Author: Hrothsige Frithowulf

Ark of the Covenant: History and Origin
December 14, 2022
Noah’s Ark: The Actual Origin of the Tale
December 14, 2022
The Tragic History of The Titanic: From Construction to Final Voyage
December 13, 2022
The American Artichoke Wars: In the 1930s, The Mafia Controlled The Artichoke Trade
December 12, 2022
Suffrajitsu: Women Using Martial Arts to Fight Men
December 12, 2022
In 1875 an American Spy Plotted to Kill Hundreds for Insurance Payment
At about 11 a.m. on December 11, 1875, a massive explosion took place in Bremerhaven. Just then, the last of the cargo was being put onto the steamer “Mosel,” which was about to depart for Southampton and then continue on to New York.
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Most of the passengers were southern Germans who were looking to leave their homeland and begin a fresh life in the United States.
The “Mosel” was a North German Lloyd (NDL) steamer. NDL was the largest German shipping firm, rivaling even the Hamburg America Line (HAPAG). Both businesses relied heavily on immigrants as a revenue source, alongside freight.
The pier and other areas of Bremerhaven were destroyed when an explosion shook the area in the winter of 1875. A 13-foot-deep (4-meter) crater was all that remained.
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There were at than 80 fatalities and hundreds of injuries. Where did all of this terribleness come from? When the dust settled, everyone knew the explosion had happened on the hull of the ship. The calamity had been triggered by a “hell machine” buried in the barrel, according to preliminary investigations.
Moving to a New Place
The immigrants crossed the ocean on the massive steamships of the shipping firms, which were increasingly replacing sailing ships at the period. Liner service between continents became feasible with the advent of swift steamers, which were less reliant on the wind. The Atlantic crossing took between 10 and 14 days.
This meant that by the time World War I broke out, more people were leaving Europe than ever before. The shipping industry reaped huge financial benefits as a result. The annual influx of German immigrants to the United States averaged over 120,000 in the 1880s. By the turn of the century, they had become the most numerous immigrants to the United States.
Related: Ellis Island: How Did 30 Million People Immigrate to the United States?
The majority of immigrants traveled across the Atlantic in steerage since it was the least expensive but most uncomfortable option. Steerage passengers were not afforded the same luxuries as those in first and second class. Bedframes were instead lined up and then shifted to the side on the return journey to make room for more freight. The “Mosel,” a freight and passenger ship that provided liner service between Bremerhaven and New York, was not finished until 1872. Almost seven hundred people could fit on the tween deck.
The ship was set to leave for Southampton and then New York on the day of the accident. 600 people to be on board. But the NDL steamer “Deutschland” had recently sunk on December 6 after running aground on a sandbank outside the mouth of the Thames, prompting the crew to make an emergency stay in England. Fifty or more people had lost their lives because of the incident.
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Reasons for the Mosel Disaster
In order to collect on an insurance claim, American Civil War spy Alexander Keith Jr. deployed a time bomb to try to sink the ship Mosel. (Credit: W. Commons)
The survivors were brought to Southampton, where they awaited transport to the United States on the next vessel, called the “Mosel” from Bremerhaven. But then things took an unexpected turn for the worse. There was still a cart at the dock, loaded down with boxes and barrels. One of the barrels was constructed from iron-shod, dark brown wood.
According to the bill of lading, the container weighed 1.3 tons and included high-priced iron components. Today, it seems likely that the barrel fell into the road after slipping from the grip of a port worker operating a crane.
There was a huge bang. It is hard to piece everything together, but it is understood that the collision activated an ignite mechanism in the barrel, which contained lithofracteur (an explosive compound of nitroglycerin). While the original dynamite recipe was developed by Alfred Nobel (1833–1896), the Lithofracteur explosive combination had more explosive potential.
Several hours after the explosion, a man was discovered critically injured in a first-class cabin and sent to the hospital. First responders assumed he had been killed in the blast, but then they discovered a pistol inside the cabin with two empty rounds. It seems the man had attempted suicide. A quick check revealed that the barrel in question was really his.
For Fraudulent Insurance Claims
The guy’s name was Alexander Keith Jr., and he was a Canadian of Scottish descent. As William King Thomas, he traveled over Europe. Keith, who had accumulated a lot of debt, decided to conduct insurance fraud as a means of getting out of his financial bind. Keith paid a hefty premium to insure a shipment of useless goods that was certain to be destroyed in a bombing raid at sea.
However, the bomb wasn’t supposed to detonate for a few days, somewhere in the middle of the Atlantic. He preferred to get off the ship at Southampton, where he thought the survivors from the sinking of the “Deutschland,” the “Mosel,” would also be able to embark.
Keith was gravely hurt in the incident and later admitted his guilt, but he passed away on December 16th, five days after the incident, thus he was never brought to justice. The Bremen police department’s examination of the case uncovered disturbing information.
By 1873, Alexander Keith was already plotting to murder hundreds of people in return for a large insurance payout. In that year, he went to a watchmaker and asked him to construct a mechanism that could operate quietly for a few days before triggering the detonator with a hard blow. He bought the explosives while pretending to be a Jamaican mine owner.
By the way, the assault on the “Mosel” was his third attempt. He had previously planted a bomb aboard the NDL ship Rhein in the summer of 1875. He was disheartened to learn that the ship had made it to New York but that the firing mechanism had seemingly failed.
Because no other shipping company would take his shipment without first checking it, he made the trip to Bremerhaven to give the “Mosel” a go. Unfortunately, the transportation firm took the box anyhow. Since no further suspects could be located and Alexander Keith was already dead, the inquiry was closed in 1878.
These days, few people remember what happened during the incident. Unfortunately, it seems that not even the little metal plate that marked the site of the disaster near the entrance to Bremerhaven’s New Harbor has survived.
December 12, 2022
Filippo Brunelleschi’s Masterpiece: The Florence Cathedral Dome
Even though Brunelleschi lacked architectural training, he was awarded the commission to construct Florence’s famous dome. He did that against a familiar foe’s plotting. The dome of Florence Cathedral, known as the Brunelleschi Dome (also known as Cúpula de Santa María de las Flores), is perhaps the most recognizable symbol of Florence, just as every city has its own unique monument. The uniqueness of this building lies in the fact that Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1466), a goldsmith, rather than an architect, designed and oversaw its construction.
More than 500 years after it was built, Brunelleschi Dome is still the biggest brick dome that has ever been built.
A massive artwork known as a fresco is painted on the interior of Brunelleschi’s Dome. The painting on the dome was created by Giorgio Vasari and his pupil, Frederico Zuccari, about 1579. The Last Judgment is shown in the fresco. The pictures of heaven are painted on one side of the dome, while the representations of hell, including a demon, are painted on the other.
Brunelleschi’s work on the Florence Cathedral dome marked a major architectural and engineering achievement. He used innovative techniques, such as a double-shelled dome and herringbone brickwork, to build the largest dome in Europe during his time.
Origin of the Cathedral
Santa Maria del Fiore or Florence Cathedral.
However, the cathedral’s origins may be traced back decades before Brunelleschi was even born. The Florentine Republic had its capital in Florence in the 13th century. Not unlike the other republics in northern and central Italy, it was eager to impress its peers with displays of pomp and circumstance.
Most importantly, Florence wanted to show rivals like Venice and Pisa that it could keep up with their own impressive developments. This led to the 1296 decision to construct a cathedral. Arnolfo di Cambio was commissioned as the architect, and construction began with the laying of a foundation stone at the site of the bishop’s church of Santa Reparata. There, he would join the ranks of other great architects.
The cathedral was not complete until the early 15th century because of disruptions caused by conflicts with neighboring republics and the plague, which killed as much as 20% of the population in 1347. Santa Maria del Fiore was chosen as the original name for this beautiful Florence Cathedral.
The dome, however, was still absent. A gaping 147-foot-wide (45-meter) crater stood above the church until 1418. There was no blueprint for how such a large dome would be built.
Linear perspective is a technique in art that creates the illusion of depth and three-dimensionality on a flat surface. Brunelleschi made significant contributions to linear perspective by developing a system that allowed artists to accurately represent spatial relationships in their paintings.
There Is No Blueprint for the Cathedral Dome
Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446), the goldsmith and master builder. (Credit: Jason Pier, Flickr)
The traditional way of building would have needed too much wood to support the arches using a wooden scaffold. The manner of construction also necessitated that the scaffolding be left up for a minimum of 16 months. But after so much time, the wood is likely to be rotten. In addition, not even the building itself seemed to be a sufficient safety precaution. The weight of such a dome would have been too great for the walls to bear. The whole structure may have been toppled by the dome.
An alternative strategy was required. The Opera, the institution responsible for building the cathedral, declared a contest. They aimed to find an approachable design for the dome’s construction. The prize money was a hefty 200 florins (30,000 to 200,000 USD) as well.
Time for Filippo Brunelleschi had come. He was a professional goldsmith, therefore he was no stranger to contests. Earlier, in 1401, Brunelleschi had competed against goldsmith Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378–1455) and lost to him. This was 17 years ago. For that time being, the doors of the Baptistery were at issue, which was their profession of interest. However, this time, a really groundbreaking feat of architecture was required.
Some of the mysteries of its construction, which Brunelleschi pioneered, remain a mystery even now despite his leaving neither blueprints or drawings behind.
For the preceding decade, Brunelleschi had been traveling extensively, spending most of his time in Rome. There, he examined old structures, or what remained of them, in the spirit of the emerging Renaissance.
Herringbone brickwork is a pattern of bricklaying that resembles the bones of a fish. Brunelleschi used herringbone brickwork in the construction of the Florence Cathedral dome to provide stability and strength to the structure, allowing the dome to stand without the need for additional supports.
There Was No Need for a Timber Structure for Constructing the Dome
It was time for Brunelleschi to put in his bid, and he did so with Tuscany’s top architects. Specifically, he was interested in constructing a “double shell,” or two separate domes. Anchors and chains of iron and wood, like those used to hold a barrel, were planned to be used to keep the walls in place and prevent them from collapsing. Most importantly, his design wouldn’t require the use of a wooden scaffold, which was how most builders traditionally supported a dome during construction.
Two shells were created by Brunelleschi for the internal framework. A lighter inner shell and a heavier outer shell built of wind-resistant materials. Brunelleschi avoided the weight issue during construction by building two domes, allowing workmen to perch atop the inner dome while constructing the outer dome.
However, Brunelleschi’s involvement in the competition raised eyebrows due to his unusually low profile about the specifics. Brunelleschi’s paranoia about intellectual property theft was not wholly unfounded. The Opera eventually settled on a middle ground, adopting most of Brunelleschi’s design but assigning him a second construction manager, who was Brunelleschi’s opponent from 1401, Lorenzo Ghiberti.
A massive artwork known as a fresco is painted on the interior of Brunelleschi’s Dome.
It was estimated that it would take 16 years to finish building the dome. A considerable amount of time, during which Ghiberti made many attempts to replace Brunelleschi. One possible explanation is that he saw that Brunelleschi was the more talented and creative master builder. As an instance, he built a herd of oxen with a “gearbox” that allowed them to go backwards. Because of the height of the dome, Brunelleschi knew that the standard horse-drawn vehicles of the time—a form of impeller with gears—were not enough for lowering loads. But the gears on Brunelleschi’s ox team allowed this to be done without reharnessing the animals.
The dome’s construction also ended up being an architectural wonder. Using the so-called opus spicatum technique, the bricks for the inner dome were arranged in a herringbone pattern. Having done so, the dome’s stability was greatly improved, and collapse was avoided.
Brunelleschi had no professional training in architecture. Experts are still unable to completely comprehend his ingenious construction techniques for the dome.
The Challenger to Brunelleschi’s Dominance Was Eliminated
At the beginning of the 14th century, the competition to create the bronze doors for the Florence Baptistery was the city’s most important public commission. For the “Binding of Isaac”, Lorenzo Ghiberti’s work on the right; Filippo Brunelleschi’s on the left. (Credit: The Opera di Santa Maria del Fiore)
Reportedly, Brunelleschi used a ploy to get rid of Ghiberti and his disruptive influence. One day he claimed to be sick so he could force Ghiberti to bring in the crucial wooden beams, knowing full well that his opponent was unable to do so. Suddenly feeling better, Brunelleschi showed up at the building site to publicly criticize Ghiberti’s work, leading to the architect’s dismissal. Brunelleschi was finally able to build the dome without interference. The cathedral was dedicated on March 25, 1436, exactly 140 years after the first stone was put.
The lantern structure that was to make the city’s highest building even taller (374 feet or 114 meters) was put off for another decade. However, on April 15, 1446, not long after the building project had begun, Brunelleschi passed away. He was so well-respected at the time that he was laid to rest in the cathedral’s crypt. This distinction was reserved for the city’s most notable citizens, and in this instance, it went to a jeweler and a self-taught architect.
Brunelleschi became well-known because of the dome he designed. Most importantly, modern scholars recognize him as a pioneering Renaissance architect, despite the dome technically not being a Renaissance-style building. In contrast to the Roman Pantheon’s dome, which Brunelleschi may have used as inspiration, Santa Maria del Fiore’s dome is made up of four arches and separate components.
Brunelleschi’s whimsical interweaving of multiple disciplines and utilization of historical structures as inspiration, however, have led many to label him the archetypal Renaissance man. The next two centuries of history were supposed to be molded by the ideas of the Renaissance, not only in the Florence area, but all across the heart of Europe.
December 12, 2022
Martha Brossier: The Woman Who Claimed Demon Possession
December 11, 2022
Gustave Trouvé: The Man Who Built the First Electric Car
Supposedly, William Edward Ayrton and John Perry, created one of the first automobiles powered by electricity, but it was not rechargeable. Gustave Trouvé created the first actual and practical rechargeable electric car. Inventions and advances abounded throughout the 19th century. The electric motor was one of them. The extensive use of electrically driven vehicles and technologies is not unique to modern times. Its creator, the Frenchman Gustave Pierre Trouvé, who created the first electric automobile, is not as well known as he should be today.
Early Life
Gustave Pierre Trouvé
Trouvé, the son of a rich cattle merchant, was born in the little hamlet of La Haye-Descartes in 1839. He had a lackluster academic record, but his aptitude for technology was clear from an early age. Rumor has it that by the time he was seven years old, he had invented a miniature steam engine. Trouvé, then just 20 years old, gained a reputation for himself in the jewelry industry in 1859 after relocating to Paris. His creations, like brooches and figures with beating wings or little bunnies spinning a drum, were driven by a battery he created. This was because the battery, which he developed in 1865, was created specifically to not leak. That made it a great mode of transportation.
The writer Jules Verne (1828–1905) and the poet Gustave Ponton d’Amécourt (1825–1888) were among the first notable new acquaintances that Trouvé established upon his arrival in Paris. He and d’Amécourt both had an enthusiasm for innovative crafts. The phrase “helicopter,” a combination of the Greek for spiral and wing, is often credited to d’Amécourt, however, Leonardo da Vinci had previously done early research for this field with his “Helix Pteron.”
As soon as Trouvé received his first patent, he and his brother started their own business. The moniker “G. Trouvé” was the one he settled on for his label. Since this sounded like the French phrase “J’ai trouvé,” which means “I have found (it),” it was clear that Trouvé had a mischievous side. That was the French counterpart of Archimedes’ “Eureka.”
Beginning With the Metal Detectors and Ending With the Endoscopy
The military telegraph system developed by Trouve (Credit: Kevin Desmond ,CC BY-SA 4.0)
Trouvé made several out-of-the-ordinary innovations over his lifetime. He displayed a battery-operated rifle at the 1867 World’s Fair in Paris. Simultaneously, he developed a medical device, a small metal detector, that would help surgeons locate and remove foreign objects from the human body. During the 1870 Franco-Prussian War, his device saw significant usage by French military medics.
Besides the fixed telegraph, Trouvé also created a portable version. The French military saw considerable potential in the technology and promptly placed an order with Trouvé for 120 units. However, production was slowed down by defective construction supplies. Trouvé was ultimately only able to provide 25 units. The anticipated benefit of the battle never materialized. Soon after that, in 1871, the French government gave up.
The Polyscope was a groundbreaking innovation by Trouvé. It was a light that ran off of one of his little batteries. It was developed to help in medical diagnosis and may be seen as a forerunner to the modern endoscope. At the 1873 Vienna World’s Fair, he presented it to the Austrian emperor, who instantly presented him with a prize. In addition, Trouvé designed a second light for use in medicine with the help of a physician. He coined the term “Photophore” to describe his new kind of headlamp. For his firm, it was an instant hit.
Trouvé Designed the First Electric Car
As impressive as it was, it wasn’t even the whole story. From the 1880s forward, Trouvé focused his efforts on the realm of transportation, which was among the city of Paris’ highest priorities at the time. Transportation in the city was mostly provided by horse-drawn carriages, long-distance railroads made use of steam, and the Seine was navigable only by steamboat.
Trouvé took a Siemens electric motor and made it smaller before installing it in a bike he designed out of Englishman James Starley’s tricycle. He utilized a rechargeable battery recently developed by the famous French scientist Raymond Louis Gaston Planté (1834–1899).
The first electric vehicle: It was 1881 when inventor Gustave Trouvé first demonstrated his electric automobile to the public. In Paris, he took his tricycle out for its first voyage.
The first trip out with this vehicle was praised in the Paris media. Even though Trouvé built the first electric car, he never filed a patent for it. And one can only conjecture as to why he did not. Historians think it was related to another patent that a man named Louis-Guillaume Perreaux (1816–1899) had filed a few years previously, this one for a steam-powered bicycle. This patent may have prevented the “Trouvé tricycle” from being licensed.
One of the First Outboard Electric Boats
Outboard electric boat of Gustave Trouvé, 1881.
It’s also conceivable that Trouvé just stopped caring. A few months later, he showed off yet another vehicle that ran on electricity. And this time it’s not on the streets of Paris, but rather a boat on the Seine!
The first trip was a success thanks to his own electric engine and batteries he got from Planté. This first electric boat patent was submitted by Trouvé on May 8, 1880. The next decades saw hundreds of boats, from pleasure boats to luxury yachts, fitted with Trouvé’s electric engines, in contrast to the doomed Tricycle. Trouvé also created the first outboard motor by attaching a propeller to his engine.
More than 300 patents were submitted by Trouvé over the course of his life, covering anything from electrically driven missiles to further electric gun designs to different iterations of his medical diagnostic equipment. In 1883, a play by Jules Verne starring one of his inventions had its world debut in Paris.
Trouve’s mechanical bird design. He developed two mechanical birds.
The female performer wore what seemed to be a brilliantly lit diamond on her head, but was really a piece of cut glass that Trouvé lighted with a battery. Jules Verne, perhaps out of jealousy, banned any further performances, including the diamond, because of the overwhelming positive response from the press. But, he shouldn’t have done that. Because the play was shut down after just 49 showings without the diamond.
During the construction of the Suez Canal, he created underwater lighting.
By the time of his death in July 1902, at the age of 61, Trouvé had spent the better part of the two preceding decades dabbling with electric toys rather than developing any really revolutionary ideas. This may have contributed to how swiftly he was forgotten. Perhaps the fact that, after a few decades of nonpayment, his patents had expired and his importance had been forgotten also contributed.
The only reason Trouvé is somewhat well-known again is because of the author Kevin Desmond’s painstaking research in the 2010s. One of the most successful innovators of the 19th century is now honored with plaques in both his birthplace and his workshop’s former home in Paris. However, he is unlikely to have as many streets named after him as his US inventor colleague Thomas Edison (1847–1931).
December 11, 2022
Why Is Bavaria Not Part of Austria?
Why is Bavaria not part of Austria? A Habsburg diplomat named Count Josef von Seilern rushed to the Munich Residence in February of 1799. There, Bavarian Elector Charles Theodore was passing away. Because of the stroke he had while playing cards, the 75-year-old was expected to die soon. As he prepared to leave the Wittelsbach, Seilern had an important assignment he needed to do. He was carrying a pact that would guarantee the Habsburgs’ rule in Bavaria, an essential document from Emperor Franz II. As expected, Austria was going to take over Bavaria.
Seilern thought the Elector would sign the pact at the last minute. However, the messenger failed to reach Charles Theodore. Because Theodore’s wife, Maria Leopoldine, did not welcome any visits. Because of this lady, who was intended to assure the Habsburg succession in Bavaria, the Austrians’ effort to seize the crown ultimately failed.
The Wittelsbach Dynasty Had No More Legitimate Kings or Queens
Charles Theodore would have welcomed the opportunity to eliminate the new electorate. It had been two decades since Bavaria had fallen to him.
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The Wittelsbach dynasty had multiple branches. The Palatinate and Bavaria were dominated by the two most powerful. However, the aristocratic family had no more potential successors to the throne by the 18th century. It struggled hard to keep its hegemony in place. “House contracts” were introduced as a solution; thus, in the absence of heirs, it was only a question of combining family trees.
Timeline-wise, this case dates back to 1777. After Maximilian III Joseph’s untimely death, Elector Charles Theodore von der Pfalz of Mannheim succeeded him as ruler of the Bavarian line. The Electorate of Palatinate-Bavaria grew overnight to become the third-biggest state in the Holy Roman Empire. Now, almost all Wittelsbach branches met in the Mannheim.
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With the exception of a minor collateral line, which we’ll get to in a while.
However, the Elector, Charles Theodore, who was over 50 years old, had concerns about this new development. The house contracts required him to relocate from Mannheim, the capital city he had always cherished, to Munich.
This 1780 artwork by Anton Hickel depicts Elector Charles Theodore of the Palatinate and Bavaria (1724–1799). In 1777, the elector was not happy when Bavaria fell to the emperor.
Soon after his arrival, he began working to eliminate the Bavarian territories. Joseph II, Emperor of the Habsburgs, was waiting in Vienna. Still, the Austrian emperor claimed Lower Bavaria and the Upper Palatinate as his own, and he sent his army marching in. King Frederick II of Prussia, who was opposed to the Habsburgs expanding their power in the empire, responded to this development by calling a meeting of his cabinet.
As a result, he gave the command for his men to invade Bohemia. There, the War of the Bavarian Succession started in 1778. A year later, in 1779, the combatants were able to settle their differences via negotiations. As a consequence, the Innviertel region of modern-day Upper Austria was ceded to the Habsburgs by Bavaria in exchange for their recognition of the Wittelsbach House treaty.
Bavaria Was Too Powerful for the Elector to Eliminate
The war raged on for another decade until Charles Theodore had a breakthrough in 1785. As a means of appeasing the Habsburg emperor, he offered a trade in which the Electorate of Bavaria would be exchanged for the Habsburg Netherlands (present-day Luxembourg and Belgium). The emperor consented, and a royal title for the new kingdom of “Burgundy” was promised to Charles Theodore.
Someone raised a concern, and the preparations were abandoned once again. This time, it was a member of his own family who stood in his way—Charles II August, scion of the Palatinate-Zweibrücken collateral line. In order to counter Austria, he enlisted the help of Prussian King Frederick II, who joined forces with the League of Princes (“Fürstenbund”).
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As a result, the Habsburgs withdrew. The trade had to be canceled.
Charles Theodore was unable to abolish Bavaria, no matter how hard he tried. However, another chance presented itself in 1794. There was no heir apparent after the death of his wife Elisabeth-Auguste. To prevent the Zweibrückers, who had blocked the swap with the Habsburgs, from seizing power in Electoral Palatinate Bavaria after his death, the elderly man went out to locate a new bride.
Once again, the Habsburgs were prepared: If they couldn’t get to Bavaria via an exchange arrangement, then possibly through the succession to the throne, the emperor persuaded himself, and proposed Maria Leopoldine of the Habsburg collateral line Austria-Este as his future bride. She was just 17 when she found out about the marriage arrangements, and she was shocked. She may never have forgiven her parents for marrying her off, despite the fact that she followed all the proper courtesies. Perhaps this is also why, in 1799, while her husband lay dying, she refused to let the Habsburg ambassador in.
As a Result of Maria Leopoldine’s Interference, Her Family’s Ambitions Were Foiled
Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria (1756-1825)
A turning point was reached after the wedding in 1795. After the death of Charles II August, heir to the throne of Palatinate-Zweibrück, his younger brother, Max Joseph, became monarch. Since the Duchy of Palatinate-Zweibrücken was captured by French Revolutionary soldiers, he was a duke without a nation. And in case you were wondering: Yes, this Max Joseph will become the first Bavarian king, Maximilian I, in 1806.
Charles Theodore’s new wife was vital to his success. In little time at all, Maria Leopoldine had distanced herself from her husband and made it apparent that she had no intention of having children with him. The Electress’s explicit support for the Zweibrücken collateral line also crushed the Habsburgs’ expectations that they might exert influence over Charles Theodore’s inheritance.
The Habsburgs and the Palatine Zweibrückers both aspired to consolidate control in Bavaria while Charles Theodore lay dying in February 1799. Quick thinking was evident on Maria Leopoldine’s part as she sprang into action. She declared her support for the king’s chosen successor, Max Joseph.
It Was a Woman’s Hand That Anointed the New Monarch
She faced Habsburg envoy Seilern in person when he showed up at the house. Given the presence of French forces, the Habsburgs could not hope for a smooth annexation of Bavaria, and Emperor Franz II certainly did not want to start another War of the Bavarian Succession. And thus it came to be that the last surviving branch of the Wittelsbach dynasty’s collateral line inherited the Bavarian throne.
Maria Leopoldine decided to remain in Bavaria, where she quickly rose to prominence as one of the wealthiest women in the region. This was partially because of the yearly stipend she got from the Bavarian court, and partly because she started a fresh, self-sufficient existence. She became an entrepreneur despite being atypical in several ways: socially, gender-wise, and historically. She managed a farm, invested in real estate and stocks, and founded and operated a few breweries. Her tragic death in a carriage accident between Munich and Salzburg in 1848 came at the age of almost 70.
Furthermore, what exactly occurred in Bavaria? Bavaria has always been Bavaria, and in 1806, it became a kingdom.
December 10, 2022
Operation Valkyrie: Attack Against Hitler of July 20, 1944
As the year 1943 progressed, the military situation for the Germans in World War II became more dire. The Allies were getting ready to conquer Italy when the Soviets scored a major victory at Stalingrad on the Eastern Front. The German army was starting to lose ground. The Nazi dictatorship stiffened in 1944 following the Normandy invasion and the Soviet onslaught. The German general staff decided to take action as defeat seemed more and more certain.
In preparation for peace talks with the Allies, they plotted Operation Valkyrie, Adolf Hitler‘s death, and the collapse of the Third Reich. German resistance members made their last effort to overthrow Hitler in a conspiracy on July 20, 1944. Hitler was unharmed by the explosion, and the coup’s plotters were promptly arrested and put to death. Then, Heinrich Himmler and the Gestapo led a wave of brutal repression against any and all opponents.
Why Was Operation Valkyrie Planned?
The Nazi Party was established in February 1920, a time of political and economic unrest, and came to power on January 30, 1933. Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of the Reich in a Germany devastated by the Great Depression. When President Hindenburg passed away on August 2, 1934, he took over as head of state. This selection as the new German leader under the title of “Führer” ultimately led to the demise of the Weimar Republic and the rise of the Third Reich.
Eventually, the Nazi Party was recognized as the only legitimate political organization in Germany. After Hitler’s invasion of Poland and Stalin’s subsequent signing of the German-Soviet Pact, World War II officially began that year. Starting in 1943, Germany saw a string of military defeats that ultimately undermined the Führer’s position. Hitler had been the victim of multiple failed assassination attempts dating back to 1938.
The assassination and putsch attempt known as “Operation Valkyrie” failed to kill Adolf Hitler. The conspirators wanted to remove the Nazi system so that law and order could be restored, the Führer’s dictatorship could be ended, the war could be turned back against Germany, and peace could be speedily negotiated with the Allies.
Who Were Operation Valkyrie’s Organizers?
Claus von Stauffenberg.
Officers in the German Wehrmacht and some of their country’s leading thinkers conceptualized and planned Operation Valkyrie. Some of the general staff disapproved of Führer’s choices after Stalingrad. The Third Reich’s downfall seemed imminent, yet they still tried to rescue everything they could. They quickly became a part of the Kreisau Circle, a group of 1938-formed intellectuals who discussed life in a post-Nazi Germany.
Generals Olbricht and Fromm were among the several high-ranking commanders involved in the plot. Included in this group were Henning von Tresckow, Rudolf-Christoph von Gersdorff, Werner von Haeften, and Claus von Stauffenberg. They were essential to Operation Valkyrie since they were responsible for Hitler’s assassination. Furthermore, former chief of staff Ludwig Beck and former mayor of Leipzig Carl Goerdeler were also engaged.
The scheme also included assistance from other members of the internal resistance against the Nazis. Among them were Peter Yorck von Wartenburg, Eugen Gerstenmaier, and Helmuth James von Moltke.
What Were the Preparations for Operation Valkyrie?
Operation Valkyrie Telex declaring Hitler’s death. Image: German Bundesarchiv.
People generally agree that there were two major phases to the failed putsch on July 20, 1944. The first was the assassination of Adolf Hitler; the second was the seizure of power and the establishment of a new regime. It was in the summer of 1943 that General von Tresckow and Count von Stauffenberg agreed to resurrect an emergency plan from 1940 called Operation Valkyrie. The idea was to employ General Fromm’s reserve force to seize control of the key cities.
With his promotion to Chief of Staff on July 1, 1944, Claus von Stauffenberg gained access to Hitler and his inner circle. Attending meetings in the Führer’s primary residences of Berghof and Wolfsschanze on July 6, 11, and 15. Three times he had explosives with him but chose not to detonate them, mostly because Himmler was not around. Before Hitler was killed, the conspirators hatched a plan for a transitional administration to take power when the Nazis were toppled. Key posts were held by Ludwig Beck, the Reich President, and Carl Friedrich Goerdeler, the Chancellor of the Reich. As the coup approached on July 19, General Olbricht sent a warning to the key conspirators.
How Did the Assassination Attempt of July 20, 1944 Unfold?
Adolf Hitler’s pants after the assassination attempt.
Colonel von Stauffenberg and Oberleutnant von Haeften traveled to the Wolfsschanze in Rastenburg, East Prussia, on July 20, 1944. Upon entering the “Wolf’s Lair,” they were informed that their scheduled meeting with Hitler had been moved forward in anticipation of Mussolini’s arrival. When only one of the two explosives intended for the assault could be detonated in time, Stauffenberg gave the other, still unprimed, to Haeften. Once inside, he positioned the bomb beneath the table at the Führer’s feet. On the other hand, an officer pushed the briefcase too far, and it slid under the table and became stuck behind a sturdy leg.
The colonel vanished suddenly, and the bomb went off at 12:42. Four individuals were killed, although nobody was really targeted. Lucky for him, Adolf Hitler escaped with just minor wounds, including scrapes and minor burns. Even after seeing the magnitude of the destruction, Stauffenberg and Haeften left the Wolfsschanze certain that their assault had been successful. At 1:15 p.m., they boarded a plane to Berlin in preparation for the start of Operation Valkyrie, with the assumption that Hitler had already been assassinated.
How Did the Attempted Coup d’état of July 20, 1944 Take Place?
Although several conspirators were holding a meeting in Berlin, the situation was unclear for a while in the afternoon. If the assault had happened, and if Hitler had survived, the details were murky. Friedrich Olbricht went against General Fellgiebel’s recommendation and postponed the measure. In the afternoon, at about 4:30, they were joined by Stauffenberg and Haeften, who confirmed the Führer’s death. At long last, Operation Valkyrie got underway.
The coup plotters seized government buildings and detained SS members from Paris to Prague. Yet again, the operation was a failure since not all cops were given their instructions. The Bendlerblock, where the Wehrmacht was commanded, was the meeting place for the chief conspirators. However, Hitler was informed of the scheme, and word of his survival reached Berlin very soon. In Prague, Vienna, and Paris, supporters of the military putsch halted activities due to widespread chaos. The Bendlerblock was encircled by Führer forces at about 11 p.m. There had been no success in the coup.
What Were the Results of Operation Valkyrie?
After finding that Hitler was still alive, General Fromm, who was in charge of the reserve army, turned against the conspirators. Just before midnight, he ordered his soldiers inside the Bendlerblock and arrested everyone there. He had his erstwhile associates, including Olbricht, Haeften, Stauffenberg, and Beck, killed quickly to keep them from betraying him. The Führer made a radio address the following day, promising the total destruction of the traitors. Due to the defeat of Operation Valkyrie, the German resistance was put through brutal repression.
Heinrich Himmler, leader of the SS and Gestapo, orchestrated this. Nearly 5,000 alleged regime opponents were imprisoned, tortured, and prosecuted by the Nazis in the weeks that followed. Following their trials, several of them were executed by hanging in Reich prisons. Most of the conspirators were given death sentences and put to death by Judge Roland Freisler. A few of them, like Henning von Tresckow and Günther von Kluge, took their own lives instead. Their families were sent to extermination camps, where most of the conspirators perished. It was the height of Nazi horror.
What Were the Reactions to Operation Valkyrie?
The failure of Operation Valkyrie further strengthened Adolf Hitler’s standing in the eyes of the people, and the conspirators’ goal of bringing down the Third Reich only made it more authoritarian. Fearful of the impending arrival of the Red Army, the population and the military united behind their Führer. The Wehrmacht was subjugated, and the traditional military salute was substituted with the Nazi salute. Support for Hitler became strong in Germany as political indoctrination and Nazi propaganda reached unprecedented heights.
Nonetheless, the action was seen from afar by the Allies and Russia. Ten years later, in 1952, at the conclusion of the Remer trial, those responsible for the attempt on Hitler were hailed as heroes. Angela Merkel paid tribute to them and opened a permanent exhibit at the German Resistance Memorial on June 28th, 2014. Their deaths had shown the world that German officers opposed the Nazis.
References
Burleigh, M. (2012). The Third Reich: A New History. London: Pan Macmillan. ISBN 9780330475501.
Page, Helena (1993). General Friedrich Olbricht: Ein Mann des 20. Julis. Bonn: Bouvier Verlag. ISBN 3-416-02514-8.
Jones, Nigel (2008). Countdown to Valkyrie: The July Plot to Assassinate Hitler. Frontline. ISBN 978-1-84832-508-1.
Rüthers, Bernd (2005). Spiegelbild einer Verschwörung – Zwei Abschiedsbriefe zum 20 July 1944. Juristenzeitung 14. pp. 689–698.
Fest, J. (1997). Plotting Hitler’s Death: The Story of German Resistance. New York: Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 9780805056488.
December 9, 2022
Struwwelpeter: A Popular Children’s Book With Dark Tales
Struwwelpeter is one of the most popular children’s books ever written. And this original Christmas gift has spawned many humorous imitations. In Frankfurt in 1844, Dr. Heinrich Hoffmann was searching for a Christmas gift for his son Carl. Children at that age cannot yet read, hence a picture book was chosen.
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After searching the city’s bookshops, Hoffmann (1809–1894) was left with only long novels or comical picture collections, realistic illustrations, and plain morals, as he later reflected.
After another futile hunt, Hoffmann eventually went home, this time with an empty notepad. He started doodling and making up rhymes, eventually coming up with the basic concept for “Struwwelpeter.”
“Struwwelpeter” is sometimes referred to as “shock literature” because of its vivid and at times, gruesome consequences for the misbehaving children. It aimed to shock children into good behavior through these cautionary tales.
Laugh-Out-Loud Anecdotes and Cartoons
Nikolas, just before he drowns three little boys in his inkwell, 1917.
Formerly known as “Funny Stories and Droll Pictures,” this term is now used as the book’s subtitle. Despite mounting pressure from a variety of quarters, Hoffmann remained unconvinced that he should make the booklet accessible to the public. But his family worried that his small son might eventually rip up the pamphlet anyway. Hoffmann was a member of a group called Tutti Frutti that gathered weekly to hear inspiring speeches and/or musical creations, and they were also pushing for Hoffmann’s work to be published.
In the middle of January 1845, only a few weeks after Hoffmann had delivered the gift to his son, the Tutti Frutti (Italian for “all the fruits”) got together again. Zwiebel, as Hoffmann was known in this community, read his writing, and the fruits were thrilled.
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One of them, known by a pen name, Spargel (“Asparagus”), had just co-founded a publishing enterprise with a business partner. He proposed 80 guilders to Hoffmann for the text. Hoffmann concurred. This deal had transformed him into a literary celebrity among teenagers practically overnight.
Struwwelpeter Ruled the Globe
The first print run of 1500 copies was quickly depleted. Depending on the source, the edition sold out anywhere from one to two months after its release. In short order, the original six were joined by others, such as the tales of Paulinchen, who plays with matches, The Story of Fidgety Philip, and The Story of Flying Robert. Internationally, the piece was likewise met with great acclaim.
The American adaptation, named “Slovenly Peter,” was penned by none other than the great humorist Mark Twain.
What Made Struwwelpeter So Popular?
Slovenly Peter by Mark Twain.
But what made this book such a hit with readers? The two most important explanations have to do with technology and cultural shifts, respectively. By the middle of the 19th century, industrialization had made it feasible to duplicate books at much lower costs. Lithography made it possible to print books without the once-expensive practice of hand-coloring their illustrations.
As a result of societal changes that started at the tail end of the 18th century, middle-class women also had greater time for what we now term “leisure” activities. Furthermore, a larger percentage of adults started to see childhood as a distinct phase of development. This resulted in the publishing industry taking notice of mothers and their children as a new target demographic. This marked the official introduction of children’s books to the mainstream reading public.
There was a newfound focus on writing and publishing children’s literature. Why, however, did “Struwwelpeter” stand out and become so well-liked? The tales in “Struwwelpeter” presumably struck a chord with readers because they reflected common observations about children at the time and today, such as the refusal of certain children to sit still or eat what is put in front of them or the harassment and intimidation of others, like in the case of The Story of the Inky Boys.
Both the original “Struwwelpeter” and its updated “Struwwelpaula” were featured in a Berlin exhibition back in 1994. Struwwelpaula is an example of a punk character.
However, it’s not just that. Even though they were intended for youngsters, Hoffmann’s illustrations and narrative were designed mainly for adults. The tales’ potential educational value is now a matter of debate. Since the original publication, a sizable body of literature has amassed, and with it, a wide range of opinions and valuations.
The underlying depravity, melancholy, and suffering, according to some, make the work unsuitable for young readers. However, there is another group of people that highlight the chaos, ostentation, and fun that result from Struwwelpeter. Thus, it is not surprising that Struwwelpeter has been the subject of not just countless translations since its inception, but also innumerable parodies and fresh interpretations.
An “Egyptian Struwwelpeter” was in use by the late 19th century. Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach (1830–1916) had an unauthorized print of the book, which was originally written by the three Viennese siblings. Truwwelpeter’s many incarnations are a mirror of society’s shifting mores. For instance, the “Struwwelliese” was written in the 1950s, and the “Struwwelpaula” in the 1990s; in both, a young girl dresses as a punk and travels the nation spraying subway cars with graffiti.
The Political Versions of Struwwelpeter
Struwwelhitler.
Most notably, there was a flood of political parodies. In 1848, the year of the French revolution, there was, for instance, the proper Struwwelpeter in the role of a revolutionary. The “New Reichstag Struwwelpeter” appeared in print in 1903. The Soup Kaspar’s lines, “Don’t let them in. We don’t need a soci, no!” are meant to represent the concerns of the Social Democratic Party’s seasoned political guard after the party’s electoral victory.
The English brothers Robert and Philip Spence published “Struwwelhitler” under the pen name “Dr.
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Schrecklichkeit” in 1941, and in 1914 they released “Swollen-Headed William” to mock the German Kaiser Wilhelm II for propaganda reasons. In this book, two writers lampoon Adolf Hitler, Hermann Goring, Joseph Goebbels, and Benito Mussolini.
Before British troops were sent to the mainland, they were handed this book, which had been quickly and inexpensively printed.
The Continued Relevance of Struwwelpeter
The Struwwelpeter Museum.
Even though “Struwwelpeter” has taken a lot of heat over the years for making some dubious moral claims, many people still know and enjoy the tales. A new edition was released, and an exhibition was presented at the Museum of Cultural History in Germany in 2022.
Additionally, the Struwwelpeter Museum in Hoffmann’s birthplace of Frankfurt remains a popular destination among visitors. According to a study report written in 2020 by a philologist at the University of Krakow, Struwwelpeter’s continued relevance may be attributed to the work’s ambivalence and ambiguity.
December 9, 2022
Battle of Jutland: The greatest naval battle of World War I
December 8, 2022
Invention of the Tire: History and Development
About 3500 BC., the wheel was created. Stone wheels were used in the oldest forms of transportation. It eventually took the shape of a curved plank of wood. Leather was then installed to soften the ride. Rubber gradually replaced the leather. Before the pneumatic tires, the first rubber tires were solid pieces of rubber without air within them. It was around 1830 when Frenchman Charles Dietz first covered the wheels of some vehicles with a rubber band, placing it between the wheel and the metal rim, therefore inventing the tire. Scottish inventor Robert William Thomson filed the first patent for a pneumatic tire in 1847.
The first pneumatic tire
The first pneumatic tire was invented by Robert William Thomson, whose aerial wheel was shown in a patent drawing published by the United States Patent and Trademark Office.
The first pneumatic tire in history first appeared on horse-drawn carriages and then on early vehicles. R. W. Thomson, a Scottish engineer, received a patent in 1845 for the first pneumatic tire, which used compressed air to sustain the weight of the vehicle. He called it aerial wheel.
He installed his tire onto a number of different horse-drawn carriages, making travel much more pleasant and quieter for its passengers. Despite traveling over 1,200 miles, one pair showed no signs of wear and tear.
It was the first patent filled for a tire and it was the first air-filled tire in history. However, nobody paid any attention to the innovation, and it eventually died out.
In the 1880s, the road in front of the home of John Boyd Dunlop (1840-1921), a Scottish veterinarian working in Ireland, was a little rough. So, he put rubberized tubes on the wheels of his son’s tricycle and fiddled with the wheels. Then, in 1887, he created a woven cotton fabric-encased inner tube that he bonded to a wooden wheel rim.
In 1888, John Boyd Dunlop produced one the first pneumatic tires. The tire consisted of a casing around an air chamber filled using a pump, in order to reduce the vibrations conveyed by the wheels of his son’s tricycle. Over the years, similar tires emerged, and eventually, a piano string was encased in a tubular tire.
Dunlop envisioned a thin rubber membrane packed with pressurized air as an alternative to the traditional solid bicycle tires.
The first practical tires
John Dunlop riding his bicycle with pneumatic tires.
With the help of Englishman James Moore, who won the inaugural bicycle race in the park of Saint-Cloud, Dunlop perfected his creation. Using the rubber vulcanization technique created by American chemist Charles Goodyear in 1842, Dunlop received a patent for his invention in 1888 and went on to start a factory dedicated to making tires for bicycles. It was the first tire factory in history.
Rubber vulcanization stabilized the rubber, allowing it to better endure temperature changes, making tires practical for the first time.
The first car with tires
André Michelin’s L’Eclair, the first car with tires in 1895.
In 1888, Benz built the first gasoline-powered automobile, complete with air-filled rubber tires mounted on metal rims. But it wasn’t until 1895 that André Michelin came up with the notion to put them on automobiles. The Frenchman built one of the first automobiles to run on tires, which he dubbed “L’Eclair.” (“Lightning”) Michelin’s “L’Eclair” is the world’s first automobile with actual tires.
It was the earliest car to use pneumatic tires and compete in a motor race. This was made feasible by the invention of the removable tire in that year, which allowed for puncture repairs thanks to its inner tubes. This product had quick popularity due to the rise of cars and motorcycles.
In 1895, the ‘Eclair’ car raced from Paris to Bordeaux and back on Michelin tires for a total of 745 miles (1200 kilometers).
The Michelin brothers, Andre and Edouard, unmistakably connected their surname with the use of tires on bicycles and cars. Tires for bicycles, carriages, and planes were all created by the Michelin brothers. In 1905, the first tire with treads was produced.
The first radial tire
Michelin X, radial tire, 1946.
Patented first in 1914 by G.H. Hamilton and T. Sloper in London, the original concepts for radial tires never made it to market. Later, the radial tire was first mass-produced by the Michelin company. Michelin engineer Marius Mignol created the company’s first automobile radial tire, the Michelin X, in 1946.
And as far as bicycles go, John Boyd Dunlop’s innovation was a huge hit. But the main problem was that punctures were quite hard to fix. With the invention of the radial tire in 1946, Michelin cemented its position as a market leader.
The radial tire was far more durable than previous models because it superimposed many layers of rubber. Then Michelin developed a puncture-resistant tire, cementing the company’s position as the industry standard in the history and development of tires.
Later developments in tires
Texas and Pacific Silver Slipper in 1933, Budd factory. The train was gasoline-powered.
The first rail tire was created in 1929 to equip the Micheline.
Michelin created the first studded tire for use on snowy or icy roads in 1933.
The first radial ply tire, which represented another revolution, was patented by Michelin on June 4, 1946. The Citroen Traction Avant was the first automobile to have it. Edward Brice Killen created the tubeless tire in 1930 which Michelin used it for the first time in 1955.
Tires are becoming more advanced nowadays, with features like siped tires for increased traction in the snow or fuel-efficient tires.
December 8, 2022
Where did Troy’s Priam’s Treasure originate from?
There has been a mystery about the origin of the gold for “Priam’s Treasure” for almost 150 years. The first signs have appeared. Scientific tests have shown that the gold jewelry unearthed in Bronze Age Troy is chemically identical to the gold found in the royal tombs of Ur, in Mesopotamia. More than four thousand years ago, this points to extensive trading and transportation of the valuable metal.
While digging in what he believed to be ancient Troy in 1873, archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann discovered more than just city ruins. He also uncovered “Priam’s Treasure,” a trove of gold jewelry, silver cups, and bronze daggers, in one of the archaeological strata. To add to the rarity of the discovery, recent research has shown that the artifact in question does not originate from antiquity but rather the early Bronze Age, some four thousand years ago.
An ancient gold puzzle from the Bronze Age
Poliochne gold jewelry from Lemnos, dating back to the Bronze Age. It’s unknown where this gold came from. (Credit: OEAI Vienna/Christoph Schwall)
Researchers say that such large hoards of costly goods are unprecedented in the Aegean and western Anatolia, making the discovery of such an abundance of high-quality gold pieces all the more surprising. It was not only in this one city of the Early Bronze Age that gold and other valuables began to be hoarded; this trend seems to have spread to other urban centers at the same time.
It has been a mystery up until this point where these priceless items originated from, who their owners were, whether or not the jewelry was made locally, and most importantly, where the gold came from.
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Even Priam’s Treasure, a legendary hoard, is not exempt from this trend. Archaeology and archaeometry have been puzzling about the source of this gold since Schliemann’s day.
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Initial samples with a mobile laser
This is because taking the discoveries to the lab and taking samples there would be essential to correctly assessing the gold in these riches. This is due to the fact that, in addition to gold, other metals, including silver, copper, tin, palladium, and platinum, are always present in antique jewelry. According to the researchers, t heir relative abundance in an alloy may provide light on a precious metal’s origin and processing history. Necklaces, pendants, earrings, and other jewelry from Troy are so valuable that they cannot be damaged in transit to or during examination in a lab.
Now, thanks to the work of Moritz Numrich and his team, this issue can be remedied using portable laser ablation equipment, which burns a hole in the pieces right there in the museum without anybody noticing it. Mass spectrometry was then used to determine the elements present in 61 gold artifacts discovered at Troy and the Bronze Age settlement of Poliochne on the Greek island of Lemnos.
This is the same gold that was in Troy and Ur
In the Bronze Age, there were jewelry hoards and gold mines. (Credit: Map by Ch. Schwall and M. Börner based on work by Numrich)
Shockingly, the gold from Troy (Priam’s Treasure) and Poliochne has the same chemical make-up as artifacts unearthed from the royal tombs of Ur in Mesopotamia, despite the fact that these sites are separated by hundreds of miles of desert. The scientists also discovered that the trace elements in the gold jewelry from the Bronze Age of Georgia were identical to those in the gold from Troy’s Treasure of Priam.
It’s possible that long-distance transit of the precious metal occurred over four thousand years ago. Presumably, these far-flung places maintained commercial ties with one another. This is corroborated by the discovery of Early Bronze Age jewelry with startlingly comparable designs from the Aegean to the Indus Valley in today’s Pakistan, such as earrings with spiral motifs.
Archaeologists argue that the widespread similarity of these pieces of jewelry indicates that not only the precious metal was transported between these far-flung regions during the period, but also the jewelry itself. Jewelers may have moved freely among these Bronze Age countries.
Does Georgia have anything to do with the origin of this gold?
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So, what does this imply about the history of the Trojan gold? Gold from the royal tombs of Ur may have been transported to Mesopotamia from western Anatolia, since this region is not known to have any natural gold reserves. As it turns out, there is a shred of evidence suggesting that gold was first discovered in that area. However, Ur has been shown to have established trading relationships with a wide variety of other areas.
Georgia is included in this. Bronze Age gold from Georgia exhibits the most similarity to gold from Troy’s Treasure of Priam, Poliochne, and Ur in terms of the quantity of trace elements. This idea is, however, still unproven due to a lack of regional data and further inquiry into other things.
The gold from Troy’s Treasure of Priam and Ur, however, very certainly did not come from Bronze Age mines. In contrast, the high levels of tin, palladium, and platinum in the gold jewelry indicate that the precious metal was likely originally gold dust washed from a river. The subject of the river’s precise location, however, remains unanswered.
December 7, 2022