rearmament required an increasing number of people in the later years. Until October 1937, a woman’s ability to work outside the home was considered when deciding whether or not to grant a newlywed couple a loan for household expenses.
The Nazis Considered Emancipation to Be an Invention of the “Jewish Mind”
Under National Socialism, there was no way that women were regarded with respect. The fact that they only made up a tiny fraction of the NSDAP ranks was another evidence of their lesser significance for the Nazis.
95% of the Nazi Party members in 1933, for instance, were men. However, women were not meant to vote since the Nazi regime saw liberation as the product of the “Jewish mind.” Instead, the women were expected to put the needs of the “national society” (Volksgemeinschaft) ahead of their own and devote themselves fully to motherhood.
4- Hitler Was Particularly Fond of Children
Hitler Youth members give the Nazi salute at a rally at the Lustgarten in Berlin, 1933.
Children were the future of the German Reich, destined to either increase the “Volksgemeinschaft” by procreating in large numbers to ensure the Reich’s survival or spread the German language and culture over the world as soldiers. Children were heavily featured in Nazi propaganda. In fact, the Nazi government specifically went after children to turn them into extremists.
The following generation was taught that National Socialism represented the zenith of Germany’s development. In geography classes, the German government used maps to show that foreign territories were part of the German national territory. This was done so that even the youngest students would understand that Germany had a right to these areas. Topics in the classroom changed to include “theories of racial heredity” and the rising expense of healthcare for the elderly and the crippled.
Future NSDAP leaders could attend prestigious schools like the National Political Institutes of Education (“Napolas”) or Adolf Hitler Schools (AHS). Indoctrination was strengthened in these schools. The 2009 film “Herrenkinder” (“Children of the Master Race”) serves as a vivid example of how the experiences in these educational institutions continued to impact many pupils even after 1945.
The Hitler Youth and the League of German Girls
National Socialism’s influence over adolescents and teenagers extended well beyond the classroom. All boys and girls turning ten in Germany after 1939 were forced to join the “Jungvolk” or “Jungmädelbund,” and those turning fourteen were required to join the “Hitler Youth” or “League of German Girls.”
They were intended to intentionally remove children from the influence of their parents in order for them to be trained in the spirit of the racial Nazism philosophy. This often led to big fights within the family, especially if one or both parents were Christians.
Hitler reiterated this point in his address at Reichenberg on December 2, 1938, saying:
These boys and girls enter our organizations [at] ten years of age, and often for the first time get a little fresh air; after four years of the Young Folk, they go on to the Hitler Youth, where we have them for another four years… And even if they are still not complete National Socialists, they go to the Labor Service and are smoothed out there for another six to seven months. And whatever class consciousness or social status might still be left… the Wehrmacht [German armed forces] will take care of that.
Adolf Hitler (1938) — Source: Holocaust Encyclopedia
The final statement expresses an especially pessimistic outlook on the war’s final year. Children born in the second half of the 1920s were particularly vulnerable, as they began their formal education immersed in Nazi propaganda.
Children and teens who the Nazi dictatorship thought were “not worth living,” like Jews, Sinti, Roma, and people with mental or physical disabilities, had been killed by the Nazis for a long time.
In the name of “euthanasia,” at least 5,000 children have been killed. The concept that the Nazi leadership cared about children in any way is one of the biggest lies told about National Socialism.
5- Hitler Eliminated Crime
An undated photograph of Adolf Hitler in Berchtesgarden.
Another argument that is often used to defend the “Third Reich” is that Hitler was able to keep some kind of order and discipline, and that crime was almost nonexistent during the Nazi dictatorship. As with all Nazi propaganda that tries to sound real, there is some truth in this claim.
The National Socialists turned Nazi Germany into a totalitarian police state that spied on its population. The people of the country were not only subject to the police and the Gestapo, but also to the Blockleiter (Block Warden).
Under the Nazis, Violence Came Mainly from the Police and Gestapo
People under the Nazi regime exercised strict self-control “since everyone had to worry about being accused,” historian Magnus Brechtken argues. A system of monitoring and intimidation existed. Many Germans, therefore, would not have broken the law or done other things they would have done in a freer society.
The Nazi regime made up data to give the impression that everything was safe and in order when, in reality, it wasn’t. However, under the Nazi administration, many Germans were subjected to more widespread brutality than they had ever seen before. This time, however, the threat came from the state itself.
The War Made German Society More Brutal
Nazi propaganda publicly lauded the March 1933 establishment of the Dachau concentration camp. The goal of the facility was to rehabilitate those labeled “vermin of the people” (Volksschädling) into “good people’s comrades.” If they made it out of the concentration camp alive, the captives had to remain quiet about their experiences there. In doing so, they would have discredited the propaganda.
When war broke out, every remaining sense of safety or order vanished along with it. From 1939 on, there was a dramatic surge in violent crime. The conflict led to a gradual and energizing disintegration of the bounds of violence. Fanatical Nazis did horrible things in the last months of the Third Reich, not just to POWs and survivors of concentration camps but also to “regular” Germans who worked with the enemy or refused to fight until the “ultimate victory.”
6- The Nazi Regime Treated Workers in a Compassionate Manner
Travelers aboard a Kraft durch Freude (Strength Through Joy) cruise enjoying an orchestra performance. Source: Wilhelm Walther.
The Nazi regime placed a premium on the support of the working class. Nothing could be rearmed or gained in the battle without them. Although the bulk of workers have historically been more loyal to the Social Democrats and the Communists, therefore, the Nazi administration needed to court their support. This is why the Nazis put so much stock in portraying themselves as the vanguard of the fight against joblessness; in contrast to the other parties, who, according to their propaganda, had failed to achieve this goal.
The Nazis Turned May Day Into a Propaganda Show
To pacify the working class, the Nazi leadership declared May 1 a public holiday as early as the first week of April 1933. This holiday did not require any cost to the employee and appeared to fill a long-standing chasm in the labor movement. However, the Nazi regime reinterpreted the meaning of May 1, using it to hold marches and rallies celebrating the “Volksgemeinschaft” (the national community), and excluding groups such as Jews, homosexuals, and individuals with mental illness.
Trade Unions Were Destroyed, and Officials Were Imprisoned
On May 2, 1933, the Nazi dictatorship finally demonstrated its true feelings for a free workforce. The homes of the Free Trade Unions were invaded by SA and Nazi trade unionists, their assets were stolen, and their top officials were imprisoned and abused. By the summer, the Nazis had broken up every other union and put its members into the German Labor Front.
The Myth of Kraft durch Freude (Strength Through Joy)
The “Strength Through Joy” organization contributed considerably to the perception that the powerful cared about their workers by giving low-cost vacations and other sorts of amusement. The deed, however, was not performed out of compassion or to do something kind for others.
It was more about keeping the so-called “Aryan race” healthy and increasing labor efficiency, notably in the arms industry. No one whom the Nazis deemed to be an outsider was eligible for any of the benefits. Also, during the war years, all people who were called “Volksschädling” (“human pests”) could have been persecuted, sent away, or even killed.
January 13, 2023