From around 1715 until 1789, Europe saw a cultural upheaval known as the Age of Enlightenment, which is best characterized as a literary and intellectual revolution. The Enlightenment thinkers sought to ensure that all individuals had equal opportunities to pursue truth, liberty, and happiness. They criticized established religion, fought against absolute monarchy, and spoke out against social injustice. Equal rights advocates opposed slavery as well. While Montesquieu focused on the separation of powers, Voltaire took on religious fundamentalism and judicial injustice, while Rousseau emphasized popular sovereignty. Diderot spent twenty years creating a universal Encyclopédie.
What was the historical context of the Enlightenment?
Historically, the Enlightenment began with the death of King Louis XIV in 1715. This way of thinking flourished as a result of a hospitable intellectual atmosphere. The failure of monarchs to develop the State was drawing increasing criticism of the monarchy. The middle class expanded their influence. It aimed at the inequality and privilege enjoyed by the nobility. Additionally, religion was mocked. Also happening in the 18th century were groundbreaking innovations (like the steam engine) and extensive travel. The development of philosophy was influenced by scientific progress and major discoveries. Colonization and trade both prospered as a result. The continent of Europe became more accessible to the rest of the globe.
What was the literary movement of the Enlightenment?
From 1715 through 1789, this literary movement fought against obscurantism (darkness) and for universal access to information (the Enlightenment). It professed tolerance and secular development as its god. The Enlightenment’s thinkers and authors set out to prove, among other things, that happiness—or at least the pursuit of it—ought to be everyone’s top priority. They challenged the people of their day to think for themselves, reject dogma, and cultivate a healthy dose of skepticism. They were also active in the battle against religious bigotry. Just before the French Revolution, these ideas were rehashed in the Cahiers (lists of grievances).
What were the means of diffusion of the ideas of the Enlightenment?
Voltaire
Salons, publications (despite censorship), and a few “enlightened despots” throughout Europe all contributed to spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment’s thinkers. Those who wanted to convey their ideas did not shy away from extensive travel, and this included many philosophers. Both Voltaire and Diderot served Catherine II of Russia; Voltaire with Frederick II in Prussia and Diderot in Russia. In North America, the concepts of the Enlightenment were put to the test with the creation of the Declaration of Independence (1776) and the Constitution of the United States (1787). During the Revolution, these ideas were utilized to draft the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789).
Who were the main philosophers of the Enlightenment?
Isaac Newton (who established the law of universal gravitation), John Locke, and David Hume are just a few of the English thinkers that helped pave the way for the Enlightenment’s literary and intellectual movement. French Enlightenment thinkers who made significant contributions to the cause include:
Montesquieu, an advocate of the doctrine of the separation of powers (executive, legislative and judicial).
Voltaire, who spoke out against injustice in the court system.
The authors of the Encyclopédie, Denis Diderot and Jean Le Rond d’Alembert, set out to democratize knowledge.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in his book The Social Contract, explained the idea of popular sovereignty.
Immanuel Kant and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe both engaged in the Enlightenment movement in Germany.
How did Voltaire participate in the Enlightenment?
François-Marie Arouet, more often known as Voltaire, was a major thinker and writer during the Enlightenment. His goal was to condemn bigotry of all kinds, especially religious extremism, and he spoke out against unfair trials. After the public outcry over the Calas tragedy (a Protestant was unjustly accused of murdering his son), he was inspired to write the Treatise on Tolerance, one of his most influential writings.
He made social critiques of his time and place in the philosophical story Candide. As a result of his publications, Voltaire spent time in the infamous Bastille jail (after an argument with the Chevalier de Rohan, and after having openly criticized the Regent). Most of his works were banned from publication.
How was slavery perceived by the philosophers of the Enlightenment?
One of the primary goals of Enlightenment thinkers was the eventual elimination of slavery. They advocated for an end to injustice and equality for all men. Slavery and the rule of law were two concepts Rousseau deemed to be incompatible with one another in his landmark work, The Social Contract. Voltaire, in his book Candide or Optimism, included a chapter called “The Negro of Surinam,” in which he criticized the treatment of slaves. In his History of the Two Indies – Book XI, Diderot criticized the institution of slavery.
Why did the Enlightenment challenge religion?
All of the conventional wisdom about religion was called into question by the Enlightenment. Religions came under fire from philosophers because they were seen to place more emphasis on faith than reason. Voltaire condemned the intolerance that could result in the killing of individuals who did not practice Catholicism, which was a particular focus of the attacks (Jean Calas murder). Philosophers were generally of the opinion that God exists (Voltaire said that he is the great watchmaker of the universe). However, they adamantly opposed to any religious practices.
TIMELINE OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT
Voltaire was imprisoned on May 16, 1717
After publishing satirical descriptions of the Regent and his daughter, the Duchess of Berry, Philippe d’Orléans had the youthful François-Marie Arouet, then 23 years old, locked up in the Bastille on his orders. After eleven months, he was still locked up. In jail, he adopted the pen name Voltaire and started work on his masterpiece, Oedipus.
October 1747: The “Encyclopédie” project is launched
Diderot’s ambition to compile all of humanity’s knowledge led to the publication of the first encyclopedia. Diderot and d’Alembert, the project’s directors, gathered several writers, including Montesquieu, Buffon, and Voltaire, to work on the encyclopedia together.
It took 20 years from 1751, when the first two volumes were published, until 1851, when the last volume of the Encyclopédie was released. Because Diderot intended to make education accessible to everyone, including the illiterate, he included several drawings throughout the book.
1748: Montesquieu publishes “The Spirit of Laws”
The Spirit of Laws (De l’esprit des loix), 1st edn. 1748.
A discussion of the separation of powers and other topics important to political philosophy were presented in this work (monarchy, despotism, democracy). This is why Montesquieu was so against absolute monarchy and advocated for the separation of powers seen in the English system. The Spirit of the Laws was published in Geneva without the author’s identity, perhaps to circumvent censorship. There are a total of 31 books.
July 24, 1749: Diderot is imprisoned in Vincennes
Diderot wrote “Letter on the Blind for the use of those who can see” (“Lettre sur les aveugles à l’usage de ceux qui voient”) in 1749, in which he argued that each person’s view of the world is unique due to their individual sensitivity. Because of his atheistic outlook, he ended up spending three months in a cell in Vincennes. Jean-Jacques Rousseau paid him a number of visits.
February 7, 1752: The Encyclopédie is censored
First two volumes of Diderot’s Encyclopédie appeared in print in 1752. The King’s Council, however, found fault with them because they encouraged rebellion and independence and included sections that sought to undermine royal authority.
The first two volumes were consequently deemed unsuitable for public consumption by the Council of State. Malesherbes (who oversaw the censorship) was instrumental in allowing publishing to restart in 1753.
March 1755: Publication of the “Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men”
Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s vision of humanity and his thoughts on its potential for improvement were the subject of this article. He went on to blame the idea of private property for all forms of inequality and injustice. When this speech was published, Rousseau was religiously condemned by the Catholic Church for denying the reality of original sin.
September 3, 1759 – Pope Clement XIII condemns Diderot’s Encyclopédie
Unfortunately, the church did not approve of the first two volumes of the Encyclopédie before they were released. They both challenged the veracity of certain religious miracles and competed with the Dictionnaire de Trévoux, which the Jesuits were printing at the same time. The encyclopedists, encouraged by Malesherbes, proceeded to issue volumes until the seventh was issued, at which point Pope Clement XIII ordered the destruction of the whole work.
1761-Rousseau tries to publish his “Social Contract”
Rousseau’s life was marked by a raging dispute that began with the publication of the Social Contract in the same year as Emile or, On Education. The philosopher, in fact, adopted a free and equitable approach to the idea of popular sovereignty. Officials in Geneva demanded that copies of the Social Contract be destroyed in 1762.
1762: First draft of “Rameau’s Nephew”
In the Rameau’s Nephew, Diderot’s philosophical debate “Moi” and “Lui,” the nephew of musician Rameau, were the protagonists. Two main characters discussed atheism, materialism, and the similarities and contrasts between humans and other animals, among other topics. In this tale, Diderot explored morality from several angles, including those of education, music, and society.
August 1769: Diderot writes “D’Alembert’s Dream”
There were three conversations in this intellectual work, “le Rêve de d’Alembert”. The first, “Entretien entre D’Alembert et Diderot,” was where the writer laid out his materialist beliefs for everyone to see. “D’Alembert’s Dream,” the sequel, was where Diderot fully articulated his philosophy about the nature of dreaming, reality, myth, and illusion. In the third, titled “Suite de l’entretien entre D’Alembert et Diderot,” the authors discussed ethical dilemmas. It wasn’t until 1830, after the author’s death, that the book saw print.
1772 – Publication of the “Supplément au voyage de Bougainville” (Addendum to the Journey of Bougainville)
Denis Diderot’s philosophic novel was a sequel to “Voyage autour du monde” from the previous year. The two protagonists, A and B, have an open debate regarding various parts of the journey. There was a focus on the contrast between the liberalism of Tahitian values and the stultifying norms of the Enlightenment.
August 25, 1776-Death of David Hume, Scottish philosopher
David Hume was born in 1711 and died on August 25, 1776; he was a Scottish philosopher, economist, and historian. He was one of the leading intellectuals of the so-called “Scottish Enlightenment.” He was an early advocate of using scientific experimentation to better understand and cure mental disorders, and is generally regarded as one of the most skeptical thinkers in history. He had a key influence on Kant, analytical philosophy, and phenomenology, in contrast to Descartes.
May 30, 1778-Death of Voltaire, French writer and philosopher
Voltaire, or François Marie Arouet, was a French philosopher and author who lived from 1694 until his death on May 30, 1778. He was a prominent member of the philosophical party, which advocated for a more enlightened and tolerant form of monarchy and served as a symbol of the Enlightenment. Throughout his life, he sought the favor of many kings, only to find himself alternatively imprisoned in the Bastille and exiled to England due to his shifting ties with these rulers. His massive body of work includes such classics as “Zadig,” “Candide,” and “Treatise on Tolerance.”
July 2, 1778 – Death of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, French writer and philosopher
Some of the most important Enlightenment ideas came from Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who was born in 1712 and died on July 2, 1778. He wrote extensively on human nature, social organization, and educational theory, and his ideas had a significant impact on the French revolutionaries. The author of canonical works including “Discourse on Inequality,” “Julie or the New Heloise,” and “On the Social Contract,” and in 1794, his remains were moved to the Pantheon by the revolutionaries.
Food safety rules are usually called into question in the wake of health problems in the meat sector, such as mad cow disease, hand-foot-and-mouth disease, and avian flu. Nonetheless, this kind of inquiry is not novel. In fact, the West has been monitoring and regulating food, particularly meat, since the Middle Ages due to concerns about the presence of unhealthy and corrupt meat. Media coverage of meat crises sometimes draws parallels to the “medieval” era, but what about the real hygiene standards of the actual Middle Ages?
Laws to Regulate Butchery in the Middle Ages
Avoiding the potential dangers associated with consuming meat was a top priority for the ruling classes of the medieval western world. But even though these threats were often misdiagnosed or not taken seriously in other ways, they caused a lot of worry and anxiety.
A medieval baker punished for breaking the rules.
A complex and fruitful legal system was the end result of this. Lords, municipalities, and even the monarch himself, on rare occasions, issued decrees to maintain public peace and safety. Rather than being only suggestions, they were actual “laws” that had to be discussed (sometimes bitterly) and came with enforcement mechanisms like checks and balances and penalties for breaking them.
Most medieval texts on meat distribution were written between 1200 and 1500 AD.
The Charter of Mirepoix, enacted in 1303 AD, is a prime example of the kind of meat regulation that was common in the Middle Ages. The fact that it was signed in front of the city lord, notaries, law professors, city officials, and all the butchers of the city shows that King Philip IV of France knew about the legal, economic, and political issues surrounding food.
This charter was not even exceptional. Most medieval texts on meat distribution were written between 1200 and 1500 AD. In the urban centers of southern France and Italy, it was mostly the work of municipal leaders to standardize the sale of meat. Legal matters were taken up by medieval guilds in the northern hemisphere, such as the Parisian butcher’s shop, whose bylaws were enforced upon all butchers in the city.
From the 13th century forward, medieval European society placed a greater emphasis on food law, which was formed in a disjointed and ad hoc fashion by a variety of means, including conventions, ordinances, capitulations, charters, laws, etc. Sometimes, the enforcement of this legislation was harsh.
Animal Products That Were Forbidden
While Christians have not been bound by the dietary taboos that Jews and Muslims observe, there are still times when it’s best to steer clear of animal products for the sake of public health. People in the Middle Ages often consulted Greek and Roman historians like Hippocrates and Galen to help them figure this out.
In the Middle Ages, animals were the target of two legal restrictions. The first involved goats, which had more to do with making dairy products than anything else. Goat meat was devalued in the cities because, according to Hippocrates, it was thought to spread illnesses like fever and cholera. Despite health concerns, the selling of kids (baby goats) was sometimes allowed. And this was justified by the prevailing desire for its flavor.
Horse meat was the second kind of meat that was never allowed in the Middle Ages. The Church viewed its consumption as a primitive and paganic act, but the common man saw the animal as a work buddy helping to plow the fields or even as a confidant. Therefore, the practice of eating horse meat gained a bad reputation during the era.
So, butchers could sell sheep, cattle, and pork meat from their shops as long as the meat was “excellent, useful, and not sick,” according to Middle Ages meat consumption charters.
Since medical advancement was so slow during this period, any and all prohibitions could be instituted at the first sign of a disease. Disease transmission from animals to humans was a major issue for medieval man when it came to the safety of food sources. People went to great lengths to prevent illnesses like leprosy (from Leptospira bacteria).
Medieval Practices for Slaughter and Sales
The slaughtering of animals was subject to some of the most stringent hygienic regulations in the Middle Ages with regard to meat. Among the various regulations, one that stands out is the requirement that animals enter the city on foot and go through sanitary control before being butchered.
As early as 1450, butchers in the Italian city of Verona were compelled to kill animals in their shops, albeit they were typically not permitted to do so in their homes and had to instead utilize public slaughterhouses. The administration further worked on improving the regulation by creating a physical barrier between the slaughterhouse and the market. The animals had to get to these places on their own, which gave the buyer confidence that they were in good health.
Each animal was charged as it entered the city, with the tax system providing additional financial support for sanitary regulations. The animals were then given a thorough internal and external checkup to make sure they were healthy before being put to death. After that, butchers could still slaughter animals and sell them, but they had to follow more rules.
The sale of any perishable item required special attention, and the meat was no exception. Due to the impossibility of storing goods and the rigidity of sales windows, butchers operated on a just-in-time, demand-driven model. These deadlines were often two or three days, or at the very latest, a day and a half, after the animal was slaughtered.
Butchers were allowed to store freshly slaughtered meat for two days in the winter and one and a half days in the summer. Moreover, beef was not the only product that was subject to tight standards at the moment of sale; bread, milk, fish, and shellfish were all subject to similar rules. It was against the law for pork butchers and sausage makers to sell cooked meat. This was done to stop the sale of leftovers and the spread of disease.
After Everything Is Said and Done
So, is it fair to compare any contemporary meat scandals to the butchery standards of the Middle Ages? The laws regarding the sale and consumption of meat in the Middle Ages were impressive, but there could be a significant discrepancy between theory and practice, leaving historians to wonder whether these standards were ever really respected by the medieval butchers. But the reality is that maintaining hygienic standards seems to have been a priority for medieval civilization, a concern that echoes the persistent fiction of a meat-related phobia in contemporary culture.
The Peace of Westphalia (Treaties of Westphalia) are a set of three foundational documents that signal the conclusion of the Thirty Years’ War and the Eighty Years’ War, respectively, between European nations. On January 30, 1648, the first of many agreements was signed. The Treaties of Osnabrück and the Second Treaty of Münster, signed on October 24, 1648, marked the conclusion of the talks. The diplomatic ties between nations were altered as a result of this historical event. Major shifts in territorial control also occurred.
What events led to the Peace of Westphalia?
As part of the Thirty Years’ War, Protestant German nations opposed the Holy Roman Empire and its allies. Between four and seven million people perished, while another 130,000-160,000 went missing.
During the Eighty Years’ War, the Spanish Monarchy and the independent United Provinces of the Netherlands were at war with one another.
The root reasons of both wars were complex, including religion, politics, and territory. These conflicts encompassed almost every major European state and monarchy. France, Austria, Hungary, and even Norway were especially crucial examples. Before the Treaties of Westphalia, Europe was dominated by two powerful states: the French and Swedish monarchies. After the treaties were ratified, the two later groups benefited the most. It was mostly because of political and religious repercussions that caused this.
How were the Peace Treaties of Westphalia negotiated and drafted?
Münster, Germany was the site of the first talks. They happened toward the end of 1644. They moved to Osnabrück, Germany the next year. A number of problems emerged throughout these efforts at reconciliation, and not only because of religious differences. Separatism of certain regions, such as the Netherlands’ United Provinces, was one of them.
In addition to political interests and geographical sovereignty, there were additional obstacles that prevented a universal signing. Most of Europe’s countries were represented, excluding Russia, the Ottoman Empire, and England. The Treaties of Westphalia formalized the first large-scale union of European nations and established the foundation for the mutual respect that has since characterized international relations in the region. Furthermore, Western Christian ideals were cast aside in favor of state supremacy.
Which articles did the Peace of Westphalia contain?
The Peace of Westphalia consisted of three texts:
The Treaty of Münster, which was signed on January 30, 1648, ended the war between the United Provinces and the Spanish Empire. This country recognized the United Provinces’ independence and kept some of the Spanish Netherlands’ land. A high international court of justice was also called for in the text. In 1675, it was broken up. The treaty also tried to speed up decision-making, which was needed to keep fines from being put in place.
As for the second document of the Treaty of Münster, it was signed on October 1648. It served as a reminder of the peace treaty between the French monarchy and the Holy Roman Empire. The latter gave up the province of the Three Bishoprics as well as the regions of Alsace and several fortresses in Lorraine like Moyenvic. The German princes maintained their lands and continued to be subject to the legislation of the Holy Roman Empire, notwithstanding Alsace’s allegiance.
The Treaty of Osnabrück was confirmed between the Holy Roman Empire and the Kingdom of Sweden on 24 October 1648, four months after it was first signed on 4 September 1648. It was the final paragraph of the Treaties of Westphalia and puts a definitive end to the Thirty Years’ War.
Peace of Westphalia established what norms for international relations?
The Peace of Westphalia laid the groundwork for the contemporary political structure of Europe. It was the first time when the leading politicians and nations of Europe came together. Decentralization was the implication.
As a result, leaders or their agents were given more leeway in making decisions and carrying out administrative duties. By signing the eponymous treaties, each state was able to gain the legitimacy and acceptance of its peers, a necessary step in establishing a “Westphalian” system. The discussion of religion was shelved in order to make room for equal rights. The old order, which had made Christianity in the West a unifying symbol, was not on the forefront anymore.
The Treaties of Westphalia represented a major shift for nations and kingdoms in international relations. Norms were established to guarantee neutral discussions, uninfluenced by any dominant political or religious system, such as a monarchy or the Christian faith. There was less wiggle space for the monarchs, and the idea of the people began to gain traction.
How did the Holy Roman Empire restructure in the German case?
Because to the Treaties of Westphalia, the Holy Roman Empire had to be restructured from the ground up. After that, it was split up into 350 individual German states, which boosted the authority of the regional leaders (the princes) and weakened the Habsburg dynasty. “Territorial supremacy” describes this situation well. It extended to theological, temporal, and civil affairs. The Imperial Diet (governmental body) was tasked with resolving any and all potential disputes and alliances, as well as handling any other matters of state. It is important to understand that the imperial cities were also subject to this arrangement.
What effects did the Peace of Westphalia have on religion?
The Lutheran, Calvinist, and Catholic faiths were all acknowledged as legitimate by the Peace of Westphalia. Protestants, like everyone else, were guaranteed the right to worship freely. More so, Lutherans were given the same rights as Calvinists. There were at least 24 Protestants in the Imperial Chamber of fifty, and ecclesiastical authority was abolished. That is to say, the Treaties of Westphalia made it illegal to meddle with people’s religious practices. This was a historic first for international relations in general. No nation’s religious affiliation was held against it as a whole.
HIGHLIGHTS OF PEACE OF WESTPHALIA
August 20, 1648 – Last battle of the Thirty Years’ War
Archduke Leopold-Guillaume of Habsburg had taken the town of Lens three days before to the conflict. The Thirty Years’ War ended with this last combat. On August 20, 1648, it opposed the kingdom of France against the Spanish Monarchy. More than 4,500 people were killed or injured in the conflict. There were almost 5,000 Spanish prisoners of war taken by the victorious Kingdom of France.
January 30, 1648: The independence of the United Provinces is recognized in the Treaty of Münster
The peace of Münster, the first of the Westphalian treaties to be signed, formalized the Spanish monarchy’s recognition of the independence of the United Provinces of the Netherlands. The Thirty Years’ War between the two sides ended as a result of this. This new nation was now politically autonomous on the European scale, apart from the Spanish Netherlands.
Treaties of Westphalia were released to the public on October 24, 1648
On October 24, 1648, the Treaties of Westphalia were published after the signing of the second Treaty of Münster and the Treaty of Osnabrück. They declared a shift in European geopolitics and the establishment of more egalitarian international relations that put religion to one side. The agreements also limited the desires of nations and monarchies to expand their territories.
The Thirty Years’ War corresponds to a series of religious and political conflicts that unfolded in Europe from May 23, 1618, to October 24, 1648. It witnessed the clash of two factions: the Catholic Habsburgs of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, and the Protestant princes of the German states within the Holy Roman Empire. Most European nations participated in this war, resulting in significant human casualties, estimated at between 4 and 7 million deaths.
The Peace of Westphalia, signed in October 1648, marks the conclusion of the Thirty Years’ War. Germany officially divided its religious and political powers, with France emerging as a dominant force in European relations, while Spain underwent a perilous decline.
Why Did the Thirty Years’ War Take Place?
Martin Luther in 1528 by Lucas Cranach the Elder.
The Protestant Reformation has its origins in the “95 Theses,” drafted by Martin Luther in 1517. Protestantism then spread to Prussia and the Northern countries; Germanic princes converted. In 1555, the signing of the Peace of Augsburg confirmed that two religions could coexist in Germany: Lutherans and Catholics.
The Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, considered his failure to protect Catholicism and withdrew from political life in 1556. His brother, Ferdinand I, inherited the Empire, and his son inherited the Kingdom of Spain. For years, the ideas of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation spread across Europe.
However, on May 23, 1618, Bohemian Protestants revolted against their new Catholic king. The recently elected king has decided to Catholicize his kingdom, leading to a dispute where representatives of the Catholic empire are thrown out of windows. This event, known as the Defenestration of Prague, marks the beginning of the Thirty Years’ War.
In 1619, Emperor Matthias I died, and his cousin, Ferdinand II, who was also the King of Bohemia, was elected to lead the Holy Roman Empire. Dissatisfied, the Bohemians elect a new king, and the Elector Palatine, Frederick V. Ferdinand II, intervenes to crush the rebellion.
Who Fought in the Thirty Years’ War?
Battle of White Mountain. Artist: Peter Snayers (1592–1667)
The religious conflict of the Thirty Years’ War began in Germany, stemming from the Bohemian uprising. The Protestant princes of the Evangelical Union (including the Elector Palatine, the Duke of Neuburg, and the Duke of Wurttemberg, among others) rose against the Catholic Holy League (including the Emperor, the Kingdom of Spain, Saxony, Poland, Bavaria, etc.). The Bohemian army was crushed in the Battle of White Mountain on November 8, 1620.
In late 1624, the King of Denmark supported the Protestants, but his army faced defeat, leading to the signing of the Peace of Lübeck in 1629. In the same year, the King of Sweden intervened in solidarity with the Lutherans, but he died in 1632 during the Battle of Lützen.
Emperor Ferdinand II secured the Peace of Prague on May 30, 1635, returning to the status quo of the Peace of Augsburg. Louis XIII‘s France, surrounded by the Habsburgs, saw advantages in weakening the empire. France entered the war in 1635 alongside Sweden, after covert involvement for years.
The Spanish were defeated by Grand Condé in the Battle of Rocroi on May 19, 1643. The war persisted until 1648, concluding with the Battle of Lens, a French victory against the Habsburgs of the Netherlands.
Alsace and Lorraine During the Thirty Years’ War
Alsace and Lorraine were among the regions most severely affected by the Thirty Years’ War. They were devastated by the passage of several armies, including Swedish, Spanish, and French troops.
Confusion is fueled by residents turning to banditry to escape poverty. Different nations employ mercenaries, which are sometimes challenging to control. The price of wheat reaches unprecedented heights, forcing residents to subsist on roots and herbs. Twenty years of famine, epidemics, and exodus have led to a decrease of half or even three-quarters of the population in these regions.
Did Massacres Take Place During the Thirty Years’ War?
The Thirty Years’ War resulted in between 4 and 7 million casualties, comprising both military personnel and civilians. Various armies engaged in atrocities, such as massacres, rapes, and tortures, often driven by a desire for revenge. An illustrative incident is the sack of Magdeburg in 1631, where Catholic League troops brutally killed 25,000 out of the city’s 30,000 inhabitants.
In 1635, the women of a village sought refuge atop a mountain, subsequently choosing suicide upon the approach of Swedish forces, leading to the naming of the mountain in the Vosges as the “Planche des Belles Filles.” Mercenaries, when faced with negligible or non-existent pay, resorted to self-remuneration through the perpetration of similar atrocities.
Aftermath of Thirty Years’ War
Peace of Münster (Gerard ter Borch, Münster, 1648).
After the treaties of Westphalia, signed on October 24, 1648, Germany was the most affected country, and some of its provinces (Saxony, Palatinate, Alsace, Lorraine) lost up to half of their population. It was not less than one in five inhabitants that disappeared in this war-torn Central Europe. Sweden, France, and Spain also struggled economically to recover, even though France gained new territories (Metz, Toul, Verdun, part of Alsace, Belfort, Artois, and Roussillon) and became a hegemonic power.
Meanwhile, Sweden solidified its power in the Baltic and acquired several territories. Denmark lost its status as a major power. The Holy Roman Empire was divided into numerous small independent states, and a new religious peace was established. Bohemia remains the hereditary territory of the Habsburgs. Switzerland and the United Provinces (Netherlands) gained their independence.
The power of the Kingdom of Spain, on the other hand, began to decline, along with the supremacy of the Habsburgs. France continued the war against Spain until the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. Peace was restored with the marriage of Louis XIV and Maria Theresa of Spain.
Timeline of Thirty Years’ War
May 23, 1618: The Defenestration of Prague
A group of Czech Protestants goes to the royal castle in Prague, attacks the king’s representatives, and throws two of his lieutenants out of the window. The unrest stems from the issue of the succession of King Mathias, who designated the Duke Ferdinand of Styria as an uncompromising Catholic. The two thrown-out individuals land in a pile of manure and escape unharmed, but this event marks the beginning of the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648).
November 8, 1620: Battle of White Mountain
Bohemian Protestants are crushed by the German troops of the Walloon Count Jean de Tilly, west of Prague. The Protestant revolt had risen against Emperor Ferdinand II of Habsburg, who aimed to curtail the freedom of the insurgents. Following this battle, the sovereign would impose severe repression against the Protestants and annex the region until 1918.
1621: The Dutch Republic Resumes War with Spain
The Prince of Orange, Maurice of Nassau, seizes the opportunity presented by the end of the twelve-year truce signed in 1609 to reignite the conflict against Spain. In this context, the Dutch Republic would join France in the Thirty Years’ War. Maurice of Nassau would not participate for long, as he died in 1625. His brother, Frederick Henry of Nassau, would take up the mantle and contribute to the recognition of the independence of the Dutch Republic by Spain in 1648.
March 31, 1621: Death of Philip III of Spain
After being ill for several years, Philip III, King of Spain, Portugal, and the Algarves, died on March 31, 1621, from dehydration. While the sovereign complained about the heat, there was no one by his side to extinguish the fireplace. His son Philip IV succeeded him. Particularly devout, Philip IV spent his reign in prayer and expended a significant part of the royal fortune on the extravagances of his court.
March 31, 1621: Start of the Reign of Philip IV of Spain
Following his father Philip III’s death, the Prince of Asturias became the King of Spain, Portugal, and the Two Sicilies on March 31, 1621, under the title of Philip IV. Born in 1605, this king, now known as Philip the Great, used his early years in power to strengthen the Habsburg power in Europe. Until the end of his reign in 1665, Philip IV was a great patron and collector.
July 10, 1621: Death of the Count of Bucquoy
A master of defensive warfare, Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy, was also a lord in the Spanish Netherlands. Born in 1571, he distinguished himself at the beginning of the Thirty Years’ War in the service of the Holy Roman Empire. He achieved many victories but lost his life on July 10, 1621, at the siege of Neuhäusl, or Nové Zàmky in Slovakia, against the troops of the Prince of Transylvania, Gabriel Bethlen.
August 4, 1621: Invasion of Livonia by Sweden
On August 4, 1621, the Livonian region, then part of Poland, was invaded by King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and his armed forces. The two nations had been at war since 1600 due to the claims of the King of Poland, Sigismund III Vassa, to the Swedish throne. Through this forceful invasion, Sweden conquered Livonia, the region around Riga, and Courland.
February 25, 1628: Start of the War of the Mantuan Succession
The Thirty Years’ War unfolded in Europe from 1618 to 1648 and pitted the French against the Habsburgs on the southern front. They vie for the succession of the Duchy of Mantua, north of Italy, after the extinction of the elder branch of the Gonzaga in 1627. In 1628, Louis XIII and Richelieu crossed the Alps and delivered Mantua in 1630. The duchy will go to the Dukes of Nevers, a French branch.
July 7, 1628: Start of the Siege of the City of Stralsund by Wallenstein
Siege of Stralsund (1628)
Following the Defenestration of Prague in 1618, Europe was plunged into the Thirty Years’ War. The Duke of Friedland, Albrecht Wallenstein, the supreme commander of the armies of the Holy Roman Empire, created an army of 50,000 men in 1623. After some notable actions, he began the siege of the Hanseatic city of Stralsund, a German city in Mecklenburg-Pomerania. Wallenstein will be forced to lift it after eleven weeks due to a lack of reinforcements.
May 22, 1629: Signing of the Treaty of Lübeck
The Treaty of Lübeck was signed in the city of the same name, located in northern Germany, on May 22, 1629. The parties involved were the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II and the King of Denmark, Christian IV. The Peace of Lübeck followed the invasion of Danish lands by Catholic armies.
According to the terms of the peace, Denmark was compelled to refrain from interfering in the wars of the Holy Roman Empire; prisoners from each side were to be released; and both parties also waived the damages caused by the conflict.
September 25, 1629: Signing of the Treaty of Altmark
The Treaty of Altmark was signed following the defeat of the Swedes against Imperial and Polish-Lithuanian forces at Honigfelde, near Stuhm, where Gustavus Adolphus narrowly escaped capture. The truce was signed for six years under the diplomatic influence of Richelieu.
The Swedes now occupied the entire Baltic coastline. On September 25, 1629, Poland ceded several ports in East Prussia, including Königsberg, and the customs revenues of Danzig to the Livonian region along the Dvina. In exchange, Sweden returned the Duchy of Prussia, excluding the coastal territory.
July 6, 1630: Sweden Enters the Thirty Years’ War
In the midst of the Thirty Years’ War, King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden negotiated the Treaty of Barwald with France, securing diplomatic and military support in the Baltic region. After several victorious battles against Poland and the Baltic provinces, he landed in Pomerania on July 6, 1630, and deployed his army, the Hakkapélites. He consolidated his positions for almost a year and achieved another victory against the Catholic League’s army, notably at the Battle of Breitenfeld in 1631. His army advanced to the Danube.
November 1630: Beginning of the Siege of Magdeburg
The Holy Roman Empire’s army began the Siege of Magdeburg, the capital of Saxony-Anhalt. This Protestant city was a key player in the Hanseatic League, dominating European trade at the time. Despite its strong fortifications, Magdeburg resisted Catholic forces until the arrival of King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who had been achieving military victories since entering the conflict.
Nevertheless, the city fell in 1631 to the Imperial army, resulting in the massacre of its inhabitants and the complete destruction of the city, an event so brutal that the term “Magdeburgization (Sack of Magdeburg)” became synonymous with total destruction.
December 1, 1630: George I Rákóczi Becomes Voivode of Transylvania
George I Rákóczi, son of Sigismund II Rákóczi, became the Prince of Transylvania, known as “voivode,” on December 1, 1630. Although the throne was supposed to go to his brother Stephen III Bethlen, the support of Catherine of Brandenburg, a powerful woman in the nobility, worked in George’s favor. He married Zsuzsanna Lorántffy, who bore him two sons to succeed him.
During the Thirty Years’ War, the voivode sided with the Protestants, fighting alongside France and Sweden against the Holy Roman Empire. He preserved religious freedom in western Hungary and maintained Transylvania’s independence.
January 23, 1631: Signing of the Treaty of Barwald between France and Sweden
In 1631, King Louis XIII of France decided to support King Gustave Adolphe II of Sweden in his struggle against the Holy Roman Empire. This marked France’s entry into the Thirty Years’ War against the Habsburgs. On January 23, the two sovereigns signed the Treaty of Barwald, establishing a political, military, and commercial alliance.
Cardinal Richelieu was able to equip the rapidly expanding royal navy because of the materials the Swedes provided. Sweden also committed to leading an army of 30,000 soldiers and 6,000 knights in Germany. In return, France incurred a debt of 1.5 million livres tournois per year to Sweden. This treaty lasted until the restoration of peace.
April 6, 1631: End of the War of the Mantuan Succession—Treaty of Cherasco
The War of the Mantuan Succession, a peripheral conflict of the Thirty Years’ War, pitted the French against the Habsburgs over the possession of Mantua after the extinction of the Gonzaga line and the vacancy of the duchy. After several battles, the conflicts of the Thirty Years’ War forced the belligerents to focus on matters other than Mantua. Pope Urban VIII intervened and sent a mediator, Jules Mazarin, who later became Cardinal Mazarin.
The Treaty of Cherasco was signed on April 6, 1631. The disputed territory was divided between the opposing parties, and France received a strategically important fortress, Pinerolo, providing access to the plain of the Italian river Po.
September 17, 1631: Protestant Victory at the Battle of Breitenfeld
The Battle of Breitenfeld marked the first significant victory for the Protestants under Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden against the Catholics under General Tilly during the Thirty Years’ War. The two armies clashed on September 17, 1631, near Breitenfeld, north of Leipzig. Despite seven charges by the light cavalry of Count Pappenheim, the squadrons of cavalry interspersed with musket-armed infantry under Gustavus Adolphus eventually routed the Catholic army.
This victory led other Protestant states to join Sweden, demonstrating that the well-equipped and pike-heavy Imperial armies could be defeated by mobile troops and the power of firearms.
April 19, 1632: Death of King Sigismund III Vasa of Poland and Sweden
After the death of Stephen Bathory I, Sigismund III of the Vasa dynasty was elected King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania in 1587, despite the claims of Maximilian III of Austria. Sigismund was also to succeed his father on the throne of Sweden and was crowned in Uppsala in 1594, with the condition that the country could remain Protestant.
He then returned to Poland and sought an alliance with the Habsburgs to lead the Central European powers in a war against the Turks. During his absence, his uncle worked to gain power in Sweden, and after a short succession war, Sigismund had to relinquish the throne and leave Sweden, paving the way for several Polish-Swedish wars.
From 1605 to 1618, he led his army into Russia, gaining several territories in the Smolensk region. When the Thirty Years’ War broke out in 1618, he sided with the Catholics. His son, Ladislaus IV, succeeded him in this struggle.
April 30, 1632: Death of General Tilly, Commander-in-Chief of the Holy Roman Empire’s Armies
Jean t’Serclaes, Count of Tilly, served as the Commander-in-Chief of the armies of the Catholic League and the Holy Roman Empire during the Thirty Years’ War. Born in 1559, he was raised in the Catholic faith and by the Jesuits.
He won significant battles, such as the Battle of Stadtlohn against Christian of Brunswick in 1623 and the Battle of Lutter in 1626 against Christian IV of Denmark, who later signed the Peace of Lübeck. In August 1630, he was appointed Commander-in-Chief after the dismissal of Wallenstein.
He was responsible for the sack and near-destruction of Magdeburg, which he besieged in 1631 against Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and later suffered defeat against the Swedes at Breitenfeld. While attempting to oppose their advance towards Munich, he was wounded at the Battle of Rain am Lech and died on April 30, 1632.
November 6, 1632: Death of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden at the Battle of Lützen
Near Leipzig in Saxony-Anhalt, Generalissimo Wallenstein’s army of the Holy Roman Empire faced Protestant armies under Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, during the Thirty Years’ War. The Battle of Lützen would be one of the most significant, as the King of Sweden met his death. Upon learning of the approach of the Swedes, Wallenstein sent a message to General Pappenheim, asking him to join with his troops.
Pappenheim’s forces immediately departed, but they were 40 kilometers away from Wallenstein. The next day, the battle favored the Swedes, but Pappenheim arrived with reinforcements of 3,000 cavalry. He succumbed during the first charge, and shortly after noon, King Gustavus Adolphus was also fatally wounded during another charge. However, this did not prevent the Protestants from continuing and winning the battle, ultimately securing the protection of Saxony from the Emperor.
November 6, 1632: Accession to the Throne of Queen Christina of Sweden
King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden was mortally wounded at the Battle of Lützen on November 16, 1632. Foresighted and having only one daughter, he had ensured that she could succeed him by abolishing the exclusively male succession in 1627.
Christina of Sweden, barely 6 years old, thus ascended to the throne. She remained under the tutelage of Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna until her majority in 1644. Queen Christina then dismissed her guardian and advocated for lasting peace after the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. This treaty, which granted Sweden numerous territories, made Sweden the leading power in the Nordic region.
She abdicated in 1654 and secretly converted to Catholicism before being welcomed in Italy, where Pope Alexander VII gave her communion.
November 8, 1632: Election of Ladislaus IV Vasa to the Throne of Poland and the Beginning of His Reign
Ladislaus IV, the only son of Sigismund III of Poland and a member of the Vasa dynasty, was elected King of Poland by the Diet, the assembly of Polish nobles, on November 8, 1632. At 15 years old, while his father fought the Russian army and took Moscow, Ladislaus was proclaimed Tsar by a small faction of the boyars, but the Russians rejected this nomination and revolted against the 3,000 Polish soldiers stationed at the Kremlin.
Although defeated, Ladislaus claimed the title of Tsar of Russia until 1634. He also fought against the Ottomans in 1621 and then against the Swedes from 1626 to 1629, establishing himself as a defender of Catholicism. He even dreamed of leading a crusade to regain the Balkans, then under Ottoman rule.
On November 8, 1632, the Diet elected Ladislaus as King of Poland. He proclaimed Poland neutral during the Thirty Years’ War, although he later married Archduchess Cecilia Renata of the Habsburgs.
December 1, 1633: Death of the Spanish Infanta, Archduchess of Austria, and Governor of the Spanish Netherlands
Born in 1566, Isabella Clara Eugenia of Austria, from the Habsburg dynasty, was the daughter of King Philip II of Spain and the granddaughter of King Henry II of France. She could claim the throne of Spain, as well as that of France and the Duchy of Brittany. Faced with opposition, she received the throne of the Netherlands in dowry through her marriage to Albert of Austria, the son of Emperor Maximilian II.
Her court included renowned artists like Rubens and Brueghel. The couple managed to establish peace between the Protestant Netherlands and Catholic Spain, fostering economic prosperity. Albert died in 1621, and Isabella died on December 1, 1633, after ensuring a period of calm. In 1648, the Treaty of Westphalia marked the end of the Thirty Years’ War, and the Netherlands would be definitively separated from the Spanish crown.
1634: Beginning of the Ten Years’ War in Franche-Comté
While the Thirty Years’ War raged in Europe, the territory of Franche-Comté was peaceful and under Spanish rule. King Philip II of Spain died in 1598, leaving the Netherlands and Franche-Comté to his daughter, Infanta Isabella of Spain, and her husband Albert of Austria. Isabella renewed the neutrality pact concerning Franche-Comté with France in 1611, a pact to be respected until at least 1640.
After Isabella and her husband passed away, Franche-Comté’s fate fell into the hands of Philip IV of Spain. As the Holy Roman Empire achieved several victories, Cardinal Richelieu pointed out to King Louis XIII of France that Burgundy and Franche-Comté would be easy to conquer. Concerned about the Catholic advance, Louis XIII broke the neutrality pact in 1634 and sent an army of 25,000 led by the Prince of Condé.
The Ten Years’ War had begun and would only end in 1644 after France ceased hostilities in exchange for 40,000 ecus.
February 25, 1634: Assassination of General Wallenstein After Being Accused by Emperor Ferdinand II
During the Thirty Years’ War, Commander Wallenstein assembled a large army of nearly 50,000 men to fight on behalf of Emperor Ferdinand II. After some dazzling victories, he retired to Bohemia, near Pilsen, to reflect on his actions with astrologers and doctors. It is acknowledged that he negotiated with enemy powers to be placed on the throne of Bohemia, thereby threatening the emperor’s succession by his son Ferdinand III.
Wallenstein believed that his army would not dare to turn against him. However, an edict accusing him of high treason was published in Prague on February 18, 1634, and Wallenstein fled to Eger to seek protection from the Swedish army stationed there. A regiment of Irish and Scottish dragoons was dispatched, assassinating him on the night of February 25. Wallenstein was replaced by his lieutenants, Piccolomini and Gallas. He remains the true founder of the Austrian army and the unprecedented war tax that facilitated its creation.
5 September 1634: Battle of Nördlingen and Victory of Emperor Ferdinand III of Hungary over the Swedes and Lutherans
Battle of Nördlingen (1634)
The Battle of Lützen on April 19, 1632, marked the victorious death of the Swedish king, Gustavus Adolphus. Despite this Protestant triumph, securing Saxony-Anhalt, the Imperial Spanish army occupied and threatened to advance into Saxony by capturing Regensburg. In response, the Protestants under Gustaf Horn planned a night attack to retake the city.
However, poor troop management resulted in artillery and supply wagons being ahead of the infantry, allowing the enemy forces to prepare. During the Battle of Nördlingen on the night of September 5 to 6, 1634, the Protestant army suffered a significant loss of 12,000 to 14,000 men, and Gustaf Horn was captured.
This marked the first defeat for the Swedes in the Thirty Years’ War, prompting France to openly enter the war against the Holy Roman Empire.
11 October 1634: Schleswig-Holstein Flood in the North Sea caused by the Burchardi Storm
Amid the aftermath of a 1603 plague epidemic and the ongoing Thirty Years’ War, the Schleswig-Holstein region in present-day Germany faced challenges. The North Sea had been turbulent for years, with icebergs damaging coastal dikes in 1625. On the night of October 11 to 12, 1634, the Burchardi Storm generated a storm surge that engulfed a significant part of Strand Island.
This storm surge, or mandränke, caused the deaths of 8,000 to 15,000 people, including two-thirds of Strand’s population. The disappearance of Strand gave rise to new islands: Nordstrand, Pellworm, Halligen Südfall, and Nordstrandischmoor.
16 May 1635: France enters the Thirty Years’ War
France, 17 years into the Thirty Years’ War, declared war on Spain, which had intervened to support the Catholic forces in the Empire. Fearing encirclement by the Catholic Habsburg alliance, France allies with the Protestant armies of the North.
30 May 1635: Signing of the Peace of Prague
The Peace of Prague, signed on May 30, 1635, between Emperor Ferdinand II of the Holy Roman Empire and Elector John George I of Saxony, representing Protestant states in Saxony-Anhalt, ended the civil war aspect of the Thirty Years’ War. The treaty recognized the electoral dignity of Bavaria, and John George I permanently gained Lusatia, a territory northeast of Germany. However, fighting continued with the Swedes and then the French until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.
22 June 1636: Battle of Tornavento and victory of the Franco-Savoyards over the Spanish
In 1636, during the Thirty Years’ War, Cardinal Richelieu convinced Duke Victor Amadeus I of Savoy to launch an offensive on the Spanish Duchy of Milan. A French army crosses the Ticino River but encounters the Spanish army at Tornavento before their Savoyard allies arrive. On June 22, the Spanish attack and the Savoyard army arrived just in time to reverse the outcome.
The Franco-Savoyard army stays for a few days to pillage surrounding villages but ultimately withdraws from Milanese territory. This invasion of Lombardy marks a failure.
2 July 1636: Philip IV of Spain sends his generals to besiege La Capelle in Picardy
Count Jean de Werth, notable in the Battle of Nördlingen, becomes a general in the Holy Roman Empire’s army alongside General Piccolomini. In 1635 and 1636, they were sent to Lorraine, Picardy, and Luxembourg, pillaging the Lower Meuse in July 1636. They besiege the town of La Capelle on July 2, 1636. The invasion sparks a nascent French patriotic spirit, leading to an army of 50,000 that forces Jean de Werth and Piccolomini to retreat.
4 October 1636: Battle of Wittstock and Swedish victory over the Emperor
The Thirty Years’ War pits the Holy Roman Empire against the Protestant Swedes and their allies for control of northern Germany. In 1636, both armies were positioned on either side of the Elbe River. Swedish General Johan Banér crosses his army and meets the Imperial forces near the Scharfenberg hills south of Wittstock.
The Saxon troops are less experienced, and the Swedish artillery is superior. Johan Banér’s army wins the battle, but it has no strategic consequences as Brandenburg refuses to join the Swedes. As a new Imperial army under the command of Matthias Gallas forces the Swedes to retreat to their previous position, they make an unsuccessful attempt to siege Leipzig.
6 October 1636: Victory at Szalonta of Transylvanian Prince George I Rákóczi over the Turks
George I Rákóczi, Prince of Transylvania from 1630 to 1648, ascended to the throne with the support of Catherine of Brandenburg. His first military victory was at Szalonta, where he defeated the Turks on October 6, 1636. George I Rákóczi later intervened in the Thirty Years’ War on the side of the Protestants.
15 February 1637: Death of Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II of Habsburg
Born in 1578, Ferdinand II of Habsburg was raised by Jesuits as a devout Catholic and opponent of Protestantism. His actions provoked the Thirty Years’ War by angering Protestant nobles in Bohemia. He, along with General Tilly, defeated the Protestant army at the Battle of White Mountain in 1620, making Bohemia a territory of the empire.
The Swedes, led by King Gustavus Adolphus II, entered the conflict and defeated them at the Battle of Breitenfeld. Ferdinand II’s reign was consumed by the war, resulting in the demographic and economic ruin of Germany. His son, Ferdinand III of Habsburg, succeeded him upon his death on February 15, 1637.
15 February 1637: Beginning of the Reign of Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand III
The son of Emperor Ferdinand II and Marie Anne of Bavaria, Ferdinand III of Habsburg, was born on July 13, 1608. He became King of Hungary in 1625 and King of Bohemia in 1627 but had to wait until Ferdinand II’s death in 1637 to become the “King of the Romans,” i.e., Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.
During the Thirty Years’ War, he gained fame for his victory over the Swedish Protestants at the Battle of Nördlingen. However, in the following years, he couldn’t fight simultaneously against the Swedes and their French allies. In 1648, he was compelled to sign the Peace of Westphalia, Münster, and Osnabrück, marking the actual end of the Holy Roman Empire’s dominance in Europe.
28 September 1637: Battle of Leucate and French Victory Over the Spanish
Situated south of Narbonne, the Leucate castle served as a stronghold and an observation point for five centuries. During the Thirty Years’ War, the French and Spanish Imperial armies faced off at the castle. The Spanish besieged it, but on September 28, 1637, the French achieved victory, forcing the Spanish to retreat across the border. Following the signing of the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, Louis XIV later demolished the castle.
7 October 1637: Death of Victor Amadeus I, Duke of Savoy and Prince of Piedmont
Born in 1587, Victor Amadeus I was the Duke of Savoy and Prince of Piedmont. He married Christine of France in 1619, and they had seven children. Victor Amadeus faced defeat early in his rule, losing the fortress of Pinerolo and part of Montferrat. Convinced of his royal status, he adopted the title of King of Cyprus, a historical claim of his ancestors. He finally achieved victory at the Battles of Tornavento in 1636 and Mombaldone in 1637 but died a few days later in Vercelli on October 7, 1637.
1 December 1640: Portugal Regains Its Independence
The Portuguese nobility revolted against Spanish rule, restoring the country’s independence. They placed one of their own, John of Braganza, on the throne, who took the name John IV. This followed the death of King Sebastian of Portugal in 1578 and the ascension of Philip II of Habsburg to the Spanish throne.
14 September 1641: The Treaty of Péronne
The Treaty of Péronne, signed on September 14, 1641, between King Louis XIII of France and Honoré II Grimaldi of Monaco, ended the Spanish protectorate and reintegrated the Principality of Monaco into the French sphere. In exchange for the return of Monaco, Louis XIII confiscated Honoré II’s assets in Spain.
9 September 1642: Louis XIII Captures Perpignan from the Spanish
Louis XIII’s army heads to Roussillon to reclaim the region during the Reaper’s War. To retake the Spanish-held city of Perpignan, French forces besieged the area. The siege, from November 4, 1641, to September 9, 1642, ended with the governor’s decision to surrender, as only 500 survivors remained in the city. Louis XIII passed away a few months later.
19 May 1643: Grand Condé Victorious at Rocroi
The French, under the command of the Duke of Enghien, later known as Grand Condé, defeated the Spanish at Rocroi in the Ardennes in a resounding victory during the Thirty Years’ War. The 22-year-old duke displayed military genius, marking France’s return to the international stage after a century of defeats and civil wars.
31 July 1644: Reconquest of Lerida
In 1642, nearly all Catalan cities were under French control. King Philip IV of Spain aimed to reclaim Lleida and launched an offensive on the adjacent plain. However, the French organized and assembled a significant army to oppose him. The Spanish suffered heavy losses and had to wait two years before reconquering Lleida.
18 December 1644: Majority of Queen Christina of Sweden
Queen Christina of Sweden, ascending to the throne due to her father securing the abolition of male exclusivity, took power at the age of 18 on December 18, 1644. She ousted Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna to promote peace and halt conflicts with Denmark.
6 March 1645: Battle of Jankau
On March 6, 1645, the Swedes, en route to Prague, prevailed over Imperial forces in southern Bohemia at the Battle of Jankau. Considered one of the deadliest battles of the Thirty Years’ War, the Imperial cavalry was annihilated, allowing the victorious Swedes to subsequently attack Vienna, leading to a second battle in August of the same year.
3 August 1645: Battle of Nördlingen
The Battle of Nördlingen, part of the Thirty Years’ War, pitted the Holy Roman Empire’s troops against the French. The General Von Mercy-led opposition confronted the Duke of Enghien-led French army. Both sides suffered significant losses, but the death of General Von Mercy concluded the battle, with his troops retreating to the village, resulting in a French victory.
13 August 1645: The Treaty of Brömsebro
The Peace of Brömsebro concluded on August 13, 1645, ending a conflict (the Torstenson War) within the Thirty Years’ War involving Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. Besides concluding the conflict, the treaty included the cancellation of toll taxes for Swedish ships and territorial concessions by Denmark and Norway.
May 1646: First Siege of Lleida
In May 1646, the French, led by Henri de Lorraine-Harcourt, initiated the siege of Lleida, a Spanish city. Only two years had passed since the Spanish had regained the city, and they were determined to defend it vigorously. The siege lasted approximately six months, culminating in the French forces retreating to the nearby town of Balaguer without baggage or artillery.
7 September 1646: Siege of Dunkirk
When Louis II de Bourbon-Condé, Duke of Enghien, took sole command of the Flanders army, he envisioned a brilliant action: the siege of Dunkirk, which the Spanish held for over eighty years. His army, reinforced by Poles and Ukrainians on land and the Dutch at sea, besieged Dunkirk. As the Spanish failed to gain English support, the gates of Dunkirk opened on October 11, 1646.
17 June 1647: End of the Siege of Lleida
On May 12, 1647, the siege of Lleida commenced with the arrival of Louis II de Bourbon-Condé, known as Le Grand Condé. Mazarin, seeking to distance him from France, promised him victory where Henri de Lorraine-Harcourt had failed the previous year: Lleida. Le Grand Condé eagerly accepted the challenge. Immense losses and desertions led to the siege being lifted on June 17, 1647.
20 August 1648: Last Battle of the Thirty Years’ War
On August 20, 1648, the Battle of Lens took place, named after the capture of the city of Lens by Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Habsburg on August 17, 1648. Disappointed by the defeat at the Siege of Lleida, Grand Condé motivated his troops with the motto, “We must conquer or die.” The result was a victory against the Spanish.
8 September 1648: The Independence of the United Provinces is Recognized in the Treaty of Münster
As part of the signing of the Peace of Westphalia treaties, concluding the Thirty Years’ War, the independence of the United Provinces was acknowledged by Spain in the Treaty of Münster. The conflicts between the United Provinces and Spain, which had been ongoing since the revolt of William I of Nassau against the Duke of Alba, have come to an end.
24 October 1648: Publication of the Peace of Westphalia Treaties
Both Catholics and Protestants signed the Peace of Westphalia treaties. The Catholics in Münster on September 8 and the Protestants in Osnabrück on August 6. This marks the conclusion of the Thirty Years’ War. France gained a portion of Alsace, Sweden and Germany acquired territories, while the Netherlands and Switzerland achieved their independence.
Thirty Years’ War at a Glance
What Was the Thirty Years’ War?
The Thirty Years’ War was a protracted conflict fought primarily in Europe from 1618 to 1648. It was primarily a religious war involving Catholic and Protestant states and resulted in significant political and territorial changes.
What Were the Main Causes of the Thirty Years’ War?
The main causes of the war included religious tensions between Catholic and Protestant states, conflicts over political power and territorial control, and a struggle for dominance among European powers.
Which Countries Were Involved in the Thirty Years’ War?
The war involved various European powers, including the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, France, Sweden, Denmark, and the Netherlands. Many smaller states and principalities also played a role in the conflict.
How Did the Protestant Reformation Contribute to the War?
The Protestant Reformation, which had begun in the early 16th century, created deep religious divisions in Europe. Conflicts between Catholic and Protestant states intensified, leading to tensions and sparking the outbreak of the war.
What Was the Significance of the Peace of Westphalia?
The Peace of Westphalia, signed in 1648, marked the end of the Thirty Years’ War. It established a new framework for European diplomacy, recognized the independence and sovereignty of individual states, and granted religious freedom to Protestants.
Bireley, Robert (1976). “The Peace of Prague (1635) and the Counterreformation in Germany”. The Journal of Modern History. 48 (1): 31–69. doi:10.1086/241519. S2CID 143376778.
The European Economic Community was created on March 25, 1957, when officials from the Federal Republic of Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg signed the Treaty of Rome (EEC). This pact, which grew out of work begun inside the ECSC (European Coal and Steel Community, created in 1951), was a significant symbolic step forward in Europe’s integration.
To promote economic cooperation among its member nations, the Treaty of Rome, signed in 1957, established the European Economic Community (EEC). As a result of its incorporation into the foundation of the newly established European Union in 1993, it was rebranded as the European Community (EC).
The Beginnings of the European Economic Community (1957)
In 1951, the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), a European Community body in charge of Europe’s coal and steel sectors, was established. This marked the beginning of the integration of Europe. After the European Defense Community plan fell through, Jean Monnet and Robert Schumann pushed for the formation of a customs union, the European Economic Community (EEC). The plan called for a Parliamentary Assembly (the forerunner to the present European Parliament), a Court of Justice, the Commission (the supranational executive), and the Council of Ministers (the intergovernmental council).
When the new organization was formed, its stated purpose was nothing less than the full economic integration of its member nations into a single market. Free trade between member states (including the elimination of customs duties and the establishment of a common external tariff), free movement of factors of production (capital and labor), free competition, and freedom of enterprise are all stated goals of the European Community Treaty, which was signed in Rome in 1957.
The signature page on the original Treaty of Rome. Credit: Zinneke at CC BY-SA 3.0
To defend the Community’s agriculture against cheap imports and to secure the income of farmers, industrial programs, transport policies, etc., the treaty created a common agricultural policy (CAP) in 1962, which set guaranteed common prices for agricultural and livestock output. Current EU policies are still determined by the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU).
Introducing Europe’s New Institutions
As of January 14, 1958, the pact was legally binding. Many of the EEC’s institutions took their cues from the ECSC, and there were even some overlaps between the two organizations. The ECSC’s “high authority” has been transferred to the Commission, the organization responsible for formulating policies and protecting both the ECSC’s treaties and the interests of the Community.
The decision-making authority rests with the Council of Ministers (the meeting of ministers from each member country for a certain sector, such as agriculture), an intergovernmental rather than supranational organization. The European Economic Community (EEC), the European Community (ECSC), and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) share a number of institutions, including the European Court of Justice (the judicial body) and the Assembly (later called the European Parliament, where citizens of Europe are represented and which holds some legislative power). An additional treaty was negotiated in 1965 with the intention of combining the Commission and the Council of Ministers with the ECSC and Euratom. This treaty entered into effect on January 1, 1967.
On September 20, 1976, the representatives of the governments of the Member States enacted a law instituting universal suffrage for the election of the European Parliament, as stipulated in the Treaty of Rome. In 1979, the first vote was held using this method.
From the EEC to the European Union
Most people would point to the Single European Act, which was signed on February 28, 1986 and entered into effect on July 1, 1987, as the first significant amendment to the treaties. Actually, it’s not just one act, but two: one to amend existing Community legislation (on an institutional level, this is the addition of a court of first instance to the European Court of Justice), and another to establish political cooperation in foreign policy.
There is little doubt that the institutional framework we have in place now safeguards national vulnerabilities while also allowing the concept of a supranational body to gain traction. It was this tension between governments and supranational organizations that would form the backbone of arguments over the EEC’s future development, ultimately leading to the formation of the European Union as we know it today (Maastricht Treaty, 1992).
After a failed vote in 2005, Europe currently has a unified currency, the Euro, and a Central Bank, but it does not have a constitution. The present operation of the European Union, which currently consists of 27 countries, is governed by the Treaty of Lisbon, which was signed in 2007.
The most pivotal moment in human history occurred around 11,000 years ago, when agriculture was first developed. It made space for novel ways of thinking and doing things, as well as for a reorganization of society. For what reasons did modern Homo sapiens first begin farming? Actually, nobody can say for sure. The emergence of agriculture, however, was crucial to the subsequent growth of urban centers, literacy, and ultimately, civilization.
Since the Neolithic Era forward, human sustenance has shifted away from hunting and gathering to agriculture and livestock raising. In the 10th millennium BC, this shift began in the Near East and spread to other population hubs throughout the globe. Population expansion, attesting to a change in lifestyle that resulted in higher food demands, explains this phenomenon.
Several key innovations have shaped the history of agriculture, including the plow, crop rotation, irrigation systems, and the use of fertilizers. These innovations improved crop yields and made agriculture more efficient.
Improvements in Farming
Several times during the 10th and 8th millennia B.C., people on all four continents “developed” agriculture on their own. The archaeological remnants of plants and animals are our only source of information, although their numbers were likely far larger in reality. Even before the first traces of agriculture, it’s likely that ancient hunter-gatherers had established a kind of proto-agricultural by dispersing seeds or tubers from the plants they had gathered from the wild to ensure that the plants would not be depleted.
Neolithic agricultural equipment.
Recent hunter-gatherer cultures apparently still engaged in this method, as shown by anthropological research. Under the right circumstances, it has even developed into a full-fledged manufacturing sector. Tools like the millstone for grinding, the knife for harvesting, and the digging stick were all creations of the hunter-gatherers. There was no need to develop brand-new technologies to facilitate the emergence of agriculture.
While humans have been around for at least 300,000 years, agriculture as a subsistence economy didn’t emerge until around 11,000 years ago and it took centuries to become widespread. This means that fewer than 5% of human history, or around 500 generations, has been spent as “farmers.” Accordingly, natural selection has led to our species’ development, notably in our forager ancestry. Natural selection, however, benefited those who engaged in agriculture. The evidence may be found in the decipherment of the human genome.
For instance, lactase, an enzyme that allows newborns to digest lactose, a milk protein, has persisted in adults thanks to a genetic mutation in the DNA of Central European herders 6,000 years ago. After the age of four, most people lose the ability to digest lactose because this enzyme stops being produced. This mutation is now widespread throughout Europe but is rare or nonexistent in regions such as the Far East and South America, where milk production from domesticated animals is not commercially exploited.
Early agricultural societies used various techniques, such as slash-and-burn agriculture, terracing, and the cultivation of staple crops like wheat, barley, and rice. These techniques varied depending on the region and available resources.
Agriculture Helps Increase the Population
Paleolithic village.
Thus, the descendants of settled farmers rose to prominence at the expense of their nomadic ancestors. Because of their low reproductive success, the latter were driven to the margins of the earth, if not eradicated altogether, while farmers came to rule the world. The number of Homo sapiens has increased from 2–5 million to 8 billion since the advent of agriculture. This agricultural production system has never ceased changing natural vegetation, with more alarming environmental repercussions, and this is directly responsible for the dramatic increase in the world’s population.
Despite the wide spread of agriculture, only a select few societies were able to develop under the influence of this economic model. To begin, have a look at South-West Asia. Due to the semi-arid environment, the ruins in this area are in remarkably good condition, making it one of the finest documented regions in the world by archaeologists. Cereals like wheat, barley, and rye, as well as legumes like peas, chickpeas, and lentils, grow wild in their native environment in the Fertile Crescent (seen on the map). The previous ice age occurred 23,000 years ago, and at that time, wheat and barley were already being cultivated.
About 14,000 years ago, in the southern Levant, people settled down thanks to the great yields and easy storage of these plants (Israel, Palestine, Jordan). Then, starting about 11,000 years ago, locals started growing and using grains commercially on a huge scale. Through Darwinian selection, the plants that were most suited to cultivation eventually became the dominant species, while their wild relatives were extinct over the course of the next millennium. Domestication (or cultivar improvement) began with natural selection and evolved into the intentional breeding used today.
Early Stages of Livestock Breeding
Agriculture of Ancient Egypt.
Animal husbandry, including the domestication of the cow, goat, sheep, and pig, also began in this period, around 10,500 years ago. Plants and animals provided the starch (a vast energy store!) that powered the subsequent flourishing of civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Europe beginning in the 4th millennium BC. This agricultural assemblage could adjust to many climates, allowing it to expand from northern Europe to the Americas, Africa, and even Australia. The urbanization, irrigation, animal traction, and literacy that followed the development of agriculture.
Further annual grain plants were domesticated elsewhere, giving birth to additional civilizations as well. These included rice and millet in China, maize in Central America, quinoa in South America, and millet and sorghum in Africa. In tropical regions like the Amazon and New Guinea, horticultural systems based on tubers have become the backbone of subsistence agriculture.
That begs the question: why did we develop agriculture? Scientists have long been intrigued by this subject, and they often discuss it by bringing up topics like population expansion, climate change, technical, mental, and social advancements, or the overexploitation of resources. However, it is common for us to mix the causes with the results. The habitat, climate, and civilization of each agricultural domestication site are distinct from one another. The “why” question has been replaced by a focus on the “how” and “by what procedures” of agriculture’s spread to new areas of the globe.
Bibliography
Melinda Zeder (2011). “The Origins of Agriculture in the Near East”. Current Anthropology.
One of the first human societies, Ancient Egypt, had been around for a very long time. King Narmer of Egypt united Upper and Lower Egypt before the year 3000 BC. He ushered in a dynasty of pharaohs that ruled Egypt for nearly 2,500 years. The Nile’s frequent yearly floods ensured more bountiful crops, which contributed to Egypt’s and the Pharaohs’ long lifespans and prosperous rule. The river served as the primary north-south transportation corridor, and the vast desert that surrounded it served as a natural barrier against invaders while also providing a source of construction materials and valuable metals. As a result of the Nile’s depletion, Egypt became a desert, and the development of Egyptian civilization was likely prevented. Egypt is a gift from the Nile, as the Greek historian Herodotus put it in the 5th century BC.
The Nile Valley is 500 miles (800 kilometers) long, beginning at the first cataract of the river near the old Egyptian boundary and ending at the Mediterranean. The Nile rises in the Ethiopian Highlands, much to the south of modern-day Egypt.
Back in Ancient Egypt, the waters of the Nile River were swelled by the onset of summer’s heavy rains, and by the conclusion of the season, it overflowed its banks into Egypt. As the water levels dropped, the floods left behind a damp, silty landscape. The Ancient Egyptians never required flood walls or elaborate water management techniques.
Ancient Egyptians planted their seeds in the fall in the rich, soggy soil, and then allowed the crops to mature in the winter sun. Then, in the spring, they harvested the fields just in time for the next flood. Only when the Nile floods were really bad did the people suffer from famine.
Around the 6th millennium BC (6000 to 5001 BC), farmers established themselves in the Nile Valley. The Sahara, now a huge grassland punctuated by numerous lakes, was formerly cultivable when North Africa was wetter than it is now. The environment started becoming drier and more desert-like about 4000 BC. Some Egyptian farmers became nomad herders, while others settled in the Nile Valley.
The beginnings of Egyptian culture
People living in the Nile Valley had been dividing the country into two distinct parts for thousands of years: Upper Egypt, in the south, along the river, and Lower Egypt, in the north, surrounding the delta. The southern area was guarded by the vulture goddess Nekhbet, while the northern part was guarded by the cobra goddess Wadjet. Both regions also had their own symbols, the lotus and the white crown in the south, the papyrus and the red crown in the north.
A kingdom developed in the southern area of Upper Egypt just before 3000 BC. It was during this time that the pictographic writing system of hieroglyphics was in widespread use. According to history, Narmer, the first king of Egypt, united the land by leading an army to victory over Lower Egypt. He made Memphis the new state capital due to its central location and strategic importance. Egypt’s successor kings built a robust administration during their time in power. Due to his divine lineage as the son of Ra, the sun god, the king was able to rule for all time.
The documents that have made it down to us have allowed historians to create a thorough list of the royal dynasties that dominated ancient Egypt and the approximate dates of their reigns, which span nearly continuously from 2920 to 30 BC. They did this by creating time eras in Egypt’s history. Following the collapse of the early dynasties (2920–2649 BC), the old empire (2649–2134 BC) saw royal rule expand southward all the way to Nubia. The conflict between competing dynasties (the first intermediate period, 2134–2040 BC) was followed by the reunification of Egypt under the Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 BC).
Pharaoh: ruler, and deity or a god-king
The Pharaohs were the kings and queens of ancient Egypt. The Pharaoh was both a human king and the divine offspring of the sun deity Ra. The Egyptians saw the Pharaoh as the embodiment of the gods, who sent him to Earth to act as a mediator between the gods and humans. The Pharaoh only would become a god after his death if the Egyptians believed he had supernatural abilities, such as the ability to control the Nile’s annual floods.
How the Pharaoh’s authority shaped Egyptian society
During his reign, the pharaoh had unchecked authority since he served as head of state, commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and spiritual leader for his people. Supporting him in his efforts was a strong administration, with the viziers as the show-stopping protagonists. Since this was the case, the pharaoh enjoyed unchecked and consolidated authority.
The many facets of the pharaoh’s authority were represented by his characteristics. He represented national sovereignty by donning the pschent, the twofold crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. The uraeus, the snake symbol of protection, was tattooed on his forehead. The ruler held two scepters (the hook and the whip) as symbols of his authority.
Up to Alexander the Great‘s invasion of Egypt in 332 BC, 31 dynasties of pharaohs ruled Egypt in succession (because the following rulers, i.e., the Macedonian and Ptolemaic dynasties, were not really pharaohs).
Ancient Egyptian Empire
About 2649 BC, a time period known as the Old Empire began. Both the Egyptian kingdom and culture were expected to develop their signature features during this time. The Old Kingdom was the time when ideals were established that would serve as constant touchstones for years, if not millennia, to come.
The notion of divine kingship underpinned the whole of pharaonic Egyptian society. The king, as the reincarnation of Horus and the son of Osiris, acted as both an interpreter and an agent of the life force that kept the universe going. He was the only person responsible for managing the government and the economy. He had ownership of all of Egypt. The peasants, who were deemed to be dependents and were thus obligated to do tasks, did so in family teams overseen by royal authorities. The Old Kingdom monarchy was centralized and bureaucratic, yet it was not an arbitrary system. Power and fairness were always inextricably intertwined concepts.
In the beginning, only the king could attain immortality. When he dies, he becomes like the deity Osiris and watches over his home and the people from above. Therefore, the primary task of Egyptian dynasties was the building of tombs that would stand the test of time and ensure the king’s eternal legacy. The Egyptians led military expeditions against the Nubians, Libyans, and Sinai nomads since the reign of Snefru (about 2625–2601 BC) to acquire the raw materials needed for their great achievements, like wood from Lebanon.
The builders of the Egyptian pyramids
Massive structures began to arise throughout the Old Kingdom. Imhotep, minister to King Djoser, erected the first royal tomb at Saqqara, a seven-tiered structure with rows of stones defining the levels. This huge monument was built to honor a king who, even in death, continues to watch over his subjects.
Thanks to the pyramids of Giza, we know the names of Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure. The slanting sun rays symbolized by the pyramids’ form let the king’s soul reach heaven after death. For decades, a massive workforce was recruited to create these massive stone monuments.
The Pharaoh was mummified after his death. Mummification, a method that emerged in Ancient Egypt about the 3rd millennium BC, involved drying the corpse to prevent it from decomposing further. The bandage made the body seem nearly alive. In this way, the body would serve as a home for the soul all the time.
The pharaoh’s body was relocated to the pyramid’s central burial chamber. The walls of the chamber were covered with texts and magic formulae, and the luxurious items inside were meant to follow the departed into the afterlife. As soon as the funeral was over, the entrance to the room was blocked up with stones.
The pyramids were not constructed by slaves, as is often believed, but rather by trained artisans with the assistance of idle peasants during the flood season. How the hundreds of massive stone slabs were lifted and stacked one above the other remains a mystery.
Due to the high cost involved, pyramid building was abandoned after the end of the Middle Kingdom. When it came to displaying their riches and authority, the following Egyptian kings favored constructing temples adorned with huge bas-reliefs and sculptures.
The Middle Kingdom
The seated scribe, c. 2620-2500 BC. (Credit: Rama, BY-SA 2.0)
The period between the end of the 7th dynasty and the start of the 6th dynasty, or roughly 2152 BC and 2065 BC, is known as the First Intermediate Period. The invasions caused the region to become fractured, starvation to develop, and rebellion movements to proliferate, all of which coincided with the spread of the religion of Osiris, goddess of agriculture (who also taught mankind the technique of making beer).
In the year 2050 BC, after many years of civil conflict, Egypt was finally reunited under the rule of Mentuhotep II of Thebes. The Old Kingdom’s rigid structure was gradually dismantled and replaced with a more malleable Middle Kingdom governance, beginning about the year 2050 or 1786 BC.
During this time period, a theological compromise was reached with the Theban and Heliopolitan clergy in which Amun was connected with Ra. This was done in an effort to strengthen national unity. Throughout the 2nd millennium, the authority of the Amun priesthood was to be strengthened. Amenemhat I (1991-1962 BC) and Senusret III (1877-1843 BC), kings of the 12th dynasty, worked to reduce regional influence over the central government.
By acting as an intermediary between Amun-Ra and humanity, the pharaoh was able to increase his own authority, decreasing regional feudalism and guaranteeing the continuity of the kingdom during his own reign. Simultaneously, the possibility of eternal life opened up to a wider range of people. From now on, anybody could go there, so long as they adhere to the ritual’s tight guidelines. During this time, scribes reached the height of their power; they were the first real “middle class,” standing between commoners and nobles.
The Middle Kingdom wasn’t more “imperialist” than the one before it, but its kings still wanted to protect Egypt by fortifying its outposts. In the north-east, Amenemhat I had the “Prince’s Wall” built in front of the Bedouins (around 1976 BC); in the south, the high valley of the Nile was annexed up to Semma, beyond the second cataract, at the borders of Nubia. And it was protected by the construction, under the 12th dynasty, of fourteen fortresses that extended from Elephantine to Semna (Nubia).
Amenemhat III (1842–1797 BC) had a massive funerary complex, the “labyrinth” of the Greeks, in the center of the city and constructed and ordered massive works of drainage and irrigation for its expansion.
Egypt’s culture was revived after a period of invasion
A painting of an ancient Egyptian chariot. (Credit: Image)
After nearly three centuries of relative stability, the Ancient Egyptians began a period of turmoil known as the second intermediate period (1640–1532 BC). The inflow of Semitic inhabitants from Asia, who had been pushed out by the Indo-European invasions, threatens the stability of Egypt’s government. The Hyksos, who had established themselves in the region to the northeast of the Delta, waited until the pharaohs of the 13th and 14th dynasties fell from power to conquer all of Lower Egypt.
As a result of their military prowess, Egypt was able to acquire horses and chariots. Avaris, the Hyksos’ power hub, enters a new intermediate era as the seat of a 15th foreign dynasty. The Hyksos monarchs followed the Egyptian pharaohs’ example and adopted their cartouche and procedure, as well as Egyptian culture and religion.
Pharaoh: its origins and significance
The southerners put up a fight against the invaders. The rulers of Thebes took it upon themselves to free the land between Elephantine and Abydos. Even though Kamose was successful in his fight against the Hyksos, it was his brother, the Pharaoh Ahmose I, who ultimately expelled the invaders and united the land once more. When he assumed power in around 1552 or 1070 BC, he established the 18th dynasty and the New Kingdom. It was Ahmose who established the New Kingdom and the 18th dynasty (about 1552-1070 BC). It was during this era that the title “pharaoh” first appeared in historical records. This moniker, which translates to “great palace,” was chosen to reflect their prominent position within the administration.
The Egyptians realized that the period of seclusion from which their nation had benefited until the advent of the Hyksos was finished after experiencing foreign occupation. Egypt invested heavily in its military and fought a succession of endless battles for four centuries to secure its position of dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean marine commerce, the control of the Syro-Palestinian ports, and the caravan routes going to Mesopotamia.
The New Kingdom, in contrast to the Old and Middle Kingdoms, was unwaveringly imperialist; it vied with the Mitanni and the Hittites, the other two major nations of the time, for dominance of the Eastern Mediterranean, but it was never victorious.
The New Kingdom: the golden age of Ancient Egypt
Thutmose III (1481-1425 BC).
The 18th dynasty (c. 1570–1319 BC) was the height of Ancient Egyptian power and prestige on the international stage (thanks to conquests) and inside the country (thanks to the opulence of the court and the blossoming of literature and the arts; see the Necropolis of the Valley of the Kings). From the time of Pharaoh Amenhotep I (1546–1524 BC), Egyptian forces flooded Syria and reached the Euphrates; however, these early successes were rapidly nullified by local revolts and a dynastic crisis in Egypt (usurpation of queen Hatshepsut, 1503-1482 BC).
In 1482-1450 BC, under Thutmose III, all of the previous conquering efforts in Asia had to be restarted from scratch. This king, the greatest in Egyptian history, commanded no less than eighteen expeditions to Asia during his lifetime. At Megiddo (1482 BC), he destroyed a great Syrian-Palestinian alliance led by Mitanni, then he captured Kadesh on the Orontes (1474 BC), and finally he reached the Euphrates again, completing the conquest of Syria (1472 BC).
Ahmose, during the start of the 18th dynasty, retook control of southern Nubia, which had previously been subjugated to the Middle Kingdom. Expeditions led by Thutmose II and Thutmose III penetrated far into Kush, extending Egypt’s southern frontier to the fourth cataract (before 1477 BC). The New Kingdom’s administrative structure reflected a tremendous amount of regional variation. Once the middle class of scribes and prosperous peasants vanished with the Hyksos invasion, the pharaohs were forced to rely on a body of city officials that was considerably less in number than previously but was hereditary.
Nothing about imperial rule in the conquered nations could be described as dictatorial. When a viceroy was put in charge of Nubia, the region was rapidly and thoroughly Egyptianized. However, the pharaohs in Asia were content with a more lenient regime of protectorates and alliances, which left the local princes in place, and respected the local customs, languages, and indigenous religions. Economic responsibilities (trade contracts guaranteeing Egypt’s standing as a favored country), military obligations (annual payment of a tribute in kind: slaves, ore, horses, war chariots, livestock, timber, oil, etc.), and financial commitments all helped to establish Egyptian suzerainty (each subjugated people had to provide a contingent which served on the spot, under the command of Egyptian officers).
From the Amarna Period until the Ramesside Dynasty
Bas-relief depicting Amenhotep IV (Pharaoh Akhenaten, c. 1360- 1342 BC) while worshiping the solar disc, 18th dynasty. (Image)
It was under the reign of Amenhotep III (about 1417–1379 BC) that the “Egyptian peace” reached its pinnacle, ushering in an age of extraordinary affluence, luxury, and sweetness of life. The Theban priesthood, however, had not stopped expanding its sphere of authority and land holdings since the New Kingdom’s outset; the high priest of Amun had become something of a de facto second personage of the State.
Amenophis IV (1379–1362 BC) chose to leave the worship of Amun, the deity of his dynasty, and create the pure religion of Aten, the solar disk, as a reaction to this interference and, possibly, also to base the Pharaonic empire permanently on a religion more broadly available to men of all nations. The king, now known as Akhenaten (which means “Splendor of Aten”), and his wife, Nefertiti, relocated the capital from Thebes to the city of Akhenaten (or Amarna in Egyptian).
The Theban priesthood, representing Egyptian particularism, fought back violently against the revolution. Upon becoming king, Tutankhamun (1361–1352 BC), Amenhotep IV’s son-in-law and heir, had to immediately make peace with the Amun priests, return to Thebes, and reinstate the traditions. The crisis not only crippled the Egyptian monarchy outside (the Hittites having replaced the Egyptians in Syria by around 1375 BC), but also severely damaged its reputation domestically. After a period of chaos after the death of young Tutankhamun, the general Horemheb took control (1348–1320 BC) and began the restructuring of the state on the basis of the strictest traditionalism, with the backing of the Theban church, which was more powerful than ever. Egypt’s 19th dynasty (1319–1200 BC) was an attempt to revive the country’s former Asian dominance.
Sometime between 1318 and 1304 BC, Seti I retook southern Palestine. Ramses II (1304–1238 BC) attempted to retake Syria from the Hittites, but was defeated at Kadesh (c. 1300 BC), and subsequent campaigns were fruitless. Finally, in 1284 BC, the Egyptians and Hittites signed a treaty dividing Syria between them, and the treaty was confirmed by Ramses II’s marriage to the daughter of the Hittite king Hattusili III. This meant that the New Kingdom gave up on Eastern dominance for good, but it also brought around forty years of calm, during which classical Egyptian civilization shone its last light (construction of the funerary temple of Abu-Simbel, of the hypostyle hall of Karnak).
Decline of the pharaohs and end of Ancient Egypt
With the threat posed by the Hittites eliminated, the territory now needed to be protected from the Sea Peoples, who were making their way inland from the coasts of Asia Minor and Greece after being pushed out of those areas by subsequent Indo-European invasions and the arrival of the Dorians in the Aegean Sea. Merneptah, son and successor of Ramses II, drove them back.
Because of Pharaoh’s oppression, the Jews decided to escape Egypt and go with Moses to the land that God promised them. The New Kingdom’s collapse started with the death of Ramses III, the second king of the 20th dynasty. After the Assyrians and Libyans destroyed the empire and surrounded it, the priesthood of Amun, led by high priest Herihor, seized authority in Upper Egypt.
Egypt had lost the ability to defend itself against the relentless invasions, notwithstanding brief periods of strength under the reigns of pharaohs Shoshenq I (945-924 BC) and Psamtik I (664-610 BC). The final pharaohs were so badly off financially that they couldn’t even afford a tomb before it was destroyed. From then, Egypt fell under the rule of the Nubians, the Assyrians, and the Persians until finally capitulating to Alexander the Great’s army in 332 BC. The Ptolemies, a family of Greek ancestry, took control of Egypt and established themselves as the ruling dynasty.
Up to the 2nd century BC, Alexandria, the Ptolemaic capital, was a thriving economic and cultural hub. The Ptolemaic empire eventually collapsed due to internal strife, populist uprisings, and battles with the Seleucids. A series of weak monarchs led to the collapse of the Ptolemaic dynasty in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, when Rome became more involved in the country’s affairs.
Cleopatra was the last and most well-known of the Ptolemaic monarchs. She reigned autonomously at first but eventually received help from Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. After she and her son Ptolemy XIV, Caesarion, died in 30 BC, the Ptolemaic dynasty collapsed and Augustus seized Egypt for the Roman Empire. Incredibly, even the earliest known civilization managed to leave behind a rich cultural and artistic legacy that would be appreciated by future generations.
Nobel Prize recipient Robert Koch (1843-1910) is well recognized as a groundbreaking figure in the fields of bacteriology and infectious medicine due to his discoveries of the tubercle bacillus and the anthrax pathogen. The great Alexander von Humboldt served as an inspiration for him to pursue a career in exploration and travel. Robert Koch, on the other hand, did not make his groundbreaking findings in some remote location but rather in the human body itself.
An unheralded country doctor made a significant contribution to medical knowledge at a time when physicians were powerless in the face of terrible infectious illnesses and still believed that “polluted air” was the source of many dangerous outbreaks. Anthrax, TB, and cholera were three of humanity’s worst enemies at the time, but once Koch discovered that they were caused by bacteria, the war against them became a resounding victory.
Koch’s studies are as readable as the first few entries in a medical dictionary. He was successful in isolating the microbes responsible for a wide range of diseases, including anthrax, babesiosis, and cholera. Koch, however, accomplished far more than that. His methodical approach allowed him to devise methods for fending against microorganisms. By doing so, he established the cornerstone of modern sanitation.
Koch, though, never gave up on his dream of seeing the globe. So he didn’t think twice about pursuing both his career and his passion by jumping at every chance to investigate epidemics firsthand. He often visited the world’s most inaccessible regions while transportation was still difficult.
The Start of an Adventurous Career
From a coal miner’s kid to a medical doctor
At the age of five, Robert Koch surprised his parents in 1848 by revealing that he had taught himself to read with the aid of a newspaper. Born in Clausthal, in the Harz Mountains, in 1843, the third son of a miner’s family, this accomplishment immediately offers a sense of the boy’s degree of intellect and methodical persistence.
Before beginning his studies in natural sciences at the University of Göttingen in 1862, he had planned on becoming a global traveler. But he quickly realized that was not what interested him, so he went into medicine instead.
It all started with animal feces
Here he encounters Jacob Henle, an anatomy professor who in 1840 presented the hypothesis, widely regarded as fantastic at the time, that infectious illnesses were caused by live parasitic organisms. Henle, a microscopy expert at the time, utilized the method to find germs in the feces of sick animals. However, he failed to present evidence connecting the parasites to the illness. However, Koch was fascinated by Henle’s research.
Robert Koch
As a student, he lives by the mantra “never idle,” and as a result, he completes his PhD work well in advance of taking the required state examinations. When Koch finishes his PhD in chemistry, he spends six months in Berlin, where he is heavily influenced by Rudolf Virchow.
Hamburg in Lieu of the Rest of the World
After passing the state test in 1866, Koch wanted to work as a ship’s doctor or in the military. He was unable to pursue this goal, however, due to a combination of limited opportunities and his fiancee, Emmy Fraatz’s, strong aversion to international travel.
Instead, he began his career as a medical assistant in Hamburg. For the first time, Koch sees firsthand how terrible a cholera pandemic can be. His curiosity is piqued when he examines pathological specimens under the microscope.
Medical Service in the Military
Before then, however, he worked as a physician in the rural communities of Langenhagen, Niemegk (Brandenburg), and Rackwitz (near Posen). When the Franco-Prussian War broke out in 1870–71, Koch was finally able to leave his domestic idyll and follow his lifelong ambition of becoming a military doctor. He reported right away as a volunteer physician at the field hospital, despite the fact that he had extreme myopia. He was able to obtain invaluable expertise here in diagnosing and treating typhoid and wounds, which he would later use in his medical practice.
After the war, Koch finished medical school and began working as a medical officer in the little village of Wollstein, close to Posen, where he also opened his own medical practice. As both a doctor and an obstetrician, he served the community in this role. But his routine at the office wasn’t satisfying him…
From Town Doctor to an Established Academic
Searching for Anthrax
Anthrax wiped out Europe’s cattle population year after year. When Robert Koch was a rural doctor in Posen, he too was faced with the catastrophic effects of this illness. His patients were constantly complaining about how the illness had destroyed their ability to make a living. Several instances occurred even on fields that had been dormant for a long time.
In light of this, he decided to investigate the matter further. Koch, isolated from the scientific community and distant from libraries, undertook independent research in his leisure time with only rudimentary resources. Starting off, he used one of the four bedrooms in the apartment where he lived with his wife and newborn daughter as a makeshift laboratory.
But what was Koch’s safety net, exactly? In his day, what information was available concerning anthrax? He didn’t have to relearn anything from scratch because of his old professor, Jakob Henle. In the 1940s, Henle hypothesized that a live creature, the so-called “Contagium animatum,” was responsible for spreading the illness. In 1849 and 1863, scientists discovered the anthrax bacteria (Bacillus anthracis), but they did not make the link between the organism and the deadly illness until much later.
Cow Blood for Clues
Since this was not a mystery to Koch, he could now effectively search for it. He then spent a ton of money on a microscope and started looking at the tissues and blood of animals that had perished from anthrax. When doing so, he came across millions of rod-shaped anthrax bacilli.
But can we be sure that their presence was due to the sickness, or was it just a coincidence? This was the point at which Koch really started doing research. Mice and guinea pigs were injected with blood from recently murdered cows, and he watched the results with bated breath. As expected, the animals’ spleens quickly developed a yellow tint and enlarged. They died a few times after that. Koch investigated the dead animals and discovered infections in all of them. His findings confirmed what had previously been observed: the blood may contain anthrax.
Pathogen Identified
Koch, however, was not satisfied with this. He needed evidence that the germs in the blood were responsible for the illness, rather than some other factor. He required bacteria that had never been exposed to diseased animals or their blood to do this. So he began cultivating sterile bacterial cultures and searching for an appropriate medium. The nutrients he needed were most concentrated in the chamber water of ox eyes, he discovered. He raised many generations of the bacterium in his lab. By infecting animals in the lab, he demonstrated that the offspring germs were really virulent enough to cause anthrax.
What’s up With Those Spores?
Koch, using long-term microscopy, discovered that the bacteria not only thrived in adverse circumstances such as a lack of oxygen but also produced spherical, resistant permanent forms that could germinate into new anthrax bacilli even after years of hibernation.
It was now understood why sporadic outbreaks of anthrax occurred in long-abandoned pastures. The pathogen’s spores leaked from deceased animals into the soil, where they persisted for years before being re-transmitted to grazing animals. Koch, therefore, identified the root cause of the catastrophic losses of animals that had been occurring frequently.
When the subject of bacteriology was still in its infancy, Koch went to Breslau in 1876 to submit his results to botanist Ferdinand Cohn. He made a big splash and got a lot of attention. Louis Pasteur, building on Koch’s research, created an anthrax vaccine in 1881.
An Emerging Field: Bacteriology
Koch spent the years after the publication of his findings on anthrax in 1876 honing his microscopic skills. He created new techniques for staining and took the first images taken with a microscope. Because of this, he had a resource for spreading the word about his findings to the general population. He was quite optimistic about this new method, saying, “You can show a photograph around as evidence among colleagues, you can reproduce it in a publication, and besides, the photographic plate is more sensitive than the retina of the human eye.”
He established the basis for contemporary bacteriology with his methodical methodology, microscopic detection, pure culture growth, and transfer to experimental animals. It was a step toward understanding other infectious illnesses as well.
The Unexplained Tragedy of Surgical Fatalities
After discovering the anthrax bacillus, Koch believed that each wound infection was caused by a distinct pathogen. Consequently, he dove headfirst into his study. The publication of his discoveries in Investigations of the Aetiology of Wound Infections (Über die Aetiologie der Wundinfectionskrankheiten) in 1878 elevated his status in the scientific community.
Not long after, the brand-new Imperial Health Department saw him and invited him to Berlin. In 1880, Koch became the director of the bacteriology department at the university. There, he had access to both personnel and cutting-edge laboratory technology, allowing him to advance his study beyond what was feasible in his hometown.
But soon he found himself preoccupied with a new issue: the persistent occurrence of mysterious fatalities after surgical operations in hospitals. Patients are dying in droves from infections, despite the fact that the procedures themselves pose little risk of death. The riddle was solved by Robert Koch’s enhanced staining procedures. This allowed him to find bacteria in places where they were most unwelcome, such as on the surgical equipment used by physicians in hospitals.
Carbolic Acid-Resistant Infections
Because of this insight, he began studying infectious diseases and creating specific cleanliness practices. Through a battery of tests, he demonstrated that the then-standard disinfectant, carbolic acid, killed bacteria at a concentration of 2% but had no impact on spores. Koch discovered that this was true only at a 5% dilution.
Nonetheless, this only held true if the carbolic acid had more time to have its effect on the spores. In reality, only a light sprinkle or spray was used to disinfect items. Koch understood that this approach to disinfection was very risky. Noting that “it is not sufficient to eradicate the living forms of the bacteria,” he stressed the need for “rendering harmless the spores, which are far more resistant.”
Fumes of Heat
Spores, here from B. anthracis, are extremely resistant.
Koch set out to discover other approaches that would ensure effective sterilization. Sterilization using heat was used by several hospitals. Koch was able to utilize one of these massive germaphobe machines at the Moabit Municipal Hospital. His experiments indicated that heat alone had almost no impact on the spores, and this was true in both cases. Koch tried many approaches before settling on one that worked for him. He settled on utilizing superheated steam, which proved to be far more successful in terms of sterilization.
By 1881, his findings had been published in a seminal work that had become the standard reference for the field of bacteriology.
Koch’s Postulates
A Checklist for Pathogens
Koch was able to differentiate between bacterial strains because of his staining methods. Now he had to start the laborious process of linking particular germs to their corresponding illnesses. He reasoned that every illness must have a unique pathogen. He was optimistic that the sickness might be brought under control once the causative agent had been identified. Koch was approaching the problem in a methodical manner.
The pathogen Listeria causes food poisoning.
To begin, he verified that the infected host had a pathogen at all times. After removing the germs from the infected host, Koch cultivated them in vitro. Then, he used these cultures to inoculate animals in the lab and watch for any signs of illness. If so, he did the second round of pathogen isolation and microscopic comparison. If they were the same, then he knew for sure that this particular bacterium was responsible for the illness.
Checking for Pathogens
At the 10th International Medical Congress held in Berlin in 1890, Koch gave a speech on bacteriological research and outlined the criteria a pathogen must meet in order to be deemed unequivocally the cause of an illness:
First, it must be shown that the parasite is present in each and every instance of the disease in issue, and that it does so under environmental settings that mirror the pathological alterations and the clinical progression of the illness.
Second, it is not an accidental, non-pathogenic parasite in any other illness;
Thirdly, that it can re-breed the illness in pure cultures a sufficient number of times without ever coming into contact with a human host.
According to Koch, it would thus be impossible for the sickness to have occurred by chance, and it would be impossible to conceive of any other connection between the parasite and the disease other than that the parasite was the cause of the disease.
Friedrich Loeffler, one of Koch’s coworkers, popularized the term “Koch’s postulates” to refer to this set of principles, which remain relevant today in a somewhat modified form. However, they no longer apply without qualification in the same way that they did during Koch’s lifetime. He had previously hit a dead end in his study of the cholera pathogen Vibrio cholerae because he couldn’t get the isolated bacterium to infect experimental animals.
Meanwhile, pathogens have been found that do not meet all the criteria. One cannot simply cultivate viruses in a medium of their own kind. Like many other infections, Neisseria gonorrhoeae affects animals but not humans. Only with the help of cutting-edge molecular biology techniques is the HIV virus detectable. Therefore, a fourth postulate was added to the set, detailing the identification of immunological pathogen-host connections.
Koch’s postulates centered on whether or not a certain pathogen was responsible for a given sickness. On the other hand, the updated version was used to find the illness’ cause when dealing with known diseases.
The Discovery of the Tuberculosis Pathogen
In the middle of the nineteenth century, TB was one of the leading causes of mortality in Europe, prompting headlines like “Europe in the death grip of tuberculosis!” in Berlin newspapers. About one-seventh of the population was affected by this pandemic throughout the nation.
Robert Koch had the same difficulties as any other doctor in this situation. He and his staff dove headfirst into studying this “scourge of humanity” in 1881. Using human lung tissue taken after death, he injected rabbits and guinea pigs with tuberculous bacteria. Simultaneously, he looked at the tissue under a microscope but was unable to discover any germs at first.
Ziehl-Neelsen staining for the detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Eventually, after painstakingly testing several staining processes, he was able to recognize the small, rod-shaped formations. Meanwhile, Koch’s afflicted test animals also began to perish. Under the microscope, he discovered identical rod-shaped germs in all of the dead animals.
A Goal, Rather Than a Partner
However, culturing the bacteria in a sterile environment proved challenging. After 15 days, he saw that microscopic colonies were only forming after he added blood serum to regular agar (in a Petri dish) as an extra food source. He knew he had found the TB-causing agent when he was able to infect laboratory animals with the daughter microbes.
In his lecture titled “Etiology of Tuberculosis,” given on March 24, 1882, Koch informed experts that the bacilli found in “tuberculous substances are not merely the companions of the tuberculous process, but the cause of it.” To back up his claim, Koch showed photographs of microscopic tissue preparations in which he had visualized the rod-shaped bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis by means of a color reaction.
A page from Robert Koch’s “Etiology of Tuberculosis” (1884). Koch’s stain for tuberculosis bacteria is blue, but the current standard stain is red.
This was the pinnacle of his scientific career. In the end, Koch became one of the Imperial Privy Councilors. In 1885, he became the first head of the Institute of Hygiene at Berlin’s University of Berlin and was promoted to the position of professor.
To Find an Antidote
Koch, who had previously focused on education, shifted his focus to finding a treatment for TB. He learned how to make a vaccine by reading the work of Louis Pasteur, one of his competitors. He injected guinea pigs with a serum made from TB germs that he had previously killed in his lab’s centrifuge.
He injected the animals with live TB germs and observed them closely. Koch considered the localized reddening of the skin that occurred after immunization to be protective against a subsequent illness. In the end, he came to the conclusion that this vaccine made it possible to not only identify an illness but also treat it while it was still in its earliest stages.
His “Tuberculin” was met with great applause when he introduced it at the 1890 Berlin International Medical Congress. He just hinted at its contents, though. A compound he had discovered “is capable of halting the development of tubercle bacilli not only in the test tube, but also in the animal body, such that guinea pigs, when exposed to such a material, no longer respond to inoculation with the tuberculous virus,” he said.
From the Highest of Highs to the Lowest of Lows
Patients went in droves to Berlin’s specially constructed sanatoriums in order to get treatment with the wonder medicine. But soon there would be hearses parked outside since the vaccination wasn’t working. It seemed to exacerbate TB rather than alleviate it.
Rudolf Virchow, a pathologist who was initially skeptical of Koch’s findings, conducted an autopsy and found tubercle bacilli in the corpses of the dead. It was now time for Koch to confess that tubercle bacilli were the active ingredient in his miraculous therapy. There was a lot of outrage at the news once it was announced. Koch was forced to face a crushing loss and widespread condemnation.
The needle for Tuberculin Tine Test.
After Clemens von Pirquet’s research established the use of tuberculin in diagnostics, his name was finally rehabilitated. Von Pirquet explained that a red rash caused by an allergic reaction was a sure sign that tuberculosis germs were already present in the body. Today, patients who have been diagnosed with TB still get tuberculin injections under the skin with a four-pronged needle. When pustules appear at the injection site between 48 and 72 hours later, the test is deemed positive.
The development of the diagnostic test, although a boon, did nothing to ease Koch’s suffering. He felt guilty about a lot of different individuals. After decades of study, Koch was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology in 1905 for his contributions to the science of TB.
On the Trail of Cholera
Egypt and India as Places to Look for Disease
Fevers, nausea, diarrhea, and ultimately death. The emergence of these symptoms was rarely a lone occurrence. Cholera had been a recurring problem in Europe since 1817, and it had claimed many lives. In 1883, when another pandemic erupted in Egypt, they worried it might spread over the continent.
On the German Cholera Expedition to Egypt in 1884, led by Robert Koch.
It was the perfect chance for Robert Koch to fulfill his wanderlust. In order to investigate the sickness firsthand, he joined a government delegation from Germany and went to Alexandria. Basically, he uncovered the causative agents of amoebic dysentery, rinderpest, bubonic plague, sleeping sickness, and bacterial conjunctivitis.
Is the “Comma” a Cholera Virus?
Cholera, however, was his primary concern. Soon, he began to assume that a certain comma-shaped bacteria was to blame for the outbreak. Unfortunately, he was unable to finish his study before the conclusion of the pandemic in Egypt. Feeling somewhat defeated, he returned to Germany with pure cultures of the suspicious infection.
From this location, Koch learned about a new cholera epidemic in India and set sail for Calcutta at once. In several cases, he also discovered comma-shaped bacteria in the patients. Even though he was unable to inoculate animals with the bacterium, he was certain that Vibrio cholerae was the cause of cholera.
The Vibrio cholerae.
But it wasn’t good enough for him. In order to effectively combat the sickness, he was concerned about its transmission. It took him a while, but he eventually tracked the bacteria to tainted water storage containers and learned that they spread by ingesting contaminated food or wearing infected textiles.
“I forget that I’m in Europe”
When Koch returned to Berlin, he quickly instituted a system of routine water quality monitoring and suggested a number of sanitation-related enhancements, including the installation of water filters. He established a framework for future efforts to control epidemics.
The Prussian government sent Koch to the site of the 1892 cholera epidemic in Hamburg so that he might advise the Hamburg Senate. When he got there, he saw the squalor and filth that had settled into the impoverished areas and the emigrant barracks, and he was horrified. He blasted the Senate and demanded immediate action, saying things like “Gentlemen, I forget that I am in Europe.”
George Pinwell, Death’s Dispensary, 1866.
During his lifetime, Koch was heralded as the one who discovered the cholera pathogen, however, the actual discovery really predates his. In 1854, the bacterium was first isolated by the Italian anatomist Filippo Pacini. Miasma theory, which held that contaminated air was the root cause of many ailments, was still popular at the time, therefore his study was ignored.
Koch also discovered the finding independently of Pacini, who was ignorant of his colleague’s efforts. This time, the discovery was not lost to the benefit of humanity because of his popularity and celebrity. It was not until 1965, however, that the bacterium was formally named Vibrio cholerae Pacini 1854.
Robert Koch as Head of the Later Robert Koch Institute
Robert Koch as an eminent academic.
Bacteriology has flourished ever since Koch’s seminal discovery. The major focus of scientific investigation has always been finding ways to either stop the spread of infectious illnesses or slow the pace of epidemics. In 1885, Robert Koch was hired as the head of the Institute of Hygiene at Berlin’s Friedrich-Wilhelms University. Many medical professionals with an interest in bacteriology flocked to Berlin because of his fame. Over time, the prerequisites became inadequate.
“Robert Koch Institute” Is Founded
The Royal Prussian Institute for Infectious Diseases, which was the first version of what is now the Robert Koch Institute, was set up next to the Charité in 1891, and Koch was named its director.
This is where abilities like those of Paul Ehrlich and Emil Adolf Behring, later recipients of the Nobel Prize in medicine, who made significant strides against diphtheria and syphilis, come into play.
The institution, which was first located in a residential building, was merely a temporary solution, since construction on a new structure that was specifically designed to meet the demands of the scientists had already started.
The building was finished in the summer of 1900 at its current site in Berlin-Wedding, with stables and housing for the cattle, horses, sheep, and frogs reared as experimental animals.
Travelers With an Insatiable Curiosity
Koch, however, was not content with the monotony of his home laboratory. His curiosity and sense of adventure inspired him to make many trips to the affected areas so that he could investigate the causes and spread of the sickness firsthand. In between these expeditions, he would travel to Europe and the United States to present the findings of his study at international conferences.
He had been devoting his life to the study of tropical illnesses since 1896. Rinderpest, Texas fever, and coastal fever were just a few of the animal illnesses that were a problem in southern Africa. He was unable to pinpoint the specific agent that causes rinderpest, but his efforts to inoculate healthy cattle with bile from sick animals halted the disease’s progression.
The Race in Malaria Research
However, human-transmitted illnesses such as malaria and sleeping sickness pique his attention. Prussian authorities, upon learning of his return to Germany, sent him to Italy and the tropics to probe the source of a malaria pandemic. Very quickly, he learned that there were really four distinct types of malaria. Unfortunately, the exact mechanism by which the illness spread remained unknown.
The Anopheles mosquito was Koch’s prime candidate, but Ronald Ross of the United Kingdom beat him to the punch by publishing a detailed account of the parasite’s life cycle in Anopheles mosquitoes. Koch’s studies back up these claims. He had been using quinine, an extract from cinchona bark that was effective against the disease’s asexual phase, to effectively manage the outbreak.
He Still Fought Epidemics in Retirement
His Last Years
At age 60, Koch stepped down as head of the Institute of Infectious Diseases in 1904. But not to relax, but to devote all of his energy to his future adventures.
That same year, he returned to East Africa to investigate a mysterious illness plaguing cattle herds. Simultaneously, he investigated Babesia and Trypanosoma parasites, as well as the tick-borne illness spirochetosis. Koch’s study found that ticks might potentially spread Babesia. Infecting cattle with Texas fever, these parasites laid their eggs in RBCs.
Arsenic and Fire for the Treatment of Sleeping Sickness
A year later, in 1906, Koch went back to Central Africa to continue his work against the deadly sleeping disease. David Bruce, a colleague in the field, had previously (1918) identified a trypanosoma species as the pathogen and the tsetse fly as the intermediate host. Koch was looking for a cure when he found the arsenic-based organic molecule that is the medicine Atoxyl.
However, the dose needed was very high, and the hazardous side effects were the norm. Instead of addressing the root of the problem, he took a dramatic step and ordered the tsetse fly to be eradicated. Trees and bushes were being cut down and raked out with brutal efficiency all along the East African coast. Tsetse flies feed on blood, so crocodiles were often killed for their meat.
Stroke at Age 66
Koch’s extensive international excursions were draining, though. Decades before his death, he showed symptoms of angina, but that didn’t stop him from enduring the rigors of his research excursions.
Sadly, Koch experienced a serious heart attack and complained of shortness of breath and discomfort in the left side of his chest three days after delivering a seminar talk on TB in April 1910. He left for Baden-Baden on May 23 to recuperate at the sanatorium of his friend Dr. Dengler. In the short term, his health seemed to improve in the moderate Black Forest environment. Before supper on May 27, he planned to bask in the sun via the open balcony door. And then the attending physician came upon his body while on rounds.
Robert Koch spent his whole life working to prevent and treat disease. Among the many things he learned from his studies was that burial corpses do not adequately eliminate disease-causing microorganisms and, in fact, promote the development of spores. So, it shouldn’t come as a shock that Koch requested his cremation before he passed away. Ashes were brought from Baden-Baden to Berlin and interred in a mausoleum designed for him at the site of what is now the Robert Koch Institute.
World War II was the worst war in human history, involving 61 countries and leading to the deaths of almost 60 million people. The Allies and the Axis fought each other around the globe for six long years. The war was marked by the emergence of notable individuals, such as Winston Churchill and Charles de Gaulle, who took the lead in standing against Adolf Hitler‘s Germany. World War II lasted longer than just the years 1939–1945, so it’s helpful to look back at its pivotal years to get a fuller picture of what happened.
Adolf Hitler’s first wave of racist legislation was enacted when the Nazi party came to power in Germany in 1933. His ambitions prompted the invasion of Poland that started World War II in 1939. Following the failure of their invasions of France and the Benelux nations, Germany launched an unsuccessful assault on England. The Soviet Union entered the war after Germany’s 1941 invasion of the country. The unexpected Japanese assault on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, was what finally mobilized the United States to fight in the Pacific.
In 1942, when Nazi officials sanctioned the “final solution,” the Allies were winning their first significant victories over the Japanese in the Coral Sea and Midway Atoll. The Allies landed in North Africa and defeated the Axis forces in the Battle of El Alamein, forcing the Axis to withdraw from the region. In the USSR, the Soviets were victorious in the Battle of Stalingrad in 1943. In the wake of the Normandy invasions, the German army was forced to retreat. On May 8, 1945, after being trapped by the Red Army and the other Allies, Germany surrendered. The United States detonated atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki to force Japan to capitulate. On September 2, 1945, Japan officially surrendered.
What were the causes of World War II?
In the wee hours of September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland, thus starting World War II. Austria had been annexed by Germany in 1938, and Bohemia and Moravia in March 1939, with little resistance. The battle had been building for quite some time before it officially started in September of 1939. By the time World War I ended in 1918, many nations were bitter and angry.
Germany’s repeated remilitarization and territorial expansion were in direct violation of the Treaty of Versailles. Conquering Manchuria was an act of colonial ambition on the part of other nations, such as Japan. Italy first invaded and conquered Ethiopia, and then moved on to Albania. Many local wars also contributed to the outbreak of global war. It’s also worth noting that several countries were damaged by the Great Depression of 1929.
How did World War II begin?
Adolf Hitler and Heinrich Himmler inspect SS troops during a Reichsparteitag (Reich Party Day) parade in Nuremberg (September 5, 1938 – September 12, 1938).
On September 3, 1939, after Germany invaded Poland, French and British forces went to war with the Third Reich. There was hardly any combat throughout the first eight months of World War II. This conflict was a charade. On May 10, 1940, German armies invaded Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, marking the beginning of the “blitzkrieg.”
These three nations were overrun in under two weeks. Despite General de Gaulle’s appeal on June 18, 1940, Germany occupied France as well, and an armistice was signed on June 22. It was only the United Kingdom and the Axis powers. The Battle of Britain was fought by the German Luftwaffe and the Italian Air Force against the Royal Air Force of the United Kingdom (RAF).
Vernichtungskrieg: The World War II was a war of annihilation
Photo of the Wehrmacht propaganda unit: two German soldiers in front of the burning roof of a building, Soviet Union (Russia), photo from 1941.
World War II has been called a “war of annihilation” by several scholars. The stakes in World War II were significantly higher than those of a typical military war, when the primary objective was to eliminate the opposing force. Most nations that participated in the war were motivated only by a desire to wipe out the adversary, military and civilian alike, as seen by their extraordinary mobilization and the methods they used.
Hiroshima and Nagasaki are apt metaphors for this “war of annihilation” because of the atomic bombs dropped on them. Also in line with Nazi ideology’s racial beliefs was the genocide of Jews (the Final Solution), Gypsies, and other supposedly “inferior” races. World War II was also a “total war” that had far-reaching effects on civilian life.
Which countries were involved in World War II?
Between the years of 1939 and 1945, World War II was fought on the part of almost sixty different nations.
Since 1939, the Allies have consisted of Poland, France, the United Kingdom, and its empire (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, etc.). In April of that year, Norway and Denmark joined them, and on May 10 of that year, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg fell under enemy control. After the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the United States and numerous Central American nations joined forces. While this action was taken, China was already at war with Japan, dating back to 1937.
Axis forces, including Japan, Italy, and Germany, stood in their way. In 1940, three parties reached an agreement. As the year 1940 came to a close, Hungary, Slovakia, Bulgaria, and Romania all joined the Axis. While the Italian monarch signed an armistice with the Allies in 1943, Mussolini remained in power with the support of Nazi Germany.
As a result of the German-Soviet Pact, the Soviet Union entered the war on the side of Germany. The Soviets contacted the Allies on June 22, 1941, the day before Operation Barbarossa, the Third Reich’s invasion of the Soviet Union, began.
How did the World War II unfold in France
German Chancellor Adolf Hitler shakes hands with Head of State of Vichy France Marshall Philippe Pétain in occupied France on Oct. 24, 194.
France declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939, marking its formal entry into World War II. Then came eight months of “Phoney War,” during which actual hostilities were minimal at best. As part of their “blitzkrieg” plan, German soldiers invaded France on May 10, 1940, after first seizing Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands the previous day. Marshal Pétain took power in France on June 17, 1940, and immediately ordered a halt to hostilities. General de Gaulle, operating out of London, ordered the combat to continue the next day. France capitulated to a German attack on June 22, 1940, and Marshal Pétain was eventually compelled to negotiate an armistice. After that, the line of separation split the country into a free south and an occupied north.
From 1940 to 1944, French life hummed along to the tune of the Vichy France dictatorship, the German occupation, and the Resistance. As part of Germany’s “final solution,” the yellow star was made mandatory for all Jews in France in June of that year. The French police detained all foreign Jews in the Paris area in the month of July.
This tally was taken at Vel d’Hiv. Multiple enlistments in the STO (compulsory labor service) beginning in 1942 greatly complicated the lives of the French. With the Allied arrival in North Africa, the free zone was eliminated, and all of France was seized by the Axis powers on November 11, 1942. The liberation of occupied France was made possible in June 1944 with the arrival of Allied soldiers in Normandy and afterwards in Provence. Then, on May 8, 1945, Germany surrendered to the onslaught of Allied forces.
French Resistance during World War II
Throughout the war, both men and women secretly fought for General de Gaulle and the Free French Forces as part of the French domestic resistance. The Resistance did as much as it could with what it had to try to weaken the enemy’s grip on French territory and defeat the Vichy administration, and it did this through a wide variety of tactics (sabotage, information collection, etc.).
When World War II ended, the Resistance played a significant role in the political rebuilding of the nation so that it would not be ruled by the United States. General de Gaulle was a major player in the French resistance movement. The London-based “resist” campaign he initiated on June 18, 1940, was his brainchild. Jean Moulin was able to successfully coordinate the numerous French resistance groups in France.
How many people died during World War II?
A Marine throws a grenade during the fight for Betio Island in Tarawa, ca. November 1943. Image: History Navy.
More than sixty million people lost their lives in World War II (estimates range between fifty and eighty five million deaths, according to historians), or over 2.5 percent of the world’s population at the time. The great bulk of the 60 million missing were innocent bystanders. Nearly six million people’s lives were lost as a direct result of the Holocaust.
Estimates place the number of French casualties during WWII at somewhat over 560,000. More than five million German troops and an additional one to three million civilians were killed or injured. More than 26 million people lost their lives in the Soviet Union as a direct result of the brutality of the warfare, Nazi racial cleansing, and starvation that the war created. Estimates range from 110,000 to 250,000 lives lost as a direct result of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombings.
Who won World War II?
A correspondent stands in the rubble in Hiroshima on Sept. 8, 1945, a month after the first atomic bomb ever used in warfare was dropped by the U.S. (AP Photo/Stanley Troutman)
The Allies were victorious in World War II. The invasion of Nazi territories by the Allies began in March of that year. The Soviet army marched into Berlin on May 2 and quickly took control. Surrounded by invading Allies on April 30, 1945, Adolf Hitler decided to terminate his own life in his Berlin bunker rather than sign Germany’s surrender to the Allies on May 8. Japan’s Emperor Hirohito steadfastly rejected American demands for surrender. The Americans then tested two atomic bombs. Hiroshima and Nagasaki were the decisive bombing targets that brought World War II to a conclusion on August 6 and 9, 1945. On September 2 of that year, Emperor Hirohito capitulated.
Aftermath of World War II
The defeat of the Axis powers by the Allied powers (United Kingdom, France, the United States, China, and the Soviet Union) led to the disintegration of the Third Reich, the fall of the Japanese Empire, and the termination of the Italian Colonial Empire. The Yalta Conference in February 1945 created the accords for the four-part occupation of Germany (English, French, American, and Russian).
In addition to the disarming of the nation and the redefining of the boundaries, this agreement was also endorsed at the Potsdam Conference (summer 1945). At the Nuremberg trial, 22 Nazi war criminals were judged in an effort to finally put an end to Nazism. The tensions between Stalin and American President Harry Truman at these summits were a sign of what was to come in the Cold War.
TIMELINE OF WORLD WAR II
The Maginot Line legislation was passed on January 4, 1930
The legislation authorizing the building of a line of fortifications from the Mediterranean to the Belgian border was presented in December 1929 by Minister of War André Maginot. It took five years to finish the “Maginot Line” after a loan of 3.3 billion francs was approved. The line of defense would stretch over the whole of eastern France, with the exception of the Ardennes massif, which military leaders deemed insurmountable.
The Japanese occupied Manchuria on September 25, 1931
The Chinese military was defeated by the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on September 25th, 1931. The Japanese captured the whole province, renaming it Manchukuo and installing Emperor Puyi, the last Chinese emperor in exile, as its leader. The Japanese rule in Manchuria fell as a result of an offensive by the Soviet Union in August of 1945. Today, Manchuria is still not included among the provinces that make up the PRC’s central government.
On January 30, 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany
The German President, Paul von Hindenburg, appointed Hitler as Chancellor of the Reich against his will. He disliked the “Bohemian corporal,” as he referred to the National Socialist Party’s top official. Hitler needed to establish a new “national concentration” government. Hitler became dictator, Goering became the Interior Commissioner, and Frick oversaw the Ministry of the Interior; all three were members of the Nazi Party. Hitler became president when Hindenburg died on August 2, 1934.
The first concentration camp opened on March 20, 1933
Heinrich Himmler, leader of the SS (Schutzstaffel), converted a disused factory at Dachau into a concentration camp for political prisoners. Many government opponents were sent there, including communists and social democrats. Over the course of its operation from 1933 to 1945, Dachau held around 250,000 inmates. A total of 70,000 people perished.
On November 12, 1933, the Nazi Party in Germany won an election
The Nazi party’s only electoral list in Germany received 92.1% of the vote. After a decisive win, the Nazis marched into the Reichstag. In a referendum, 95% of Germans showed support for the National Socialist Party’s foreign policy.
On March 16th, 1935, Hitler orders a return to military duty and a rearmament of Germany
Hitler brought back mandatory military duty for Germans. As a result, the force strength went from 100,000 to 500,000 under his command. As the first infractions of the Treaty of Versailles occurred, France, England, and the United States watched on. Chancellor Hitler was no longer coy about his plans to build an aggressive, formidable army. To facilitate the Third Reich’s rearmament, Hitler effectively ignored the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. No nation has responded to the reinstatement of the navy and air force. The Treaty of Versailles renamed the German army the Reichswehr; this was changed to the Wehrmacht.
The Stresa Conference officially began on April 11, 1935
Germany’s transgressions of the Treaty of Versailles prompted a meeting between France, the United Kingdom, and Italy. The conference lasted for four days in the Italian city of Stresa. If there were to be no additional violations of the Treaty of Versailles, a “Stresa Front” had to be established. The front was disbanded, however, when Mussolini’s Italy sought to seize Ethiopia. After that, Mussolini gradually began to get closer to Hitler.
The Nuremberg Code was drafted on September 15, 1935
Hitler’s first anti-Semitic measures were introduced at the Nazi Party Congress in Nuremberg. A Jew could no longer become a naturalized German citizen. They were not allowed to mingle with or marry members of the “Aryan” race. The “Final Solution” of 1942 was a direct result of this first discriminatory legislation.
September 15, 1935: The Swastika flag of the German Reich
A flag known as the swastika was used by Adolf Hitler’s National Socialist Party of German Workers. Consisting of four gallows arranged in the form of a gamma, it represents the swastika, a Neolithic-era religious emblem. The red denotes social consciousness, the white represents purity, and the black depicts the cross of battle. It was adopted as the only national flag on September 15, 1935, during the Nuremberg Congress.
Italy invaded Ethiopia on October 3, 1935
The Italian dictator Benito Mussolini sent 400,000 soldiers to Abyssinia to launch an assault on Ethiopia. After months of fighting, Ethiopian forces under King Haile Selassie eventually surrendered. Victor-Emmanuel III, King of Italy, was crowned Emperor of Ethiopia on May 9, 1936. In May of 1941, with help from the British, Haile Selassie retook control of his kingdom.
The Rhineland was remilitarized on March 7, 1936
Wehrmacht forces reoccupied the Ruhr demilitarized zone. Hitler proclaimed the demilitarization obligations Germany had made under the Treaty of Versailles to be null and invalid. The Western nations were alarmed by Germany’s breach of international law, but they did little to stop it. Forcibly reinstituting mandatory military duty was done a year earlier. In 1938, the annexation of Austria was a further breach of the boundary accords.
On October 25, 1936, Mussolini and Hitler began to work closely together
In the three years leading up to the outbreak of World War II, the two leading Axis officials proclaimed their union. The first reconciliation between Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy under the leadership of Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini, which would eventually lead to joint military action against the Allies, was established on October 25, 1936. The Führer therefore acknowledged the Italian government’s authority over Ethiopia.
November 1, 1936-Birth of the Rome-Berlin Axis
A first military alliance was formed as a result of the warming of relations between Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. In 1940, the Rome-Berlin Axis grew to include the Empire of Japan. Other nations joined this axis over the course of many months. The countries of Hungary and Romania are good examples of this.
The Anti-Komintern Pact was signed on November 24, 1936
During its conquests, Japan fought against the Soviet army but ultimately opted to join forces with Nazi Germany to counter communism. The avowed goal of this partnership was to fight the Comintern (or Third Communist International). In reality, it was a military aid deal that helped solidify the Axis once Fascist Italy joined the bloc the next year.
July 7, 1937-Beginning of the Sino-Japanese War
The Chinese-Japanese War officially began with the events at Marco Polo Bridge in Peking. Because of the loss of one of their men, the Japanese decided to conduct a search of the city. The Chinese resisted, so they brought in the big guns. On the 28th of July, they took control of Beijing.
The Japanese army had been present in Manchuria since 1931, but it wasn’t until this invasion that they really demonstrated their intent to conquer China. After then, it grew at a lightning pace. However, the Kuomintang (KMT) still delivered several crucial fights while being significantly slowed down by the guerilla forces commanded by the communists in the north.
Combat began in Shanghai on August 13, 1937
During the Sino-Japanese War of 1937, China and Japan fought in the Battle of Shanghai. On August 13, four days after Japanese Lieutenant Isao Oyama was killed by Chinese forces, fighting broke out. It took the Japanese over three months to completely conquer Shanghai, despite having superior weapons, preparation, and organization. Chinese forces were outnumbered, yet on November 26, they surrendered anyhow. The Japanese established a government based on collaboration.
Nanjing Massacre, December 13, 1937
Imperial Japanese Army troops slaughtered between 200,000 and 300,000 civilians and unarmed soldiers at Nanking, the headquarters of the Nationalist government of the Republic of China. Mass rapes, unlawful killings of Chinese POWs, robbery, and arson occurred alongside this incident during the Sino-Japanese conflict.
March 13, 1938: Hitler carried out the Anschluss, the annexation of Austria
Adolf Hitler ordered an invasion of Austria after the country’s chancellor was removed from office by force. Soldiers of the Reich were cheered by Austrians when they annexed the country with little resistance. In the name of “attachment,” the Führer announced the reunification of Austria and Germany (Anschluss). This compromise, forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles, was first tried in 1934. However, it met with little opposition from Western democracies this time. This annexation was supported by a large margin in a referendum held in Germany and Austria. Austria was added as a new piece to the Nazi battlefield and transformed into the “Ostmark,” or Eastern March of the Reich.
China’s Battle of Wuhan starts on June 11th, 1938
In China, the Battle of Wuhan starts. After taking Shanghai and Nanking, the Japanese army was more eager than ever to complete the Sino-Japanese War with a decisive victory over China. The Chinese troops, aided by the Russians, put up a fierce fight for four months before eventually succumbing to Japanese forces.
“Sudeten Crisis” began on September 15, 1938
German-speakers in Bohemia and Moravia were known as the Sudetenland. The Sudeten crisis started on September 15th, 1938. Hitler’s goal was to incorporate the Sudetenland into Nazi Germany. This was advanced by the signing of the Munich Agreement on September 29, 1938. As a result of Germany’s defeat at the war’s conclusion, the Sudetenlanders would be forced into exile in the country.
The Munich Pact was signed on September 30, 1938.
An agreement about Czechoslovakia’s future was signed that night in Munich by Hitler, Mussolini, and the prime ministers of the United Kingdom and France, Neville Chamberlain and Édouard Daladier. After 12 hours of talks, France and Great Britain caved to German demands in order to prevent a new war.
Despite its reluctance, the Czechoslovak government ultimately caved in to the demands of the major nations and acknowledged the country’s breach of the Treaty of Versailles. There was no doubt that Hitler came out on top at this conference. The next day, Hitler invaded the Sudetenland and began demolishing Central Europe’s lone democracy. The Munich Agreement was a metaphor for the impotence of European democracies in the face of fascism’s march to power.
Czechoslovak President Edvard Benes resigned on October 5th, 1938
On October 5, 1938, Edvard Beneš resigned as president of Czechoslovakia. This action followed the September 1938 Munich Agreement, which authorized German control over Czechoslovakia’s German-populated regions. The First Czechoslovak Republic collapsed when Edvard Beneš was replaced as president by Emil Hácha. Bene had been exiled. There was just one year of the Second Czechoslovak Republic. Bohemia-Moravia became the official name of the nation while under Nazi control.
November 9, 1938: Tragic “Kristallnacht” in Germany
In order to incite a Nazi uprising against Jews, German Propaganda Minister Goebbels falsely claimed that Jews were plotting against Germany. Synagogues, businesses, and Jewish houses in Germany’s major cities were assaulted by thousands of Nazi extremists in the middle of the night.
As a direct consequence of the fighting, 91 Jews lost their lives and almost 10,000 were taken as captives. As an allusion to the shattered windows during the “pogrom,” Hitler dubbed this first outbreak of anti-Semitic violence “Kristallnacht.” As punishment for the nighttime disturbances, the Jewish community had to pay a billion marks.
January 13, 1939: Hungary was invited to the Anti-Comintern Pact
Imperial Japan and Nazi Germany formed the Anti-Comintern Pact in 1936. The dilemma of whether or not to oppose the Third Communist International arose against the backdrop of the bloody conflict in Siberia and Mongolia between Japan and the Soviet Union. In January 1939, the Hungarian monarchy joined Mussolini’s Italy and Franco’s Spain as signatories. In the case of a military assault by the Soviet Union, both nations pledged to help each other militarily.
The biggest German battleship, the Bismarck, was launched on February 14, 1939
The battleship “Bismarck” was named after Otto von Bismarck, the German chancellor from 1815 until his death in 1898. It was launched in Hamburg port on February 14, 1939, with Hitler watching. It entered service on August 24, 1940, under the leadership of Ernst Lindemann, and quickly became one of the most important assets of the Nazi navy of the Third Reich with the Tirpitz. She was renowned for having capsized her British equivalent, the HMS Hood.
Bohemia was occupied by the Germans on March 15, 1939
Nazi Germany attacked Bohemia and Moravia after the Munich Agreement, the acquisition of regions by Poland and Hungary, and the secession of Slovakia, which became under fascist rule. The treaties of Versailles and Saint-Germain-en-Laye were also terminated at this time, along with those with the Czechoslovak Republic.
The Munich Accords failed to achieve their stated goal of ensuring lasting peace. The next day, Bohemia and Moravia were occupied and turned into protectorates, while Slovakia was reduced to a German satellite state. The Beneš government, having fled the nation in the wake of the Munich Agreement, planned the uprising from London.
April 5, 1939: Albert Lebrun was re-elected President of the Republic
Albert Lebrun was re-elected as President of France on April 5, 1939. The economic crisis of 1934, the rise of the Popular Front, and rising tensions in Europe all occurred during his first seven years in office. Even though he was against signing an armistice with Nazi Germany, he had to accept Marshal Pétain as President of the Council. After Pétain fired him, the Germans imprisoned him at Itter Castle in the Austrian Tyrol beginning in October 1943.
Italy invaded Albania on April 7th, 1939
Italy, led by Benito Mussolini, invades Albania after putting intense pressure on the nation. Victor Emanuele II, King of Italy, was also crowned King of Albania. King Zogu abdicated and fled to Greece when his nation was invaded. After Italy, Germany seized Albania in 1943. Then, Zogu sought asylum in the United Kingdom. Soon, communists and nationalists joined forces to organize the resistance in Albania.
On April 20, 1939, the German military celebrated Hitler’s 50th birthday with a parade
Hitler marked his half-century on this earth on April 20th, 1939. On this day, Berlin was planning a massive military parade. The Nazi military’s might was on display for the world to see during the three-hour parade of numerous corps. The parade began with the Waffen SS in the front, then the Luftwaffe, the air force, the army’s panzers, and the heavy artillery, which included assault guns.
The Pact of Steel was signed on May 22, 1939
In Berlin, von Ribbentrop and Count Ciano, the foreign ministers of Germany and Italy, respectively, signed an offensive military support treaty. It formally solidified the alliance between Nazi Germany (which conquered Austria and Czechoslovakia) and Fascist Italy, which had been declared in November 1936 and annexed Albania.
August 23, 1939: The German-Soviet Pact
German and Soviet representatives signed a non-aggression agreement on August 23, 1939. A series of military and diplomatic agreements were outlined in this text, including a pledge of neutrality should Germany or the Soviet Union come into confrontation with the Western countries.
This covert pact rearranged Eastern European power structures. In response to Germany’s September assault on Poland, the Soviet Union launched an invasion of Finland. Invading Russia in 1941 was a clear violation of this pact by Hitler.
The German Wehrmacht invaded Poland on September 1, 1939.
Adolf Hitler’s German troops invaded Poland at 4:45 a.m. without first issuing a formal declaration of war. Italy declared its neutrality on the same day that France, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union all declared universal mobilization. At this point, World War II had officially started.
The Swiss border was protected by General Guisan on September 2, 1939.
Switzerland, a neutral country and a significant international financial hub, raises its military to defend its borders against a hypothetical German invasion. General Guisan defended the nation throughout World War II, and the Nazis were unable to invade.
September 3, 1939: London and Paris declare war on Germany
France and the United Kingdom formally declared war on Germany two days after the German invasion of Poland. The French and British governments, pushed by their own publics, came to the conclusion that a diplomatic settlement and discussions with Germany were no longer viable options. The “Phoney War” had officially begun.
On September 10, 1939, Canada declared its participation in World War II
Canada joined WWII on May 10, 1940, seven days after Britain and almost two years before the United States. However, the situation remained precarious because French Canadians had rejected foreign support for the war. At the start of the 1940s, the speed of industrialization helped the Allies a lot.
On September 17th, 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Poland
After signing an August treaty obligating them to aid Germany, the Soviet Union invaded eastern Poland. In the same vein as Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union permitted this invasion to occur without formally declaring war. After intense combat, the Red Army emerged victorious.
Soviet troops invade Finland on November 30th, 1939
Following a border dispute over the Karelian Isthmus, Stalin invaded Finland without even making a formal declaration of war. Nearly half a million Russian forces invaded the nation. Viborg and the capital city of Helsinki were both hit by bombs. In this fight, known as the “Winter War,” 265,000 Finns fought against the Red Army. This violence was widely criticized across the world.
On December 14th, the USSR was kicked out of the League of Nations. Finnish territorial concessions and the signing of the Moscow Treaty on March 12, 1940, brought an end to the war that had been more difficult for the Soviets than they had anticipated. The Soviet Union took over 15,500 square miles (40,000 square kilometers). Once again on the attack, Finland allied with Nazi Germany in 1941.
December 13, 1939: Battle of the River Plate
The Battle of the Rio de la Plata began on December 13, 1939, and it was the first naval battle of World War II. In response to Admiral Graf Spee‘s repeated attacks on British commerce ships in the Atlantic, three British warships gave chase. Due to the extensive damage sustained by both vessels, the German ship sought sanctuary in the Rio de la Plata at Montevideo. When he felt trapped, Nazi Captain Langsdorff sank his ship.
Initiation of Case Yellow, February 24, 1940
The German military high command drafted the Case Yellow plan, Fall Gelb, on February 24, 1940. Attacking in the western countries of the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg was part of the strategy. The strategy called for three separate armies: one to penetrate the Ardennes and rapidly reach the Meuse; another to invade the Netherlands by fooling the majority of the soldiers into thinking they were already there; and a third to fix the French forces at the Maginot Line.
March 5, 1940: Order sent for the Katyn massacre
Germany and Russia agreed to divide Poland in half the same year, in 1940. In 1940, on March 5, members of the Soviet Politburo signed the order for the Katyn massacre. Polish commanders and elites who were thought to be anti-communist were killed in a woodland close to the city of Smolensk. The Soviet Union did not acknowledge the massacre until 1990. The deaths of another 25,000 to 26,000 Poles in 1940 were attributable to more executions of the country’s elite.
On this day in 1940, April 9th, Germany invaded Norway and Denmark
German forces began Operation “Weserübung” at 2:15 a.m. in Norway and 5:20 a.m. in Denmark. Christian X, King of Denmark, issued a ceasefire order to his forces immediately. Norwegians fought back against the invaders and sank many German ships. On the 19th, they were rescued by a joint French and British force, providing needed protection for the commerce fleet.
“In order to safeguard them from the Allies and to ensure their neutrality until the conclusion of the fight, Germany is taking Denmark and Norway,” Hitler said to justify the invasion. The two nations were under a less harsh occupation than many others until 1943. With the help of Sweden, Denmark was able to relocate a sizable number of Jewish people there, where they were safe from deportation.
Battles of Narvik, April 10, 1940
In Norway between April 10 and 13, 1940, Allied forces defeated German forces in the first major battle of World War II. In April of 1940, the Germans launched an attack in Norway in an effort to capture the port of Narvik, the only port in the area that remained open during the winter, and so facilitate the shipment of iron, which the Germans desperately needed to fuel their war machine. French and British forces destroyed their ships, and the invaders fled.
The Battle of France started on May 10, 1940
Using the Case Yellow strategy, known as the Manstein Plan, the German army began the Battle of France on May 10, 1940. The Dutch, the Belgians, the Luxembourgians, and the French were invaded. The Wehrmacht moved through Luxembourg and Belgium toward Sedan, France. To the dismay of the French, German forces were able to sneak across the Ardennes and past their defenses at the Maginot Line. During the Battle of France, the breakthrough at Sedan was an important operation.
Hitler invaded Belgium on May 10th, 1940
Hitler’s invasion of Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and France was part of his massive “Case Yellow” campaign. When Neville Chamberlain resigned as United Kingdom prime minister as a result of this incident, the “Phoney War” was over. When the German forces arrived, the border residents fled. On May 22, the Netherlands surrendered, and on May 27, Belgium did as well.
On May 10, 1940, Churchill became Prime Minister
Winston Churchill replaced Neville Chamberlain as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom after Chamberlain’s resignation. The man who was dubbed “the old lion” made the statement, “I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat,” in the House of Commons three days after his appointment. In 1938, he publicly criticized the Munich Pact.
The Lys Battle began on May 23, 1940
On May 10, 1940, Germany initiated the Battle of France and took the fort at Eben-Emael, weakening the Belgian defenses. Once the Wehrmacht advanced into Sedan, the Belgian troops withdrew peacefully. The Battle of the Lys took place from May 23 to May 28, 1940, and was initiated by the Belgians to stop the Germans from crossing the river Lys. Heavily beaten, King Leopold III of Belgium surrendered after both armies suffered devastating casualties.
Evacuation of Dunkirk, May 24, 1940
When the German army finally entered Abbeville on May 20, 1940, it effectively cut the Allies in half. A million troops from France, Britain, and Belgium were cornered up north. On May 24, the Battle of Dunkirk started, and its primary purpose was to get as many men back to the United Kingdom as quickly as possible. This mission was a success because of the stubbornness of the Dunes Fort’s defenders and Hitler’s hesitance to invade Dunkirk. The operation required the use of every ship in the Channel; therefore, all of them were called into service.
Operation Alphabet, 24 May 1940
On May 24, 1940, after the success of the Allied onslaught during the Battle of France, they launched Operation Alphabet. Mission: get all Allied forces out of Norway, especially out of the port of Narvik. After their invasion of Belgium, the Germans lost interest in the iron-exporting port of Antwerp. The Wehrmacht’s occupation of this port harmed the defenses of both Sweden and Finland. Despite their official neutrality, these nations were obliged to cooperate more closely with the Germans, who were able to use the railways in Sweden.
May 25, 1940: Siege of Lille
When the German Wehrmacht launched their attack during the Battle of France, they were within striking distance of the French city of Lille. From May 25 to May 30, 1940, the French and British Allies fought against the resistance in the enclave of Lille. When General Molinié attempted to breach the enemy’s lines, his effort proved unsuccessful. Colonel Aizier signed a document of surrender on behalf of the defenders of Lille. Aizier was later fired after being criticized by Hitler for giving the Allies too much breathing room.
26 May 1940 – Operation “Dynamo” at Dunkirk
The evacuation of the Allied forces encircled at Dunkirk was given the go-ahead by British Vice Admiral Bertram Ramsay (North). The name “Dynamo” was chosen to honor the previous location of Ramsay’s offices, which included a functioning generator. The French and British forces were caught off guard by the German onslaught and were forced to retire with their backs to the ocean to the safety of Dunkirk. In only nine days, the Royal Navy had requisitioned every possible ship in order to bring 340,000 soldiers back to Britain. However, this proved insufficient, and on June 4, the 30,000 Frenchmen who had remained on the beaches were forced to capitulate to the Germans.
Battle of Abbeville, May 28, 1940
With Dunkirk harbor besieged, the Allies focused on protecting the Channel ports still in their hands. From May 28th until June 4th, 1940, the Battle of Abbeville raged. After replacing Gamelin, General Weygand made an effort to clear a path to Abbeville. Involved in the action and contributing to the Anglo-French victory was Colonel de Gaulle. In the Battle of France, this victory had just a modest impact.
On May 28th, 1940, King Leopold III surrendered
In the face of the Nazi invasion, King Leopold III of Belgium surrendered without an armistice. The Germans imprisoned him at Laeken Castle and then sent him into exile in London. On September 8, 1944, the government departed for Brussels, and he was transferred to Austria. A great deal of political and internal strife ensued after the restoration of the king. Not till 1950 did the monarch return to the land of his nation.
June 5, 1940: De Gaulle appointed Under-Secretary of State for Defense by Paul Reynaud
In response to the invasion by the German troops, France attempted to make some major changes to its government. General de Gaulle was asked to serve as Under-Secretary of Defense under Minister of War Paul Reynaud after Edouard Daladier was ousted for being too defeatist.
Italy officially joined the war on June 10, 1940
Italy took advantage of France’s vulnerability to declare war on it, even though its army was not yet ready to go to war. It signed the Steel Pact with Nazi Germany and then with the United Kingdom. On the military front, though, Italy would suffer a series of setbacks.
Starting on June 10, 1940, the East African war officially got underway
On June 10, 1940, Italy joined Nazi Germany in their war effort. Mussolini unified Eritrea, Somalia, and Ethiopia inside Italian East Africa as early as June 1936. As the British were concerned about the safety of their supply line, they fought against the Italian assault. It was at this time that the East African campaign began, pitting Italy and Germany’s Afrika Korps against the United Kingdom and its allies from the Commonwealth, plus Belgium and South Africa.
France fell to the Nazis on June 14, 1940.
French opposition was nonexistent when German forces marched into the city on June 14th, 1940. Many people had already abandoned the city of government. Additionally, some hours before the arrival of the German army, Paris was designated an “open city” to shield the city’s historical landmarks from the battle. From that point on, Paris was a city under Nazi occupation.
14 June 1940: Operation Vado
France lost the Battle of France to the German Wehrmacht and then had to fight Mussolini’s Italy in the Battle of the Alps. The army of the Alps put up a valiant fight against the Italian soldiers, and on June 14th, 1940, they decided to begin Operation Vado. Attacks against the Italian ports of Genoa and Savona were planned. Shortly after leaving Toulon, the French navy did some small damage and discovered a gap in the Italian coast’s defenses.
16 June 1940-Pétain, president of the Council
The armistice with the Third Reich was a point of contention, and Paul Reynaud ultimately decided to retire as a result. Marshal Pétain, a hero of World War I, took up the negotiations for an armistice with Adolf Hitler’s Germany when he resigned. Pétain declared an armistice on June 17, 1940, after taking power. The document was signed on June 22.
Jean Moulin attempted suicide on June 17, 1940.
Jean Moulin, the prefect of Chartres, declines to sign a paper in which he admits the improper conduct of French soldiers. Jean Moulin attempted suicide by slitting his neck with a shard of a shattered bottle because he feared he would not be able to withstand the torment he was about to endure. Once he was well again, he was treated and released.
17 June 1940: Destruction of the RMS Lancastria at Saint-Nazaire
It was a transatlantic liner called the RMS Lancastria. It was requisitioned along with other vessels to aid in the evacuation of civilian refugees and British troops. Saint-Nazaire, where the Lancastria was docked, was attacked by the German air force on June 17, 1940. In only 24 minutes, it went down, taking 1,708 lives with it. It was one of the worst shipwrecks in history and a World War II tragedy.
June 18, 1940—Appeal of 18 June
General de Gaulle, in exile in London, made his now-famous plea on the BBC on June 18, 1940. In his address, the French general encouraged his countrymen to keep fighting and enlisted the aid of French troops, engineers, and weapons experts already stationed in Britain to better coordinate their efforts against Germany.
June 22, 1940: France signs the armistice
An armistice between France and Germany was signed by Marshal Pétain’s administration across the English Channel. According to the story, the armistice was signed in the same automobile in which the German generals signed the armistice that ended the First World War in 1918. Almost immediately after it was signed, Churchill criticized the armistice between France and Germany. The occupation had spread to northern France.
July 2, 1940: The Pétain government moved to Vichy
It was determined at the beginning of July that the Pétain administration would establish itself in Vichy. “Work, Family, and Homeland” became the new national slogan of France. Simultaneously, General de Gaulle gave a speech to the French people from London. The great spokesperson for Free France called on his countrymen to keep fighting until they were finally free.
July 2, 1940: Operation Catapult
Winston Churchill launched Operation Catapult on July 2, 1940. The British were concerned that the French navy might fall into German hands after the French surrender and armistice. Therefore, it was resolved to either capture or destroy the French navy. Some of the action occurred in harbors in Great Britain, while other parts occurred close to the coast of Africa. It permanently damaged ties between France and Britain when 1,300 French sailors were slain.
July 3, 1940: The French fleet is destroyed at Mers-El-Kebir
At six o’clock in the evening, British aircraft began attacking French vessels docked at Mers el-Kebir, a port located northeast of Oran. After the loss of the battleship “Bretagne,” the battleships “Dunkerque” and “Provence” were severely damaged. There were 1,380 lost French sailors. Some days after the French surrender to Germany was signed, the British launched their offensive.
When it became clear that the French navy might fall into German hands, Winston Churchill’s administration made an offer to the French naval troops in Algeria to come under their command. British Vice Admiral Somerville issued an ultimatum, which was refused by French Fleet Commander Admiral Marcel Gensoul, prompting the assault.
July 10, 1940: Pétain established the French State
The National Assembly met in Vichy and unanimously approved a constitutional amendment giving Marshal Pétain, then 85 years old, absolute authority. Philippe Pétain, acting with absolute authority, formed the French state and ended the Third Republic, which Albert Lebrun had ruled over.
Broadcasting of “The French Speak to the French” began on July 14, 1940.
The propaganda program “Les Français parlent aux Français” (The French speak to the French) premiered the day following General De Gaulle’s famous Appeal. Michel Saint-Denis oversaw production and transmission of the show from the BBC in London. Until August of 1944, it transmitted a wide variety of news and analyses of current events with the aim of aiding the Allied cause.
July 15, 1940: Battle of Moyale in Kenya
On July 15, 1940, a battle was fought at Moyale, Kenya. The East African campaign saw one of the few Italian offensives. Moyale, a border town guarded by a single British unit, came under assault. The First King’s African Rifles put up a valiant fight, but General Gustavo Pesenti ultimately prevailed. They were outnumbered, so the company fled, and the town eventually fell to the Italians.
August 7, 1940: Churchill recognized de Gaulle’s legitimacy
Winston Churchill sent a letter to General de Gaulle as the departments of the Moselle, Upper Rhine, and Lower Rhine were being annexed by Germany. Churchill acknowledged de Gaulle’s authority and signed the historic Churchill-de Gaulle accords with this handwritten letter. Eventually, Roosevelt did put his faith in the General.
August 16, 1940: Arrival of the ship Massilia in Morocco
The withdrawal of 27 lawmakers who had sought safety in Bordeaux was prompted by the French army’s defeat by German forces. Admiral Darlan requisitioned the ship Massilia for the administration of Paul Reynaud in order to form a government in exile in North Africa. The crowd booed them when they arrived in Casablanca, Morocco, on August 16, 1940. After being taken into police custody, several members of parliament were eventually found guilty of desertion in the face of the enemy, while others were determined to have participated in the French rout.
On August 26th, 1940, the countries of Chad and Niger joined the Free French
In 1938, Félix Éboué was appointed governor of Chad and tasked with safeguarding a vital French supply line to the Congo against Nazi aggression. His approval of General de Gaulle’s request to reclaim territory in Chad on June 18, 1940, was a major victory for France. On August 26, 1940, he and Niger’s leader both publicly declared their countries’ support for Free France. French Equatorial Africa as a whole soon followed suit.
Transylvania was handed over to Hungary from Romania on August 30th, 1940
The second Vienna arbitration, led by Germany and Italy, was decided upon on August 30, 1940. The Axis wanted to prevent conflict between Hungary and Romania. Hungarian claims to the northern part of Transylvania were recognized. Moreover, 2.5 million people, of whom half were ethnic Magyars, lived in the territory that Romania handed over to Hungary. Because of this arbitration, many people had to leave their homes.
The Blitz began in England on September 7, 1940
Hitler said, “We will raze their cities to the ground,” in early September, as the Royal Air Force successfully bombed Berlin. A few days later, the Luftwaffe switched its focus to London and launched its first extensive aerial bombardment of people, rather than military objectives. This marked the beginning of the Blitz, a crucial phase of the Battle of Britain. Hitler intended to lower English morale, but his actions only served to galvanize the populace against the Nazis. The “blitz” (lightning) lasted nearly a month.
On September 13th, 1940, Italy invaded Egypt
Egypt was invaded by Mussolini’s fascist Italy from its Libyan colony on September 13, 1940. Conflicts in North Africa broke out in the British protectorate. The British were concerned about the safety of a major supply line, so they sent soldiers from the Commonwealth, Belgium, and South Africa to defend it. There was a swift defeat of the Italian onslaught.
Léon Blum’s Arrest on September 15, 1940
Léon Blum, a Popular Front delegate who was one of the few to vote against giving Pétain absolute authority, was arrested on September 15, 1940, while enjoying parliamentary immunity. He made no secret of his outrage and disapproval of the Vichy government. He was put on trial with other politicians blamed for the conflict. A window of opportunity opened up for him to escape to the United States just before he was apprehended. Léon Blum’s trial was put on hold, and he was sent to Buchenwald immediately thereafter.
Tonkin was occupied by the Japanese on September 22, 1940
Since 1937, Japan and China have been at war, and Japan blamed Tonkin, a French territory and a supply route for China, for the country’s failure to win. Japan was able to exert pressure and establish a military presence in Tonkin after the French were defeated in Europe.
Japan launched an invasion and subsequent occupation of the area in September and October of 1940. Admiral Jean Decoux, spokesperson for the Vichy administration, had to negotiate when the city of Lạng Sơn fell on September 22.
On September 23, 1940, the Anglo-Gaullists attacked Dakar
The Battle of Dakar, also known as Operation Menace, took place between British and General de Gaulle’s forces on the one hand, and French soldiers loyal to the Petainist government in Vichy on the other, between September 23 and 25, 1940. The goal of the Anglo-Gaullists was to secure their African strongholds by seizing French East Africa under Governor Pierre Boisson. There was a failure in the landing effort when Admiral Muselier challenged General de Gaulle’s authority.
September 27, 1940: Signature of the Tripartite Pact
A military pact between Japan, Italy, and Germany was signed on September 27, 1940. Three nations joined forces to oppose the United States and the United Kingdom.
Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, and Yugoslavia were some of the later entrants to the alliance. The Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis, or Axis armies, peaked in 1942 and was ultimately defeated and disbanded when World War II ended.
October 23, 1940—Meeting at Hendaye
Hitler and Franco met at Hendaye, a Basque town on the border between France and Spain. A discussion about Spain’s possible enlistment in the Axis armies began. Germany’s refusal to accept Spanish equivalents and Spain’s insistence that it could not contribute to a war effort doomed the negotiations. Volunteers from Spain were signed up to go to the Russian front as part of a procedure, but Franco never officially entered Spain into the global fight.
The Italian invasion of Greece began on October 28, 1940.
Italy chose to attack Greece in the autumn of 1940, far after the United States and Japan had already entered the war. The Italian army, assisted by Axis troops, eventually won the Battle of Greece in April 1941, although it suffered many defeats along the way.
The Battle of Taranto began on November 11, 1940
On the 11th and 12th of November, 1940, the Battle of Taranto was fought. The operation was a military one in which the British navy used airstrikes to destroy the Italian navy. Damage to the port of Taranto from the Royal Navy’s enormous torpedoing thwarted Italy’s plans to dominate the Aegean Sea. This conflict showed how aircraft carriers had assumed command of the oceans.
14 November 1940-Operation Mondscheinsonate
Operation Mondscheinsonate, literally “moonlight sonata” in German, occurred on the night of November 14–15, 1940. As part of their massive Blitz campaign, the Nazis planned to drop bombs on innocent English citizens in the city of Coventry. The cathedral of Saint Michael of Coventry caught fire numerous times during the night as a result of the Luftwaffe’s 450 tons of bombs.
Hungary and Romania officially joined the Axis forces on November 20th, 1940.
Hungary and Romania signed on to the alliance with Japan, Germany, and Italy on November 20, 1940. After World War I ended, Hungary attempted to make territorial claims, which drew it closer to the Axis powers. Both Czechoslovakian and Romanian territory were reclaimed. After Ion Antonescu deposed the monarch, Romania allied with Germany, enabling the Axis powers to create a future front against the Soviet Union.
The Nazi German annexation of Alsace-Lorraine on November 27, 1940
Alsace-Lorraine, a prized French territory, was conquered by Nazi Germany. Rather than just occupying the area, the Germans wanted to include it in their territory, so exacting revenge for the insult they had suffered in 1918 and the “Diktat” that Hitler had so vehemently criticized. From 1871 until 1918, the area was, in fact, a part of Germany.
Battle of Cape Spartivento, November 27, 1940
During the Battle of Taranto, Italy chose to commit her full fleet into battle after realizing that it was no safer there than at sea. The Battle of Cape Spartivento (“Teulada” in Italy) took place between the Italian fleet and the British Navy on November 27, 1940. The latter’s goal in consolidating its presence in Malta was to better safeguard its commercial ships. The British had big plans for the Mediterranean, but the Italians got in the way of these plans.
15 December 1940: First issue of the newspaper Résistance
When it came to fighting back against the Nazi occupation of France, the Musée de l’Homme network was one of the first to form. The inaugural issue of Résistance was released to the public on December 15, 1940. The group pretended to be a literary society while really gathering political and military secrets. After that, it coordinated with other resistance organizations to conduct liaison operations between the occupied and free zones.
In 1940, on December 21, the submarine Narval met its watery demise
The Free French Forces submarine Narval sank on December 21, 1940, after striking a mine off the coast of Sfax, Tunisia. This ship was commissioned in 1925 and became a vital element of the French navy that supported General de Gaulle. On June 26, 1940, its whole crew reported to the naval station in Malta to take part in the French counteroffensive in the Mediterranean.
14 February 1941: The Afrika Korps landed at Tripoli
The Afrika Korps (or Deutsche Afrikakorps) arrived in Tripoli to battle the British soldiers there in order to help Mussolini’s troops in a confrontation in Italian Libya. The Afrika Korps launched its mission with 45,000 troops and 250 tanks.
Peter II of Yugoslavia deposed the Nazis on March 27, 1941
At the age of 17, Yugoslavia’s future King, Peter II, led a coup d’état against the administration of the Yugoslav Council President, who had signed a tripartite alliance with Hitler on behalf of Germany, Italy, and Japan.
As a result of the military coup, the nation was once again neutral. People all around Yugoslavia went out onto the streets to show their approval of the young king. Axis armies invaded Yugoslavia on April 6, and there was no prior declaration of war. After a few days of resistance, it gave up.
The “Bismarck” torpedoed the “Hood” on May 24, 1941
Royal Navy prestige was lost when the German battleship “Bismarck” sank the British cruiser “HMS Hood” in the North Atlantic. Approximately 1,400 Marines were killed. “Find and destroy the Bismarck,” the British Admiralty ordered all of its ships to do. Three days later, the “Bismarck” was torpedoed off Brest by British cruisers, taking 1,800 people with it.
Beginning in the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, Operation Barbarossa
Despite the ratification of the German-Soviet accord on June 22, 1941, Germany opted to attack the Soviet Union the next day. The German military authorities gave the operation the code name “Operation Barbarossa” before it had even begun. It was the first major ground battle of the war in Europe, and it took place on the Eastern Front. Both the Slavs and communism were seen as threats by Hitler, who also saw the Slavs as lower than humans. It’s going to be a much bloodier conflict in the East compared to the West.
Mussolini declared war on the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941
Benito Mussolini took the initiative to deploy his soldiers to battle in the USSR despite having previously suffered military setbacks. When his alliance with Germany ended, he felt he could finally enjoy military triumph on his own terms. But, once again, the outcome of this action was a catastrophe. Mussolini’s standing with Adolf Hitler and the Italian people plummeted.
On July 14, 1941, an armistice was declared in Lebanon and Syria
The British were successful in getting an armistice with the Vichyists in Syria and Lebanon with the support of a Free French division headed by General Catroux. By early June, combat had already broken out. Damascus and Beirut were promised freedom in the name of General de Gaulle. In spite of British pressure, however, the French were not very excited about meeting the new deadline. Although Lebanon gained its formal independence in 1943, France did not surrender its mandates until after the war ended in 1946.
The Atlantic Charter was signed on August 14, 1941
Off the coast of Newfoundland, Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Winston Churchill host the Atlantic Conference aboard the warship USS Augusta. The signing of the Atlantic Charter, which included provisions for “building the foundations of a new foreign strategy,” resulted from this gathering. The United Nations Organization was established in accordance with this Charter.
September 27, 1941: Foundation of the EAM
The National Liberation Front (EAM) was formed to fight the Nazi occupation. This organization of communists and other leftists formed a military unit called ELAS (Greek People’s Liberation Army). A major anti-occupation movement existed in Greece, and it was hostile to George Papandreou’s new administration once the country was freed. At this point, the communists and the royalists in Greece were officially at war with one another. The communist members of the EAM formed a temporary government in 1947. In 1949, the civil war was officially concluded when royalist soldiers, backed by England and the United States, decisively crushed the communists.
22 October 1941: Execution of Guy Môquet
The young communist activist Guy Môquet was among the 28 inmates executed outside of Châteaubriant. Upon learning that resistance fighters had killed Lieutenant Colonel Karl Hotz of the German army, the Germans had Guy Môquet, then 16 years old, hanged. Together, the cities of Châteaubriant, Nantes, and Paris saw the deaths of 48 inmates.
Leningrad was first besieged on November 8, 1941
St. Petersburg (now known as Leningrad) was Russia’s former capital and a city that embodied many of the country’s ideals. Hitler, a key target in the Russian conquest, instead chose to lay siege to the city rather than risk sending his forces into potentially risky and costly combat.
So, the metropolis of three million people was sealed off from the rest of the world until January 18, 1944, with the exception of a canal across Lake Ladoga. Also, a third of the people who lived in the city died because of how hard things were for them.
December 7, 1941: Attack on Pearl Harbor
At 7:55 a.m. on December 7, 1941, the Japanese air force launched a surprise assault on the American war fleet docked at Pearl Harbor in the Hawaiian archipelago. There were more than 2,000 American deaths and 100 Japanese deaths. The goal of the Japanese Empire was to maintain Japanese dominance across the Pacific.
It aimed to destroy the American fleet in order to stop it from interfering with its next operations in Malaysia and toward Australia. The attack on Pearl Harbor led directly to the United States’ participation in World War II the following day.
December 7, 1941, “Night and Fog” decree
Field Marshal Keitel’s “Nacht und Nebel” decree called for the expulsion of anybody deemed an enemy of the Reich. People who were thought to be dangerous to the German “NN” army were moved secretly and eventually disappeared.
The United States officially went to war with Japan on December 8, 1941
After remaining neutral up to that point, the United States declared war on Japan and so joined World War II. After Japan’s assault on Pearl Harbor, the United States officially declared war on Japan. The battle quickly escalated, drawing in significant forces from around the globe.
December 15, 1941—Massacre at Mont-Valérien
Seventy-five Jewish and Communist captives were executed by German occupiers at Mont Valérien, a former fort west of Paris overlooking the Bois de Boulogne. Among those executed was 39-year-old Gabriel Péri, a former writer for the Communist Party daily L’Humanité. Around a thousand hostages and inmates were killed by the Germans at Mont Valérien between 1940 and 1944. General de Gaulle dedicated the site, and it later became central to the martyrology of the French Resistance against the Nazis.
December 25, 1941-Surrender of Hong Kong to the Japanese
British soldiers in Hong Kong capitulated to Japanese forces after 18 days of battle. Sir Mark Young, the governor of the British colony, surrendered to the Japanese commander, Takashi Sakai. After the Allies won the war and defeated Japan in 1945, Hong Kong was restored to Britain.
The Battle for the Solomon Islands began in January 1942
The British Army faced off against Japanese forces in the first amphibious campaign, which took place in the Solomon Islands. The mission for the American army was to protect vulnerable communication links. There were over a dozen naval engagements during this campaign, the most well-known of which was the Battle of Guadalcanal. Douglas MacArthur, an admiral, commanded the American forces. By 1945, the war was over.
January 2, 1942: Jean Moulin parachuted into France
Jean Moulin, a key figure in the French Resistance, was exiled to London with General de Gaulle. Parachuted into the Alpilles on the night of January 1–2, 1942, he was given two missions, one of which was to organize the Secret Army and unite the many resistance groups.
January 11, 1942: Japan captures the Dutch East Indies
During World War II, the Dutch East Indies, now known as Indonesia, were a significant problem for the Japanese and Allied forces. The country did have extensive oil reserves, which were very important to Japan since the country had no way to manufacture or import oil on its own. The Allies gave up after a string of Japanese victories, and for the next three years, Japan ruled the Dutch East Indies.
January 15, 1942: The Chinese achieved victory over the Japanese at the Third Battle of Changsha
Located in an important part of southern China, Changsha was a major metropolis. Two earlier Japanese raids on the city had been repelled. Even after a full-scale attack on the city supported by the Chinese army headed by Xue Lue, the Japanese were again defeated on their third try. The Japanese withdrawal was met by attacks from Chinese communist rebels.
The Final Solution was adopted by the Nazis on January 20, 1942
Reinhard Heydrich, chief of the German secret agency, chaired the Wannsee meeting outside of Berlin, where fifteen top Nazi leaders and SS members were gathered. This conference was called to examine “the ultimate solution to the Jewish issue.” It was determined that Jewish Europeans in working condition would be sent to concentration camps.
Those who were unable to contribute to society in some other way were ordered to be killed. Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, and finally Auschwitz were among the concentration camps that would soon be used primarily for this mass murder. There was no doubt that a genocide against Jews was under way. And more than six million of them died in concentration camps.
The Battle of Moscow ends on January 22, 1942
The German army under Von Bock launched an attack known as the Battle of Moscow, or Operation Typhoon, to conquer the Russian capital. The Germans, fortified by the start of Operation Barbarossa, marched into Russia and quickly defeated the Red Army. The Russians fought fiercely to keep their capital city for many days, but the cold hurt the Wehrmacht so much that they had to leave.
The Riom trial began on February 19, 1942
Pétain requested the Riom trial to begin on February 19, 1942, and it was intended to prove that politicians from the Third Republic were to blame for their country’s loss in 1940. The caliber of defense presented by Léon Blum and Édouard Daladier, two of the defendants, shocked the audience and shifted blame for the loss from the defendants to the French army’s top brass.
19 February 1942—Executive Decree 9066
On February 19, 1942, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, which legalized the internment of specific ethnic groups in concentration camps for the sake of preventing sabotage and espionage. In spite of the fact that the pact did not single out any one ethnic group, it was largely utilized to imprison Japanese, German, and Italian Americans living in the western United States. During World War II, 120,000 Japanese-Americans were forced into concentration camps.
February 27, 1942, Operation Biting
Bruneval, a commune in the Seine-Maritime area, was the site of Operation Biting (“Coup de croc”) on February 27 and 28, 1942, pitting the German forces against the British. The Brits planned to steal a German radar, a cutting-edge piece of technology at the time. The British were victorious in their mission. With the radar in their possession, the British were able to slow down the Germans’ technological advancement and see that the “Atlantic Wall” was really breachable.
The Doolittle Raid, April 18, 1942
The US chose to attack Tokyo in order to discredit the adversary and boost its own morale as it prepared for a major conflict with Japan and controlled the entire Pacific. Since the United States had no nearby base from which to fire bombers on the Japanese island, the Japanese reasonably assumed that they were secure there.
But Lieutenant Colonel Doolittle created a technique that permitted B-25s (heavy bombers) to launch from a ship. The U.S. aircraft were able to get off a few bombing runs over the capital of the enemy before they had to retire to China. Damage was very light, but it sent a strong symbolic message. Japan had to restructure its defenses because it no longer felt secure.
Battle of the Coral Sea, May 4, 1942
Off the coast of Australia in May of 1942, American and Japanese forces clashed in the Battle of the Coral Sea. This fight between ships in the air was the first of its kind. The Japanese were superior in the Battle of the Coral Sea in terms of strategy. However, the Americans saw this as a moral victory since it was the first time they had successfully thwarted a Japanese mission. In terms of propaganda, both sides claimed victories.
Cologne, Germany, May 30th, 1942: One Thousand Bombers
Cologne, a German city on the left bank of the Rhine, was the target of the first “1,000 Bombers’ Raid” conducted by the Royal Air Force (RAF). General Arthur Harris believed that extensive strategic bombing was necessary to demoralize the enemy and cripple their industrial capacity. More than 1,346 airstrikes had already been conducted on Cologne before the 1,000 bombers arrived. That was the first day in a three-year assault on Germany’s major metropolises.
June 7, 1942—American victory in the Battle of Midway
The Japanese army suffered another crushing loss at Midway Atoll (Battle of Midway), the Pacific’s most forward-operating American outpost, after an earlier failure in the Coral Sea. The navies never faced each other again, and the fighting continued in the air. American naval aviation foiled a Japanese strategy by destroying four enemy aircraft carriers while suffering only one loss. Because of this setback, Japan went into defensive mode.
June 11, 1942: The brave French resistance in Bir Hakeim
The Free French Troops (FFL), under the command of General Koenig, fiercely resisted the German and Italian forces at the battle of Bir Hakeim. The British were able to leave before the battle of El Alamein due to their resistance.
Operation Fall Blau (Blue Case), June 28, 1942
A continuation of Operation Barbarossa, Operation Fall Blau (Blue Case) describes the Wehrmacht’s offensives on the Eastern Front. The battle’s objective was to take the city of Stalingrad. There was an initial string of victories for the German troops during the Fall Blau campaign. The decisive victory, however, went to the Red Army, and Operation Fall Blue marked the beginning of the German defeats.
Vel’ d’Hiv’ Roundup, July 17, 1942
13,000 Jews, including 4,051 children, were detained overnight in Paris and the surrounding area on the instructions of René Bousquet, General Secretary of the Police at the Ministry of the Interior. They stayed there for a few days, parked in the sports hall of the Vélodrome d’Hiver. On July 19, they were sent from Drancy to the death camp Auschwitz. Since the German authorities never gave the command to carry out an operation like the “Vel’ d’Hiv” roundup, it was arranged on the fly by the Vichy administration.
August 7, 1942-Marines landed on Guadalcanal
A landing was made by the First Marine Division on the island of Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands. The United States launched its first naval attack on Japan at this time. The Japanese were establishing air bases there in an effort to dominate the region. After a fierce battle in February of 1943 that claimed the lives of over 1,600 Americans and 24,000 Japanese, they were ultimately pushed from the island. The Allies began to retake territory from the Japanese at this point.
Japanese won the Battle of Savo Island on August 9, 1942
One of the most pivotal moments of the Solomon Islands War, the Battle of Savo Island, set off the Battle of the Eastern Solomons. The United States and Japan were at loggerheads in this war. The final tally showed 1,270 dead on the Allied side and 58 dead on the Japanese side, a devastating loss for the American forces. However, the Japanese army failed to capitalize on this success by rushing in reinforcements. The Americans were given more time to lay the groundwork for a successful offensive in the Eastern Solomons.
Attempting to land in Dieppe, France, on August 19, 1942, was a disastrous failure
The disastrous effort to land Allied forces (including 5,000 Canadians, 1,100 British, and 50 Americans) on the beaches of Dieppe (Haute-Normandie) was ultimately unsuccessful. Once the Germans realized where the fleet was, they strafed and bombarded the beaches relentlessly. Four thousand soldiers were lost due to death, injury, or capture. The purpose of the attack was to gauge the strength of the German fortifications in advance of a large-scale invasion. The repercussions were all felt by the Allies.
October 23, 1942-Battle of El Alamein
The Afrika Korps and the Italian army were Axis troops that the British fought in the Egyptian desert. The British were successful in halting their enemy’s advancement in Egypt because they withdrew before it could establish a foothold there. The Allies prevailed in the conflict from a strategic standpoint, despite the fact that the tactical conclusion was a status quo. The Afrika Korps advance came to a stop at that point.
November 8, 1942: Allied landing in North Africa
The Allies began Operation Torch because they were serious about taking over Africa. On that fateful day in November 1942, more than 60,000 troops arrived in North Africa. After taking Algiers, the Tunisian campaign got underway. A decisive battle occurred on the Western Front during World War II. The Germans retaliated by invading southern France. That marked the end of the buffer zone.
November 11, 1942: Germany entered the free zone
Due to the Allied invasion in North Africa, Hitler ordered “Operation Attila” to be carried out in France. The Germans attacked a “free zone” in the south of the nation. Germany had full power and influence over the Vichy regime.
On November 13, 1942, the British forces retook Tobruk
Even so, the Allies and the British army were successful in retaking Tobruk and its deep-water port, which facilitated the docking of enormous ships. General Rommel and his Afrika Korps were present in every major battle of the Desert War, yet the Allies were able to slowly but surely amass successes.
November 19, 1942, Operation Uranus
The Uranus operation was the Red Army’s attack against the German army in Stalingrad, which began on November 19, 1942. The Wehrmacht had, in fact, taken cover here. The Red Army won after an encirclement planned and executed by Marshal Zhukov, and the Axis finally started pulling back.
27 November 1942: Scuttling of the French Navy
The German troops attacked the Toulon arsenal at 4:40 in the morning. The men of the French navy, under the leadership of Admiral Jean de Laborde, destroyed the whole fleet in the face of the assault. To prevent being sent to Germany, whole ships, machinery, and pieces of artillery were destroyed. Only four submarines were successful in making it to North Africa.
7 December 1942-Operation Frankton
On December 7, 1942, the British army conducted Operation Frankton, an attack against the German fleet near Bordeaux. Ten guys launched hostilities from Montalivet in kayaks. The mission’s difficulty was in planting explosives on board German ships docked at Bordeaux. The commandos made their way back to the Charente via land. As a result of the action, four German army ships were severely damaged.
January 22, 1943-Marseille roundup
After successfully entering the free zone in November 1942, German forces took Marseille. After a series of assaults, German authorities decided the Old Port was too hazardous to leave as-is and set about redesigning it. When police reinforcements from Paris arrived on January 22, 1943, they searched every building in the city. Whether they were really responsible for the crimes or not, 2,000 individuals were deported to concentration camps, and 1,500 structures were destroyed.
January 26, 1943-Foundation of the MUR
By early 1943, Jean Moulin had accomplished his goal of uniting the Resistance by establishing the MUR: Mouvements Unis de Résistance (United Resistance Movements). Emmanuel d’Astier de la Vigerie’s Libération-Sud, Jean-Pierre Levy’s Franc-Tireur, and Henri Frenay’s Combat formed this coalition.
The Germans were decisively defeated in Stalingrad on January 31, 1943
The soldiers of Friedrich Paulus’ 6th German Army, who had been surrounded in Stalingrad (now Volgograd) since the end of November 1942, surrendered to the Red Army. The guys imprisoned in what they referred to as “the cauldron” had been without supplies for a very long time, according to the German air force.
Hitler’s men ultimately became disheartened as the winter became worse and ammunition became more limited. Hitler prohibited Friedrich Paulus from submitting. To keep him from submitting, Hitler had him promoted to the rank of Reich Marshal on the 25th, albeit in vain. On February 3, the final German troops would give up. Throughout the siege of Stalingrad, 90,000 Germans perished from starvation and cold.
February 16, 1943-Institution of the STO
The Vichy administration established legislation requiring all males between the ages of 21 and 23 to serve in the Vichy regime’s Obligatory Labor Service. They were sent off to Nazi Germany to work for the regime for a full two years. Nearly 700,000 males were conscripted for the STO.
In exchange, Pierre Laval’s administration was able to convince Germany to remove the border, which in practice no longer existed because the Germans had occupied the “free zone” since November 1942. Additionally, Nord and Pas-de-Calais were reintegrated into the French government. They needed Belgium for everything. Roughly 10% of French citizens who rejected the STO ended up joining the maquis.
March 6, 1943: Battle of the Solomon Islands campaign
Between the Kolombangara and Arundel Islands in the Solomon Islands lies a narrow passageway known as Blackett, which opens out into the Pacific Ocean. In the wake of the American victory at the Battle of Guadalcanal in February 1943, Kolombangara became home to a major Japanese garrison. In charge of restocking was Lieutenant Tanegashima, but on their way back from bombing Vila, his two destroyers, the Murasame and the Minegumo, ran upon Admiral Merrill’s Task Force 68, a trio of light cruisers and three destroyers. The two Japanese destroyers were sunk.
March 10, 1943: Battle of Ksar Ghilane-Tunia campaign
In 1943, Tunisia was the scene of fierce fighting between Allied and Axis troops. As a result, North Africa became involved in World War II. The French constructed the Mareth Line, a fortification between the cities of Mareth and Tataouine, and sheltered New Zealand infantry behind it. The New Zealand forces were spared discovery by the 15th and 21st Panzer divisions and German stukas thanks to the victory of the Leclerc column at Ksar Ghilane.
The Battle of the Komandorski Islands began on March 27th, 1943
The Americans kept an eye on the Japanese garrisons on two islands in the Aleutian chain known as Komandorski throughout the retaking of the Pacific Islands. After learning of a supply convoy’s impending arrival, Rear Admiral McNorris was given the mission of intercepting it. As both sides were cut off from any possible reinforcements, the final artillery engagement between Japanese and American destroyers and cruisers took place. It was an error on Admiral Hosogaya’s part to assume that American air backup was on the way after the ships were heavily damaged. The Japanese gave up when they were close to victory.
The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising of April 19, 1943
In response to Adolf Hitler’s orders to destroy them, the 60,000 Jews still living in the Warsaw Ghetto (Poland) rose up and fought the Nazi SS. Until May 16th, they continued their frantic fight. A total of seven thousand people were executed with their weapons still in their hands, while the rest were to be taken to concentration camps.
The Afrika Korps was expelled from North Africa on May 13, 1943, as the Allies launched a massive offensive
On May 13, 1943, the Allies ended the operation in Tunisia by expelling the Afrika Korps. Following the capitulation of the German army, the Afrika Korps soldiers became prisoners of war. Convoys were sent to bring them to the United States and Canada over the sea.
May 17, 1943: Operation Chastise—the destruction of German dams
The British attempted to persuade Russia to stave off the German invasion and recognized that the British army might be a potent ally in May 1943. In order to destroy the primary dams providing water and energy to the war industries, the Ruhr area was the target of a Royal Air Force operation called Operation Chastise.
The Möhne, Edersee, Sorpe, and Ennepe dams were attacked by Avro Lancaster Mk-III aircraft fitted with a unique bomb developed by engineer B. Wallis. Mixed results were obtained since a number of pilots were shot down and the Germans quickly recovered with their production of water and energy. The defense on the Don and Volga rivers was made easier by the fact that the flooded air facilities were unable to transfer any more aircraft to the Russian front.
The CNR had its first meeting on May 27th, 1943
With the establishment of the National Council of the Resistance in France, Jean Moulin resumed his effort to bring the Resistance (CNR) together. The CNR, which was led by Jean Moulin himself, tried to organize the numerous French Resistance activities during World War II without ignoring the political inclinations of each organization.
De Gaulle and Giraud established the CFLN on June 3, 1943
To replace the Free French administration, generals de Gaulle and Giraud agreed to form the French Committee for National Liberation (CFLN). The CFLN sought to accomplish two goals. First, it sought to rally the French people behind the war effort. Second, it sought to set the stage for France’s eventual liberation. It was in June of 1944 that the CFLN took power as the Provisional Government of France.
New Georgia and Solomon Islands Campaign, June 20, 1943
The Japanese seized the island of New Georgia in 1942 and established the Munda Point air station there to aid in the invasion of Guadalcanal. After the American triumph, the Japanese concluded that the next American goal was to strike their bases in Rabaul and the Solomon Islands. The Japanese chose to wait for the Allies at New Georgia on Bougainville because they lacked the weapons to defend it. The major invasion was made south of Munda Point, a base that was captured on August 5, 1943. The initial landings occurred in June 1943 near Segi Point. Up until October 1943, there was constant warfare to liberate New Georgia.
Jean Moulin’s arrest on June 21, 1943
Jean Moulin was detained at Caluire-et-Cuire on June 21, 1943, as he prepared to attend a conference with seven other Resistance commanders. He had been actively hunted by the Vichy government and the Gestapo. Many doubts concerning the circumstances leading up to this arrest still exist today. Several days after his detention, Jean Moulin was tortured to death.
First day of the Battle of Kursk, July 4, 1943
In the largest tank battle ever fought (Battle of Kursk), the Germans were finally defeated. A decisive blow to the Red Army was just what Hitler had been looking for after two years of war and the defeat at Stalingrad. On July 4, he launched an attack on the Kursk area with thousands of tanks and hundreds of aircraft.
But the Soviets were well prepared, and when the Wehrmacht was pinned down in a minefield and under fire from anti-tank guns, they counterattacked with reinforcements. After this setback, the Red Army’s advance towards Berlin would continue unabated.
July 6, 1943: First Battle of the Gulf of Kula-Solomon Islands Campaign
The United States embarked on an effort to free the Pacific, and especially the Solomon Islands, in 1943 (Operation Cartwheel). When Task Group 36.1’s Admiral Ainsworth returned after a bombardment with two light cruisers and four destroyers on July 5, he was getting ready to seize the Munda Point base in New Georgia.
Admiral Akiyama was in charge of a covert night supply convoy, which the Allies dubbed the “Tokyo Express.” Both sides suffered casualties, and the survivors retreated before dawn on the sixth of July. The USS Radford and USS Nicholas, two destroyers, stayed at the scene after the USS Helena went down to rescue the survivors.
July 8, 1943: Death of Jean Moulin
Jean Moulin was sent off to Germany after enduring years of torture at Klaus Barbie’s hands. While on the road, he succumbed to his wounds. Jean Moulin was declared dead on July 8, 1943, at the Metz station. Again, questions about the reliability of the data persist. In 1964, his remains were interred in the Pantheon.
By 10 July 1943, the Allies had invaded Sicily
British, Canadian, and American troops arrived in Sicily as the Allies successfully wrapped up their battle in Tunisia. They wanted to launch an invasion of the rest of Italy from there. While Benito Mussolini was imprisoned on July 25, the island fell to the Allies by mid-August.
July 13, 1943: Second Battle of the Gulf of Kula-Solomon Islands Campaign
The first fight between Allied ships and a Japanese supply convoy during the liberation of the Solomon Islands by the Americans in 1943 occurred in the Gulf of Kula, off the island of Kolombangara. The Japanese attempted to resupply their sites with a strategy the Allies dubbed the “Tokyo Express,” which included deploying quick ships at night.
The ships of Admiral Ainsworth were detected on July 12 by a convoy led by Admiral Izaki. It seemed to the Americans that the Japanese were catching them off guard when they launched their torpedoes. After the loss of the Jintsu and 482 sailors as well as Admiral Izaki, the battle ended at 9.30 a.m. on July 13. The Americans sent back three light cruisers in horrible shape and lost a destroyer.
July 24, 1943: Arrest of Mussolini
King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy was reinstated as head of the Italian military forces by a decision of the Great Council of Fascism. Marshal Badoglio took over for Mussolini once he was called to Rome, and Mussolini was put behind bars. In Italy, celebrations broke out once the news of Mussolini’s arrest spread.
The Italian National Liberation Committee was formed on July 27th, 1943.
The day following Mussolini’s arrest, a coalition of anti-fascist parties was formed. It included the Communist Party, the Christian Democrats, the Socialist Party, the Liberals, the Action Party, and the Democratic Labor Party. When German forces abandoned Rome on June 5, 1944, the Committee’s influence grew.
“Operation Tidal Wave” was launched on August 1, 1943
The Royal Air Force sent 165 planes almost 6,800 miles (11,000 km) to Romania for a massive operation. This mission is known as “Tidal Wave,” which is also its code name. Around the city of Ploiesti, Romania constructed one of the world’s biggest oil complexes with the help of foreign investment (mostly from the Allies).
Hitler sided with General Ion Antonescu, the man in charge, against the fanatical Iron Guard group in return for a critical supply of gasoline for the German troops. The bombing did a lot of damage to this facility. Although casualties were high, they could have been even worse if not for several holes in Ploiesti’s fortifications (personnel absent on Sundays, weapons in maintenance, etc.).
3 August 1943: Operation Polkovodets Rumiantsev-Eastern Front
It was on August 3, 1943, that the Polkovodets Rumiantsev operation was initiated by the Red Army. The liberation of more German-occupied Ukrainian territory was an important goal. In about twenty days, the Russian “Steppe Front” from the vicinity of Kursk was able to free the cities of Kharkov (the Third Battle of Kharkov) and Belgorod. After being driven back over the Dnieper River, the Germans were finally repelled. The liberation of Ukraine would not be complete until the Russians landed in Kiev in the autumn of 1943, after the epic battle of the Dnieper.
Second Battle of Smolensk, Eastern Front, August 7, 1943
The Red Army’s goal from August 7 to October 2, 1943, was to completely clear the fronts of Smolensk (which had been controlled by the Germans since 1941) and Bryansk. German defense forces were deployed, but they were not able to stop the Russians from crossing the Dnieper and freeing Ukraine. But the Germans were well prepared, and the Russians had to work slowly but steadily for two months to regain Smolensk and Roslavl. After the front stabilized some 30 miles (50 kilometers) away from its previous location, Moscow was no longer in danger.
August 7, 1943: Battle of the Gulf of Vella-Solomon Islands campaign
In the Gulf of Vella, Task Group 31.2, led by Captain Moosbrugger and consisting of six destroyers, encountered one of the Japanese swift supply convoys (the Tokyo Express), led by Captain Sugiura. Only one of the Japanese destroyers, the Shigure, avoided destruction while the others, the Hagikaze, Arashi, and Kawakaze, met their end. During the evening of August 6 and the morning of August 7, 1943, about 1,210 Japanese sailors lost their lives.
18 August 1943: Battle of Horaniu-Solomon Islands campaign
With the Allied success at Munda Point and the Gulf of Vella, the Japanese chose to withdraw their forces from the central Solomon Islands in a convoy led by Rear Admiral Matsuji Ijuin. During the evening of August 17 and into the morning of August 18, American forces led by Captain Ryan launched an assault on this convoy. The Japanese were able to flee with their 9,000 soldiers after a brief battle.
August 24, 1943-Battle of the Dnieper-Eastern Front
The loss at Kharkov in August 1943 made it clear to Hitler that the Soviet Union might achieve a major strategic goal by conquering the mineral-rich Ukrainian territory. Therefore, he issued orders for a vigorous counterattack on this front. With 4 million men engaged over an 870-mile (1,400-kilometer) front, the Dnieper conflict was one of the biggest wars of World War II. After four months of struggle and enormous losses in men and material, on December 23, 1943, the Red Army entered Kiev, the capital of Ukraine. This marked the liberation of the banks of the Dnieper from Nazi soldiers.
Italy joined the Allies on September 3, 1943
The government of Pietro Badoglio negotiated the armistice with the Allies and declared war on Germany. Benito Mussolini, leader of Italy’s fascist state, was toppled a few months before due to the Anglo-American intervention in Sicily. Just a few hours later, on September 12, Germany began an invasion of Italy and released Mussolini. In the North, where he had found safety, he founded the Republic of Salo. The monarch and Badoglio escaped to the south, which was still held by the Allies.
Corsica rebelled against its occupiers on September 9, 1943
The Italian surrender sparked a widespread rebellion among Corsican resistance members. Up until October 4, the rebels battled against the German army, with increasing backing from North African troops. The French island department of Corsica was the first to be freed.
Operation Eiche on September 12th, 1943
While imprisoned at Gran Sasso, Mussolini witnessed a German commando raid led by Otto Skorzeny to free him. Hitler conceived and launched the mission, codenamed “Operation Eiche.” The German dictator was determined to release his Italian counterpart by any means necessary.
The Italian Social Republic was established on September 18, 1943
King Victor Emmanuel III removed Benito Mussolini from office as “Duce” and Minister of Foreign Affairs because Italy wanted to return to neutrality against the Germans. Hitler, afraid of losing his friend, sent the Wehrmacht to northern Italy to rescue Mussolini and restore him to power (Operation Oak). Italy capitulated to Nazi Germany on September 8, 1943, and immediately became a client state of the Third Reich. It changed its name to the Italian Social Republic, often known as the Republic of Salo, on September 18, 1943. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Mussolini relocated to the picturesque town of Salo on Lake Garda.
Insurrection against the Nazis on September 27th, 1943, during the Four Days of Naples
Naples was one of the cities hit the hardest by Allied bombardment in the early stages of World War II. A growing uprising against the German occupation of southern Italy started in September 1943. While Colonel Schöll proclaimed a state of siege in Naples and the prefect organized the teenagers to go labor in the camps in Germany, the military commanders of the area escaped. And thus, on September 27, 28, 29, and 30, 1943, the Neapolitans took to the streets to confront the German invaders. Tanks from the Allies rolled into a free Naples on October 1, 1943. This was just around the time of the Allied invasion.
The Solomon Islands offensive began on October 7, 1943, with the Battle of Vella Lavella
In August of 1943, when the United States launched its battle to free the Solomon Islands, the Japanese began leaving the islands. However, there were still around 600 Japanese forces stationed on Vella Lavella. After the battle of Horianu, Rear Admiral Ijuin was tasked with leading a fleet of nine destroyers to evacuate any remaining troops. Ijuin came under fire from three American warships led by Captain Walker on the evening of October 7, 1943. Even though the Yugumo was lost, the three American ships were also damaged and likely would have been lost had the Japanese not retreated from the battle. The Japanese occupation of the Solomon Islands came to an end at this point.
The Battle of Empress Augusta Bay, Bougainville Campaign, November 2, 1943
An objective of the Bougainville operation was the freeing of the eponymous island off the coast of Papua New Guinea. Admiral Omori sent six destroyers and four cruisers to support the troop landing in Empress Augusta Bay and the subsequent Japanese aircraft bombardment on November 1, 1943. In an intercept, Rear Admiral Merrill’s Task Force 39 sunk two Japanese ships (a destroyer and a cruiser) and damaged the others. Merrill shot smoke bombs to make them think his heavy cruiser had sunk, forcing them to surrender. The Japanese withdrew, believing their goal was complete.
Tarawa was freed by the Americans on November 23, 1943
The Japanese were ultimately vanquished after three days of warfare on the Pacific atoll of Tarawa. It was a triumph that came after one of the first Allied landings in the Pacific and helped turn the tide against Japan. On February 23, the Americans achieved their primary aim and landed on the Marshall Islands.
The Battle of Cape St. George, Bougainville Campaign, November 26, 1943
As the last conflict of the Solomon Islands campaign, the fighting on November 26, 1943, was decisive. A rapid supply convoy (dubbed the “Tokyo Express”) was sent to the base at Buka, not far from Bougainville, while the bulk of the American soldiers were engaged in the fight at Empress Augusta Bay.
Five warships under Captain Burke’s command were sent to intercept it. He used radar to sink the Onami, Makinami, and Yugiri, giving the Americans a decisive victory. Before this decisive naval engagement, the Japanese had already established themselves as superior nighttime combatants.
Tehran Conference, November 28, 1943
It was in Tehran, Iran, that Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin finally met for the first time since the outbreak of World War II. In order to free France from Nazi domination, the Allies decided during the Tehran conference to arrange an invasion in Normandy. Also on the table was the future of Germany and Poland, as well as the establishment of a global security agency (the UN).
December 24, 1943: Eisenhower, leader of the Allied forces
In order to prepare for the landings in June of 1944, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt formally selected General Dwight D. Eisenhower as Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Forces. Ten years later, Eisenhower would become President of the United States, although at the time, no one could have predicted it.
The Battle of North Cape, fought on December 26, 1943, was a victory for the British navy
Many supply convoys were sent by the British to their Russian allies across the North Sea to the Russian ports of Murmansk and Arkhangelsk. The German Navy conducted Operation Ostfront with the intention of destroying two of these “Arctic convoys.” British Royal Navy cruisers and destroyers, led by the HMS Duke of York, successfully repelled the German naval assault. British naval dominance over German fleets was underscored by this incident.
Stalin was bleeding Chechnya as of February 23, 1944
The Soviet commander ordered the wholesale expulsion of Chechens, who were accused of collaborating with the Nazis. Before morning, 300,000 people were rounded up and transported to neighboring Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan.
More than half a million more met the same fate in the days that followed. There were thousands of deaths from exposure, starvation, and asphyxia on the wagons taking people to the concentration camps.
Ardeatine Massacre, 24 March 1944
After 32 SS were murdered in a bombing in Rome on March 23, 1944, the Germans retaliated by executing 335 Italian citizens the next day. Aside from the Jewish prisoners of Regina Coeli, the Italian captives were selected from the ghetto. Dead bodies were found in the Ardeatine Pits in the Ardeatino neighborhood. One of Italy’s most significant massacres occurred here.
The Bombing of Nuremberg, March 30, 1944
The British Royal Air Force bombed the German city of Nuremberg on March 30 and 31, 1944. Despite not being the first of its kind, the March 31 strategic bombing operation is remembered as the day the British Air Force suffered its heaviest fatalities of the whole war.
April 6, 1944, Roundup at Izieu
Following Klaus Barbie’s orders, the Gestapo broke into a camp in the French town of Izieu where Jewish children were spending the Easter break from school. A few days later, seven adults and forty-four kids were sent to the Auschwitz concentration camp. Among those who were later dubbed “the children of Izieu,” the youngest was just four years old.
May 9, 1944: The Battle of Henan-Hunan-Guangxi began
It was on May 9, 1944, that the Japanese launched Operation Ichi-Go, commonly known as the Battle of Henan, Hunan, and Guangxi. The Japanese were victorious in an onslaught against allied Chinese and American forces. To prevent further strikes from the United States, the Japanese planned to seize control of the bases in the southeastern part of China. As expected, the Japanese subsequently invaded Indochina, although U.S. airstrikes continued throughout.
The Battle of Monte Cassino began on May 17, 1944
In 1943 and 1945, Moroccan riflemen serving under General Juin helped defeat the Germans in Italy. They achieved this feat at Monte Cassino, located midway between Naples and Rome. In all, 115,000 Allied soldiers were killed or wounded. Even yet, in Italy, they were able to keep making strides forward. That was the crowning achievement of the Free French throughout World War II.
May 26, 1944: Allied bombing raids on southeastern and central France
The Allies’ Transportation Plan called for an assault on French communication links, particularly the railways, in advance of the Normandy invasion. Bombings on May 26 were a part of this operation, and they were directed against strategic locations in the south and central east of the nation. The bombardment was effective against military targets, but many people were killed as a result of inaccuracy brought about by the aircraft’s high altitude.
Rome was occupied by Allied forces on June 4, 1944
Italy had been split between Allied and German soldiers since September 1943, when Mussolini was freed. In June, however, the Allies invaded Rome and successfully repelled the Wehrmacht. A new administration led by Ivanoe Bonomi, head of the National Liberation Committee, took power in the South when Badoglio was ousted.
June 6, 1944: The Normandy Landings
Operation Overlord was initiated by the United States and the rest of the Allied troops under the leadership of General Dwight D. Eisenhower. On “D-Day,” American forces landed on the beaches of Normandy, followed an hour later by British and Canadian troops. The first combatants were parachuted inland.
June 7, 1944—The events of Laclotte and the tragedy of Saint-Pierre-de-Clairac
On June 7, 1944, two Nazi atrocities occurred in Lot-et-Garonne. The Gestapo orchestrated the events at Laclotte, in which the SS assaulted the town and murdered French people. Eleven resistance fighters were slain and two housing estates were torched in the Saint-Pierre-de-Clairac disaster, which was executed by the same SS division. Tulle and Oradour-sur-Glane were massacred by the same army just a few days later.
June 9, 1944, Tulle massacre
Under the guise of enforcing paper control, the 2nd SS Das Reich tank division swept into Tulle (Corrèze) and rounded up all of the capable male population. As retribution for maquis assaults, 99 were executed by hanging, and another 149 were transferred to the Dachau concentration camp, where 101 of them perished. The following day, the same division returned to Normandy, the site of the recent Allied operations, and made its way to Oradour-sur-Glane.
10 June 1944: The inhabitants of Oradour were massacred by the SS
Oradour-sur-Glane, a tiny town close to Limoges, was destroyed by a detachment of the SS “Das Reich” division sent by General Lammerding. Under the guise of checking IDs, all of the people were brought to the marketplace.
Women and children were transported to the church while the men were imprisoned in barns. The buildings were set on fire by the SS, and 642 people (including 246 women and 207 children) perished. The “Das Reich” division had previously carried out a slaughter the day before at Tulle while returning from the eastern front, where exactions were frequent.
13 June 1944: Hitler launches the V1s over London
From their launch pads in Calais, the first Vergeltungswaffe-1 (retaliation weapons-1) were fired in the direction of London. After the Allied invasion of Normandy, Hitler intended to deal a fatal blow to British morale. The British Air Force showed that V-1s might be intercepted midair or redirected from their intended course. These aerial bombs would kill 6,000 people in only three months. Scientists in Germany who worked on these rockets would eventually take part in the space race.
June 15, 1944—Battle of Saipan
The United States defeated the Japanese in the Mariana Islands during the Battle of Saipan, which began on June 15 and ended on July 9 of that year. At least a large number of people committed suicide rather than be taken prisoner by the Americans during this conflict. It was a turning point in the assault on the Pacific, as it enabled the construction of strategic bases and brought Japan within the reach of the American air force.
June 19, 1944-Battle of the Philippine Sea
As the Engagement of Saipan was going on at the same time, on June 19-20, 1944, the Imperial Japanese Navy and the United States Navy fought a naval and aviation battle in the Philippine Sea. The Japanese Navy’s planes and aircraft carriers were mostly destroyed in this conflict. Because of the disparity in power, the conflict earned the moniker “Great Marianas Pigeon Shot.”
26 June 1944-Battle of Bobr
The Battle of Bobr was fought between the French Volunteer Legion of the Wehrmacht and the Soviet Army during Operation Bagration, which was launched by the USSR to expel the Germans from Belarus. On June 26 and 27, 1944, it happened. While the odds were against them, the German soldiers, who included at least 400 Frenchmen, were victorious after two days of warfare. As an excuse for their loss, Russian media outlets overstated the number of enemy fighters.
30 June 1944: Capture of Cherbourg
Beginning on June 6, 1944, when the Allies landed in Normandy, the Battle of Cherbourg lasted until June 30, when the United States was victorious. As the remainder of the German soldiers surrendered, Allied forces swept in and took control of the harbor city of Cherbourg. This victory was important to keeping the war going because it gave the Allies control of the port of Cherbourg, which made it easier to send supplies to the western front.
The Brazilian Expeditionary Force lands in the South Atlantic on July 2, 1944
The Brazilian Expeditionary Force got to Italy on July 2, 1944. The Brazilian Air, Army, and Navy Corps were 23,500 strong and were incorporated into the 5th British Army during the Transalpine operation. After eight months of warfare, the FEB lost 443 soldiers but captured 20,573 foes, making a significant impact on the falls of Bologna, Parma, Modena, and Genoa.
18 July 1944: Battle of Mount Gargan
The German Jesser brigade, led by Georges Guingouin, battled the French maquis on Mount Gargan from July 18 to July 24, 1944, with help from the French militia. Over 4,800 German forces faced 3,500 French resistance fighters, the bulk of whom were francs-tireurs and partisans. Although they suffered 38 deaths and 54 injuries, the maquisards were able to slow down the enemy and prevent them from completely dismantling the maquis.
On July 20, 1944, an attempt was made to kill Hitler
Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg masterminded a conspiracy to murder the Führer at his headquarters in Wolfsschanze on July 20, 1944. The bomb in the luggage killed numerous policemen but only wounded Adolf Hitler slightly. Many of those involved in the scheme were executed during a violent crackdown.
July 21, 1944-Battle of Guam
From July 21 to August 10, 1944, the island of Guam was the site of the pivotal Battle of Guam during the Pacific War. Since the island had been American territory from 1899 until 1941 (when it was taken in the wake of the Pearl Harbor attack), its conquest and subsequent defense attracted widespread attention in the United States. In the same way that their success at Saipan let them set up bases and solidify their grip on the Pacific, the Americans were able to do the same thing here.
Battle of Tinian, 24 July 1944
Operation Forager continued from July 24th to August 1st, 1944, with the Battle of Tinian as a sub-part. Fighting was shorter on Guadalcanal than on the other islands because of the island’s flat terrain, which played into the hands of the Americans. It was also during this period that the first military use of napalm occurred.
Operation Cobra, July 25, 1944
The Americans began Operation Cobra, an attack in the Cotentin area, on July 25, 1944. Its secret name referred to the movement of the American forces, and its objective was to clear a path through the German lines to invade Brittany. The successful conclusion of this operation, which was highlighted by the capture of Avranches and the eluding of the German defenses, was essential to the result of the Battle of Normandy.
August 15, 1944: Landing in Provence
The “Anvil” Provence landing, which was mostly made up of French colonial citizens, started with a troop parachute drop and ended with a beach landing. Although the operation, involving over 300,000 soldiers, was smaller than in Normandy, it advanced more quickly because the Nazis had dispatched troops north. In fewer than 10 days, the towns of Grenoble, Toulon, and Marseille were freed.
Those famous words from August 25, 1944: “Paris is liberated.”
After the victorious Normandy landings, General Eisenhower led the Allied advance into Paris to reclaim the French capital. In one of the most famous addresses in French history, given on August 25, 1944, de Gaulle said, “Paris outraged, Paris shattered, Paris martyred – but Paris liberated!”
The Liberation of Nice, August 28, 1944
The Resistance incited an insurrection on August 28, 1944, which eventually resulted in the liberation of Nice. Although there were only around a hundred warriors at the start, the insurrection gathered steam as the day progressed. Until American troops arrived on August 29 and then tanks on August 30, the revolt was mostly backed by the Allies. At that point, the Nazi occupants were completely expelled. There were 31 fatalities and 280 injuries among the Nice resistance fighters.
Lapland War began on September 15, 1944
In September of 1944, hostilities in Lapland erupted. The battle to free Finland’s territory ramped up after the peace accord between Finland and the Soviet Union was signed. In April of 1945, the Finns won the war, but not before the German “scorched earth strategy” had done significant damage. The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1947, gave the Soviet Union control of the Petsamo area and its nickel mines.
The failure of Operation Market Garden, September 17, 1944
Operation Market Garden, launched in September 1944, was an assault operation. The British-led force’s objective was to cross German-occupied waterways in the Netherlands using seized bridges. If Field Marshal Montgomery’s operation had been a total success, the Siegfried Line might have been bypassed and forces could have entered the Ruhr, which could have contributed to a speedy finish to the war.
October 1, 1944-Battle of Aachen
On October 1, 1944, the Battle of Aachen began and lasted until October 21, 1944. After fierce battles, American forces breached the Siegfried Line and entered the city, which was held by 12,000–18,000 German soldiers who were trapped and unable to mount a counterattack. The significance of the Nazi fortifications may be understood in light of the fact that Aachen was the first major German city to fall on the Western Front.
October 2, 1944: Warsaw Uprising
After two months of combat, the Warsaw Uprising was crushed on October 2, 1944. The Polish resistance movement, Armia Krajowa, instigated the uprising as part of the Storm effort to gain independence from German control and strengthen the standing of the Red Army. The systematic killing of Polish resistance members by German troops and the inaction of the Allies signified the defeat of the revolt.
October 10, 1944: Signature of the Franco-Soviet Pact
The provisional administrations of the French Republic and the Soviet Union signed an alliance and mutual aid contract in Moscow on December 10, 1944. Georges Bidault and Molotov confirmed the partnership in the presence of General de Gaulle and Stalin to counteract the German menace and deter the future vanquished from attempting aggression. The arrival of the Normandy-Niemen fighter squadron on the Eastern Front marked the beginning of the Franco-Soviet partnership.
October 27, 1944: The Japanese navy was defeated in the Gulf of Leyte
The Japanese Navy in the Pacific was almost wiped out at the conclusion of the biggest naval war in history. Five days into the battle, the American Navy destroyed half of Japan’s naval tonnage. From that point on, the United States Navy had free reign of the majority of the Pacific and could sail straight into Okinawa in preparation for an assault on Japan.
The city of Strasbourg was freed on this day in 1944
More than 60 miles (100 km) were traveled in six days by General Leclerc’s second armored division as they advanced to Strasbourg and entered the city. About 12,500 German troops were captured when the city was freed. For his part, Leclerc told the Alsatians: “The spire of your church has remained our preoccupation. We swore that we would raise the flag there once again. This task has been completed.“
November 24, 1944-Bombing of Tokyo
Among the numerous times the United States bombed Tokyo, one of those times was on November 24, 1944. To my knowledge, this was the first aerial attack to originate from the east. The fleet of 88 B-29 bombers had a 10% success rate while dropping their bombs from 10,000 feet. Non-military targets were often bombed during World War II in an effort to undermine the adversary by damaging their political and economic infrastructure.
German counterattack in the Ardennes, December 16, 1944
Field Marshal Von Rundstedt led the Germans in one last, decisive counteroffensive in the Ardennes against the Americans. After a fierce struggle that culminated in a Nazi push up to December 23rd, this last assault became legendary as the battle of Bastogne. However, on January 26th, the German forces were pushed back and the operation was halted. Von Rundstedt was captured by the British, and they lost tens of thousands of troops throughout their greatest battalions.
1 January 1945: Operation Nordwind
During World War II, a mission known as “Operation Nordwind” was launched. Beginning on January 1 and ending on January 25, 1945, the Wehrmacht conducted an operation in Lorraine and northern Alsace. At the month’s end, the German advance was halted by Allied forces. Rittershoffen and Hatten were nearly entirely destroyed as a result of the fierce combat that took place during this operation.
On January 1, 1945, the Allied forces launched Operation Bodenplatte
On January 1, 1945, during the Battle of the Bulge, the Allies launched Operation Bodenplatte. The German air force carried out the operation in an effort to acquire air superiority over the enemy and aid the ground forces. Numerous Allied sites in northeastern France, the southern Netherlands, and eastern Belgium were assaulted by a total of 900 aircraft, including fighters and bombers.
January 17, 1945: Liberation of Warsaw
Warsaw was in ruins when the Red Army arrived. The German occupation of the Polish capital had ended after five years. Jews made up a significant portion of the population, and they were murdered en masse, either in concentration camps or within the ghetto. Warsaw’s population was just a tenth of what it had been before the war when it was freed.
On January 27, 1945, the camp of Auschwitz was liberated.
The major Nazi killing facility was captured by the Red Army. There, they came upon 7,500 tired survivors. Some of them had been successful in obtaining firearms and had rebelled against the previous SS. In Auschwitz, 1.5 million prisoners were killed between the spring of 1942 and the winter of 1945.
In an assault on January 30, 1945, the Wilhelm Gustloff was sunk
A total of 10,000 people, including East Prussian refugees, German troops, and commanders, were aboard the ship Wilhelm Gustloff as it sailed out of Gotenhafen in the Bay of Danzig on January 30, 1945. A Soviet submarine discovered it and blasted it with four torpedoes. In about 50 minutes, the ship went down, taking the lives of between 5,000 and 9,000 people.
Operation Corn Flakes was launched in February 1945
Between February and March 1945, the US Office of Strategic Services carried out Operation Corn Flakes. The goal of this propaganda campaign, which took place during World War II, was to undermine the morale of the inhabitants of Germany and Austria. The Allies attempted to convey the idea that the war was about to end by inserting anti-Nazi letters into the mail. The term given to this operation indicates how the mail was delivered at breakfast time.
February 4, 1945—Opening of the Yalta Conference
In Crimea, on the edge of the Black Sea, Churchill, Stalin, and Roosevelt get together once again to determine the destiny of Germany and Japan. The Soviet Union hoped to aid the American effort to defeat Japan. Following a vote, Germany was disarmed and partitioned into three occupying zones (France would also be assigned a zone later). It was up to the other European nations to do what they wanted. However, communism was really implemented by Stalin throughout the areas freed by the Red Army (with the exception of Austria). This contributed to the escalation of tensions that led to the Cold War.
February 10, 1945: The General von Steuben was sunk
The DS Steuben, once a luxury liner, began transporting German soldiers in 1944. Injured soldiers and refugees were brought to Kiel from East Prussia on February 10th, 1945. The submarine S-13, captained by Alexander Marinesko, detected the ship in mid-ocean and launched an assault. Three thousand to four thousand people perished when the ship went down. Around 600 individuals made it through the ordeal alive.
February 13, 1945: Bombing of Dresden
The Saxony state capital was completely destroyed by Allied bombing raids. A first wave of 244 British and Canadian Lancaster bombers rushed over the city in the evening, marking the start of the assault. The downtown area of the city was devastated by a massive fire. With a second and third round of bombardment, Dresden was completely leveled. A total of 8 mi2 (20 km2) were destroyed in only four days.
It was a point of contention that so many innocent people who had sought safety in the city had lost their lives. Researchers were able to reduce the estimated number of fatalities from 250,000 to 135,000 thanks to their teamwork, and the new number is 35,000. There was no anti-aircraft system in place in Dresden.
Battle of Iwo Jima, 23 February 1945
Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima, by Joe Rosenthal of the Associated Press.
Between the months of February and March of 1945, the Battle of Iwo Jima was fought. As part of World War II, it matched American forces against those of Japan. On February 23, U.S. troops launched an assault on the island and made it to the summit of Mount Suribachi. Finally, they had the island topped off with an American flag. Forever captured by photographer Joe Rosenthal, “Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima” is a symbol of this moment in history.
Bombs were dropped on Tokyo on March 9, 1945
On the night of March 9-10, 1945, American soldiers launched an assault on the city of Tokyo. With a range of 1,500 miles, the 300 B-29 bombers rained down 1,700 tons of incendiary bombs on the city. More than 100,000 people were murdered in this attack, making it the bloodiest bombing of World War II. The area bombed was 12 mi2 (30 km2). The Americans planned another attack on Tokyo on May 26, 1945.
On March 9, 1945, Japan seized Indochina
Japan began to occupy Indochinese territory starting in 1940 while acknowledging the validity of France on Asian land. The Japanese imperial army unexpectedly assaulted the French forces stationed there on March 9, 1945. There was no opposition to the toppling of the French government. The Japanese executed General Lemonnier, resident Auphelle, and Colonel Robert. In only two days, 3,000 Frenchmen were slaughtered.
Cambodian independence was proclaimed on March 10
In order to include them in the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, the Japanese Empire during World War II urged the different territories of French Indochina to declare independence. On March 10, 1945, in Phnom Penh, Norodom Sihanouk declared Cambodia to be an independent nation. Son Ngoc Thanh declared himself Cambodia’s prime minister on August 9. The new Cambodian government assumed office on August 14, the day before Japan officially surrendered.
March 12, 1945: Anne Frank leaves a diary when she dies
The Frank family was apprehended by the Nazis while hiding out at the family business for two years. They were then sent to concentration camps. A few months later, at the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, Anne Frank passed away. Upon returning to Amsterdam, the family’s lone survivor, the father, found his daughter’s journal, in which she chronicled the family’s two years of concealment.
March 22, 1945—Operation Plunder
During World War II, the Allies launched a military operation known as “Operation Plunder,” commonly known as the Rhine crossing. The 22nd of March was the start date, and the 1st of April was the finish date in 1945. Soldiers on the eastern side of the Rhine built a bridgehead around 35 miles (55 km) wide and 18 miles (30 km) deep, allowing Allied forces to continue their push into German territory.
Beginning of Operation Famine, March 27, 1945
Beginning in March of 1945, the United States military initiated a program known as “Operation Famine.” The goal was to damage Japanese harbors and waterways to impede supply trains and army movements. The 313th Bombardment Wing successfully completed the military mission on March 27, 1945, when it dropped mines equipped with auditory and magnetic sensors. The business had already released 2,000 marine mines by April.
On April 1, 1945, the Americans attacked Okinawa
The Americans arrived on Okinawa in March after struggling to take the little island of Iwo Jima. But the Japanese resistance became more tenacious the closer they got to Japan. As a result, the Americans were forced to battle until the end of June, losing about 16,000 marines after losing 6,000 troops at Iwo-Jima. Additionally, they had to endure kamikaze assaults, which damaged the soldiers’ morale. On the other hand, there were over 100,000 casualties on the other side, and bombers could now reach Japan and attack it. The Japanese army’s tenacious resistance persuaded the US to unleash the atomic bomb.
Texel Uprising in Georgia, 5 April 1945
On the island of Texel, Georgian Soviet troops led an uprising known as the Georgian Texel Uprising. The island was at that time under German authority, and its inhabitants were prisoners of war who chose to fight for their captors. In a rebellion that began on April 5, 1945, they succeeded in seizing possession of the island, but the Germans eventually mounted a counteroffensive and retook Texel.
7 April 1945-Operation Ten-Gō
April 1945 was the time of Operation Ten-Gō. The Japanese Navy was in charge of the operation. The American invasion of Okinawa was met by the world’s biggest battleship, the Yamato, and eight other Japanese vessels. When the U.S. Air Force discovered the fleet, they bombed and sunk five ships, including the Yamato. There were a total of 3,700 fatalities among the Japanese forces.
Battle of Seelow, April 16, 1945
The Soviet Union and German soldiers engaged in combat at Seelow. The Russian forces attempted to use searchlights to blind their foes on April 16, 1945. However, this strategy also backfired on them, causing several of their troops to get lost in the night and sink in marshes, while others engaged in fratricide by killing their fellow soldiers who had already pushed inside the opposing lines. Despite this, despite being outnumbered, Russian soldiers defeated the final German rampart before Berlin.
April 16, 1945: Sinking of the Goya in the Baltic Sea
Originally constructed in Germany in 1940, the Goya eventually became a refugee ship. A Soviet L-3 submarine’s captain, Vladimir Konovalov, sighted it on April 16, 1945, in the Baltic Sea when it was carrying refugees from East Prussia to West Germany. Torpedoes sunk the Goya to a depth of 255 feet (78 meters). The death toll from the assault was almost 6,000, with just 165 individuals making it out alive.
Hitler fires Heinrich Himmler on April 18, 1945
In an effort to discover a way out of Nazism after the war, Heinrich Himmler tried to negotiate with the British and Americans on the Western Front. He had previously assured a WJC official that the detention camps would not be attacked. When Adolf Hitler discovered the truth about the treason on April 28, 1945, he fired him immediately. The dictator then appointed Karl Hanke Reichsführer-SS as his successor.
April 26, 1945: Pétain constituted himself a prisoner
Marshal Pétain, like Robert Brasillach, faced charges of “intelligence with the enemy” and “high treason” at the hands of the French government. A captive since his capture by the Germans in Switzerland on April 26, 1945, he voluntarily surrendered the following day. The High Court of Justice found Pétain guilty of collaborating with the Nazis and ordered his execution. General de Gaulle commuted his death sentence to life in prison.
April 28, 1945: Mussolini was executed
Mussolini, who felt increasingly abandoned by the Germans, attempted to depart Italy. On the way, the Italian dictator was recognized and identified by partisans of the 52nd Garibaldi Brigade. When he was caught, he was sent to jail. On April 28, 1945, communist partisans killed him. Mussolini’s naked body was shown in a major Milan plaza.
The Dachau Massacre, April 29th, 1945
The 7th U.S. Army’s 3rd Battalion, 157th Regiment, 45th Infantry Division, was granted access to Dachau on April 29, 1945. When they got there, they discovered 39 carts full of bodies. The detainees and their conditions of confinement were subsequently uncovered. U.S. troops, traumatized by these horrific sights, committed a war crime by executing 50 SS officers following the camp’s liberation. The Dachau Massacre is the name given to this event.
The Dachau concentration camp was freed on April 29, 1945
A total of 32,000 detainees were freed by American troops from the Dachau concentration camp in Bavaria. It was the first German concentration camp, created by Himmler in 1933. German records show that over 32,000 people who were transported there between 1933 and 1945 died there.
After his suicide on April 30, 1945, Adolf Hitler’s regime collapsed
Adolf Hitler was notified that Russian soldiers were continuing their push towards Berlin while he was holed up in the chancellery bunker. The Führer committed suicide with his lover at his side. For the sake of preventing a repeat of Mussolini’s destiny, his corpse was burned.
May 2, 1945: The red flag flies over Berlin
Soon after Hitler and Joseph Goebbels committed suicide, the Red Army marched into Berlin and successfully raised the red flag over the German capital the next day. Marshals Zhukov and Koniev, who were in charge of the Soviet army, portrayed themselves as heroes when Germany finally capitulated.
In Italy, German forces formally surrendered on May 2, 1945
The Allied armies were in the ascendancy after leading a last push against the German forces in April. Germany had no alternative but to surrender after Mussolini was killed a few days earlier and Hitler committed suicide on April 30.
May 3, 1945-Shipwrecks of the Cape Arcona, the Thielbek, and the Deutschland
Prior to the April 14, 1945, arrival of Allied forces, Heinrich Himmler ordered the deportees to be killed. On April 20th, several inmates were loaded onto the ships Cap Arcona, Thielbek, and Deutschland. Reaching open water was essential to the Nazi strategy to sink the prisoner ships. The ships were bombed by British planes on May 3, 1945. Roughly eight thousand people perished when the SS sank or slaughtered them. Only 316 individuals managed to avoid death.
The administration of Flensburg was established on May 5th, 1945
Attempts were made to establish a transitional Reich administration in Germany after Hitler’s assassination (also called the Flensburg government). Hitler appointed Karl Dönitz chancellor of Germany and Joseph Goebbels minister of propaganda in his will. Dönitz appointed Lutz Schwerin von Krosigk Chancellor after Goebbels’s suicide. They preferred being called Minister-President.
On May 8, 1945, World War II in Europe officially ended
Following Germany’s unconditional surrender, the leaders of the Allied nations all made radio broadcasts declaring an end to hostilities in Europe. Though the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9 were a turning point, Japan’s surrender on September 2 marked the official end of World War II.
On July 9th, 1945, the London Accords and the Division of Austria were signed
A military tribunal to trial the main war criminals of World War II was established as part of the London Accords on July 9, 1945. Defeated nations’ futures were settled at the Potsdam Conference a few days later. The victorious powers split Germany and Austria apart. Allied forces had occupied Austria since April 1945, at which time the country was divided into four occupation zones: American, Soviet, British, and French.
July 17, 1945, Potsdam Conference
The Allies convened the Potsdam Conference on July 17, 1945. The future of the vanquished countries was chosen by Truman, Stalin, and Churchill. Remember that France was once again excluded from the Potsdam Conference because of the ongoing combat on the Japanese side of World War II.
The trial against Pétain began on July 23, 1945
At the end of the third month following his detention, Pétain’s trial began in the High Court of Justice. As the trial progressed, he remained silent. While the disputes were chaotic, the genuine roles of the Marshal and the Third Republic’s institutions during the partnership were never in question. After a trial, Philippe Pétain was found guilty of high treason and providing information to the enemy. He was condemned to death and humiliation for his country. De Gaulle, in his role as President of the Provisional Government of the Republic, decided to have the death sentence reduced to one of life in prison without the possibility of parole.
Germany’s destiny was decided at Potsdam on August 2, 1945
The destiny of Germany was settled after the conclusion of the Potsdam Conference on August 2, 1945. With the surrender of East Prussia to Poland and Russia, the Third Reich was finally brought to an end, and Germany’s frontiers were redrawn. Upper Silesia was also lost to Germany, and an official border between Germany and Austria was drawn. Three occupation zones were established; the French zone was created later.
The atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945
As the Japanese government continued to reject the ultimatum issued at the Potsdam Conference, the United States resolved to put its new atomic bombs to the test in live combat. An American B-29 dropped the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. 75,000 people perished as a direct consequence, not considering the long-term health effects of radiation exposure.
The Soviet Union formally declared war on Japan on August 8
Stalin assured the Allied powers at the Yalta conference that the Soviet Union would invade Japan. Russia went to war with the Empire on August 8, 1945. With Marshal Aleksandr Mikhailovich Vasilevsky at the helm, the Russian army launched offensives in Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, and the southern region of Sakhalin. The Kuril Islands were also under its control. The Russian army, aided by Mongolian People’s Republic troops, made rapid progress over the course of a few days, covering 250 miles (400 km).
The bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, Japan, on August 9, 1945
The Americans’ atomic onslaught against Japan continued with the same goal in mind. The city of Nagasaki was destroyed by an atomic weapon three days after Hiroshima. Initially, at least 38,000 people lost their lives. At the same time, the explosion destroyed about 1.5 mi2 (4 km2) of structures, largely factories.
Japan formally gave up on September 2, 1945
The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki decimated Japanese forces, and the Soviet onslaught launched against them on September 2, 1945, prompted the Japanese emperor to formally surrender Japan (a first announcement had been made on the radio two weeks before). The conclusion of World War II was signaled by Japan’s unconditional surrender.
The Nuremberg Trial began on November 20, 1945
An international court in Nuremberg, Germany, prosecuted Nazi war criminals. The trial that lasted over a year (October 1, 1946) was held in the city that served as the symbol of Nazi philosophy. Representatives from the United States, England, the USSR, and France made up the jury. On October 16, 1946, 11 of the 24 top officials of the Third Reich received hanging sentences.
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The Schutzstaffel, often known as the SS (which means “Protection Squadron”), was formed in the mid-1920s with a small number of people. Growth in membership and scope of operations followed Adolf Hitler‘s ascension to power. The SS evolved from Hitler’s personal bodyguards into a “state within a state” with a wide range of political, repressive, and ideological responsibilities. The SS was responsible for some of the greatest crimes perpetrated during the World War II in the 20th century, and was therefore declared a criminal organization after the war’s conclusion.
Why did Hitler create the Schutzstaffel?
Adolf Hitler.
When Adolf Hitler joined the National Socialist Party of German Workers (NSDAP) in 1921, he quickly rose to the position of president. Later the same year, he plotted a coup called the Beer Hall putsch in an effort to seize control. Due to legitimate security concerns, Hitler decided to hire personal bodyguards.
In 1923, he formed the Stabswache, which was soon succeeded by Adolf Hitler’s Stosstrupp and then, in 1925, by the Schutzstaffel. The SS would endure and develop even though the coup had failed and Hitler had been imprisoned for five years (though he would spend only nine months of them behind bars).
How was the Schutzstaffel organized?
Formerly a unit of the Sturmabteilung (SA), the main paramilitary force of the NSDAP, the Schutzstaffel was formed independently in 1933. In 1934, after the “Night of the Long Knives” coup, the SS was able to strike off on its own. It was granted organizational autonomy under the Führer’s direction. Contrary to popular belief, the Schutzstaffel was not part of the German Army (Wehrmacht).
The SS had a complicated hierarchy with many different sub-units and branches. The SS-Führungshauptamt (administrative and operational headquarters) included Himmler’s personal staff, large units like the Waffen-SS and the SS-Totenkopfverbände (death squads) in charge of the camps, the Gestapo (the Third Reich’s police force), and the Einsatzgruppen (mobile extermination units that acted primarily on the Eastern Front).
Heinrich Himmler: The man at the head of the Schutzstaffel
Heinrich Himmler
Heinrich Himmler, one of the key figures in Nazi Germany’s strategy of annihilation, was born on October 7, 1900 and was often regarded as the SS’s leader. Heinrich Himmler, who was too young to fight in World War I, became an extreme nationalist and Nazi right-winger very rapidly.
He began his career in the SS in 1926 as the district chief for Upper Bavaria, and after gaining Hitler’s trust, he quickly rose through the ranks, eventually becoming not only the head of the Schutzstaffel, but also the head of the German police and ultimately the Minister of the Interior of the Third Reich. Additionally, Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich were responsible for the administration of Nazi concentration and death camps.
Waffen-SS: The military component of the Schutzstaffel
The Waffen-SS was the purely military part of the SS. It was Heinrich Himmler’s idea to form this army, and they portrayed themselves as being made up entirely of die-hard Nazi race-bashers. One such Waffen-SS division was the 33rd SS “Charlemagne” Division, which was mostly composed of French volunteers willing to fight with the Germans.
How did the SS participate in World War II?
The SS committed some of the greatest crimes during World War II. It established and oversaw the concentration and extermination camps where Jews and other enemies of the Nazi dictatorship were held, paving the way for mass murder. It was also responsible for maintaining the reign of Nazi terror, first inside Germany and afterwards in the other war zones where it was active.
It carried out its repressive and ideological duties throughout all of the Third Reich’s occupied areas, including France. A notorious atrocity committed by the Schutzstaffel was the Babi Yar Massacre in the Kiev area. More than 33,000 Jews were killed there by the Einsatzgruppen before the neighboring detention camp was erected.
The massacre in Oradour-sur-Glane, France, was carried out by an SS division that hoped to crush any potential resistance movement in the wake of the Normandy landings. In parallel, the Schutzstaffel, which sought to dominate the Aryan race, established the Lebensborn to “produce” Aryan offspring.
How was the Schutzstaffel represented?
The SS was officially symbolized by the double Sig Rune (or Siegrune), which was a combination of the letters “S” and “S,” standing for “Schutzstaffel.” Its slogan was “Meine Ehre heißt Treue,” which translates to “My Honor Means Loyalty.”
The SS used distinctive Hugo Boss outfits beginning in the 1930s and lasting until the conclusion of WWII. The SS was founded on Adolf Hitler’s ideology of the Aryan race’s supremacy and German unification. The Schutzstaffel’s mission to destroy the Jewish people was motivated by ideological considerations of this kind.
Effects of German defeat on the SS
The SS was disbanded after Germany’s defeat in 1945. The Schutzstaffel was formally labeled a criminal organization when its members were listed as defendants in the renowned Nuremberg Trials (1945-1946).
Outcomes for SS members and associates were very variable. Some were captured and put on trial, while others evaded capture and punishment on a global scale. Some prominent Schutzstaffel members, like Heinrich Himmler, committed suicide rather than face justice for their misdeeds.
TIMELINE OF THE SCHUTZSTAFFEL
On January 30, 1933, Hitler becomes chancellor of Germany
President Paul von Hindenburg named Hitler Reich Chancellor, although he had little sympathy for the head of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party. This is a pivotal moment in Hitler’s rise to power and the beginning of the Nazi era.
It all started with the first concentration camp on March 20, 1933
Nazi concentration camp in Bavaria (1933-1945).
The SS’s Heinrich Himmler created the first concentration camp, known as Dachau. This camp was built specifically to hold communists and social democrats who opposed Hitler’s policies. More than 250,000 individuals were detained at Dachau between 1933 and 1945. As many as 70,000 people killed.
Gestapo was established on April 26, 1933
The Gestapo, or “secret state police,” was established by Hermann Goering to eliminate any and all resistance to the National Socialist rule. The Gestapo took advantage of complete legal protection to commit innumerable extortions and murders. The Gestapo deported several opponents to detention camps.
Himmler is officially named Gestapo chief on April 20, 1934
Himmler, the Second in Command of the Third Reich, was instrumental in establishing the totalitarian Nazi system. On April 20, 1934, he assumed control of the Gestapo as the SS’s leader.
From that point on, Hitler had all the instruments of repression necessary to impose Nazi doctrine on the populace at large. Heinrich Müller aided him in his efforts. As the Nazi regime fell apart, Himmler killed himself rather than be apprehended.
On June 30, 1934, the “Night of the Long Knives”
Ernst Röhm reviewing troops of the Silesian SA in Breslau, Germany (now Wrocław, Poland), 1933.
On the night of June 30, 1934, Hitler had SA leader Ernst Röhm eliminated. The Nazi paramilitary organization SA or Sturmabteilung (assault section) was formed in 1921 and played a crucial role in Hitler’s rise to power. But Hitler, fearing the group’s rising influence, had its leaders murdered and gave the repressive SS (Schutzstaffel) much of the authority (protective echelon).
German troops celebrate Hitler’s 50th birthday with a military parade on April 20, 1939
To celebrate being 50 years old, Adolf Hitler planned a military parade in Berlin, with the sole purpose of showing off the might of the Nazi army to the rest of the world. Army Panzers, Air Might pilots, and Luftwaffe soldiers all took part in this show of force.
Venlo incident: November 9, 1939
The Gestapo and Walter Schellenberg, future chief of the German Secret Service, plotted the Venlo incident of November 9, 1939. Two British spies were duped into thinking he plotted to kill Hitler because of this man. It was then decided to meet at Venlo, Netherlands; however, the Gestapo thwarted these plans by murdering Dutch secret agent Dirk Klop and kidnapped two British spies. Hitler gained two things from this: the British public lost faith in German plotters and Germany found an excuse to interfere in the Netherlands.
On January 20, 1942, the Nazis instituted their “Final Solution”
The Wannsee Conference, attended by 15 senior Nazi and SS members, represented the beginning of the “Final Solution”. This can be summarized in two decisions: the identification of Jews to work in concentration camps and the complete extermination of all other Jews. This marked the beginning of the murder and genocide of the Jewish people.
Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, April 19, 1943
Sixty thousand Jews in the Warsaw ghetto rebelled against Nazi SS executioners. The uprising in the Warsaw Ghetto lasted almost a month. 7,000 Jews lost their lives as a direct consequence. The survivors were immediately sent to death camps.
On September 12th, 1943, an SS commando successfully frees Mussolini
Mussolini was liberated from an SS prison in Abruzzo under Captain Otto Skorzeny. The “Duce” used his freedom to establish a new fascist state in northern Italy. Before Mussolini was captured and killed by Italian partisans, he ordered the first executions to be carried out.
The massacre in the Ardeatine Pits took place on March 24, 1944
Three hundred and thirty-five Italian civilians were shot by the Germans on March 24, 1944. (prisoners from the Regina Coeli prison and Jews arrested in a ghetto). This especially brutal murder was in retaliation for the explosion the day before in Rome that took the lives of 32 SS men.
Events at Laclotte and the disaster in Saint-Pierre-de-Clairac on June 7, 1944
French people were slaughtered when the Gestapo and the SS raided the village of Laclotte in the Lot-et-Garonne on June 7th, 1944. Eleven members of the Resistance were killed and many homes were burned at Saint-Pierre-de-Clairac on the same day by the same SS division.
Tulle, a city that was sacrificed on June 9, 1944
The Corrèze town of Tulle was swept by the 2nd SS Das Reich armored division. Supposedly, they were conducting a document verification operation. The operation was unofficially carried out in response to maquisard assaults. Ninety-nine able-bodied Frenchmen were executed, while another 149 were transferred to the Dachau concentration camp.
On June 10, 1944, the SS carried out a massacre against the local population of Oradour
A section of the SS Das Reich division was sent to Oradour-sur-Glane the day following the Tulle operation. The same method was used: the SS said they were conducting an identification check and segregated the males from the women and children before setting fire to the buildings. This atrocity resulted in the deaths of 642 locals.
Liberation of Auschwitz concentration camp, January 27, 1945
The major Nazi death camp, Auschwitz, fell to the Red Army. Seven thousand five hundred people were relieved to see it, and some of them had even gathered enough courage and weapons to rise against the SS. So, between the years of spring 1942 and winter 1945, 1.5 million inmates were killed at Auschwitz.
Adolf Hitler fires Heinrich Himmler on April 18, 1945
Heinrich Himmler sought to negotiate with the British and the Americans as he saw the impending defeat of Germany. After Adolf Hitler discovered his trusted aide betrayed him on April 28, 1945, he immediately relieved him of his responsibilities. The Führer put Karl Hanke in charge of the SS.
The Dachau Massacre, April 29, 1945
The 7th U.S. Army’s 3rd Battalion, 157th Regiment, 45th Infantry Division, was granted entry to Dachau on April 29, 1945. In addition to the appalling living circumstances of the camp’s inmates, the Americans came upon 39 carts full of bodies on their route there. The American troops killed 50 SS members in a fit of rage.
Three ships, the Cape Arcona, the Thielbek, and the Deutschland, went down on May 3, 1945
On April 14th, 1945, Heinrich Himmler, anticipating the approach of Allied soldiers, issued an order for the ex-deportees to be killed. The strategy was straightforward: load up the Cap Arcona, Thielbek, and Deutschland with prisoners and sink them as they hit open water. The British Air Force attacked these vessels on May 3, 1945. Eight thousand individuals perished, most likely from drowning or being shot by the SS.
The verdict of the Nuremberg Trial, announced on September 30, 1946
Evidence about Ernst Kaltenbrunner’s crimes is presented, 2 January 1946.
A ruling was made by the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg. The courts convicted culpability in 22 top Nazis for their roles in the atrocities committed during the war. As “crimes against humanity,” twelve of them were given the death penalty. One of them was Hermann Goering, the former head of the Luftwaffe. Goering took his own life by ingesting a pill containing cyanide the day before he was to be executed.
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In modern times, Alfred Bernhard Nobel (1833-1896) is remembered mostly as the man who established the Nobel Prizes, widely regarded as the most prestigious scientific honor. However, who was Alfred Nobel in the first place? How did the man who discovered dynamite end up giving his money to promote world peace and science?
The invention of dynamite, which has practical and lethal applications, launched Alfred Nobel’s career and made him wealthy. By using it, Nobel was able to convert nitroglycerin, a very dangerous explosive, into a more manageable and portable form for the first time. The invention of dynamite made possible the completion of the Gotthard Tunnel, one of the world’s most complex and challenging engineering projects. However, Alfred Nobel’s discovery was not without flaws. Rapidly becoming a dangerous weapon due to its explosive potential.
Success in selling his “Nobel’s Safety Powder” brought Nobel a wealth, which he used to create the Nobel Prize in order to recognize those who have made significant contributions to humankind. Every time the Nobel Prizes are handed out, the scientific community takes a moment to reflect on the life and legacy of its namesake, the brilliant scientist and businessman Alfred Nobel.
The Apprenticeship Years
When Alfred Nobel was a boy.
On October 21, 1833, into a family of engineers, Alfred Nobel was born in Stockholm. However, the Nobel family only remained in Sweden for a brief time after the birth of their son. They eventually settled in St. Petersburg. They lost everything in the construction business and decided to start again in Russia, where they had more luck.
Father Immanuel quickly established his own engineering works and foundry, eventually hiring over a thousand people at once. He had a prodigious capacity for innovation, which he put to good use by rapidly creating new devices, particularly for use in battle. Immanuel Nobel and his family prospered as a result of the company’s success and the Tsar’s court’s approval.
Traveling From Lab to Lab for Research Purposes
The thriving firm made it possible for Alfred and his brothers to have a solid education. The boys’ private teachers had them proficient in Russian, English, French, and German in addition to Swedish. In fact, Alfred considered taking up writing since he had such a deep and abiding love for reading.
While music was his first love, technology and chemistry were close seconds, and his father’s enthusiasm for the latter was a major influence. He immediately began to provide the young kid with specialized instruction, with an initial concentration on the discipline of chemistry. As early as age 17, he sent young Alfred on a two-year educational excursion around the United States, Germany, and France. The first trip was to the Parisian labs of the famous scientist Théophile-Jules Pelouze.
An Unforgettable Run-in
Invention of nitroglycerin credited to Ascanio Sobrero.
Here, Alfred Nobel met the Italian Ascanio Sobrero, an important person on his journey toward the big discovery that would make him renowned. The scientist had created nitroglycerin, the first liquid explosive, a few years previously. Sobrero’s face was badly injured in the explosion caused by mixing glycerin, sulfuric acid, and nitric acid. It seemed the explosive was too risky to be used in any meaningful way.
Upon hearing about nitroglycerin for the first time, Nobel thought about how it might be better managed, even back in Paris. However, when he got back to St. Petersburg in 1852, this wasn’t a factor at first. Nobel had a lot on his plate at the family company during the following four years. The development of armaments during the Crimean War resulted in huge revenues for the “Fonderies & Ateliers Mécaniques Nobel & Fils.”
But there is a tragic aspect to this success story: the end of the war meant no more orders. As a family, they faced some cash problems. They were on the brink of financial ruin and returned to Sweden in 1859. In light of the current economic crisis, Alfred Nobel’s chemistry tutor highlighted the unrealized potential of this substance.
Nobel made a quick decision to do what Sorbrero had not done, fearing the deadly potential of his invention. He hoped that by making the explosive marketable, he could save his family from their plight.
An Innovation With Potential to Explode
Alfred Nobel.
Alfred Nobel founded a family business in Stockholm with his father Immanuel and brother Oskar-Emil, experimenting with nitroglycerin. Not surprisingly, dealing with such a potentially dangerous substance was a difficult task. But the Nobels had their first taste of success in 1861 when they successfully mass-produced their “explosive oil”.
But the fundamental problem remained: the metastable material could explode at the slightest vibration or impact. It was therefore extremely dangerous to transport it by standard means, such as freight trains or horse-drawn carriages. Furthermore, detonators could not be used to detonate the liquid as simply as with black powder.
To detonate, nitroglycerin just needed a quick spark. However, how would one safely set off such a massive explosion? As the explosion was about to fizzle out, Nobel had an idea that set it off. He created a tiny container, filled it with black powder and nitroglycerin, and hanged it in a blast hole.
Nobel devised the first ignition, a chemical that could be exploded with a fuse and then causes the nitroglycerin underneath it to explode due to the pressure wave created. His first description of his package was a “patent detonator.” Subsequently, he reformulated the device to utilize fulminated mercury instead of black powder and dubbed it a detonator.
What a Horrible Accident
One of the first dynamite was created by Nobel using diatomaceous earth and nitroglycerin. Source: NobelPrize.org
Yet nitroglycerin was still sensitive to impacts. Nobel learned painfully how dangerous this property could be. A sizable explosion shook residents in the southern part of Stockholm one morning in September 1864. A laboratory facility containing 125 kilograms of explosives derailed at the Nobel estate. The explosion killed five people, including Nobel’s younger brother.
Nobel eventually perfected the Kieselguhr method, a type of diatomaceous earth, to stabilize the dynamite. Even after this terrible disaster, the scientist worked relentlessly to improve his method and eventually spread it to Germany. The mining industry was growing and new railroad lines were being rapidly built, creating ideal conditions for the marketing of Nobel’s explosive oil.
The Long-Awaited Breakthrough
Nobel constructed an industrial facility in Krümmel’s Geesthacht neighborhood despite the lack of a satisfactory answer to the transportation issue. However, in May of 1866, a horrific explosion took place there, as well. Not long ago, a vessel off the coast of Panama carrying the deadly cargo exploded. Public opinion and legislative pressure were rising. The nitroglycerine’s destructive potential must be brought under control.
During the same time period, Alfred Nobel made a groundbreaking discovery. He discovered that by combining nitroglycerin with diatomaceous earth, a powder derived from the shells of microscopic sea animals, the liquid could be shaped into a manageable bulk and carried with relative ease. Some say he made the finding by sheer happenstance. However, Alfred Nobel himself denied these claims.
From Dynamite to Explosive Gelatin
To be sure, in 1867, Nobel sought patents in several countries on his new explosive, which he termed dynamite (from the Greek for “power”). An enormous amount of money was made from the new material. However, Nobel was not content just yet. With the addition of diatomaceous earth, he succeeded in making nitroglycerin less dangerous. However, it was now only about five times as potent as black powder and had lost part of its explosive strength over time.
In 1876, Nobel developed a workable alternative to diatomaceous earth by combining nitroglycerin with collodion wool. As a consequence, they came up with blasting gelatine, a dynamite explosive that was both stable under pressure and highly explosive. This improved variant of the original dynamite remained one of the most potent commercial explosives available today.
Progress and Death Hand in Hand with Nobel’s Dynamite
It didn’t take long for Nobel’s dynamite to become the industry standard worldwide.
Black powder has been the sole kind of explosive known to mankind for almost a thousand years. However, the material is not powerful enough for widespread explosions. Explosives like Nobel’s dynamite ushered in a new age since they were the first chemicals to significantly outperform black powder while being relatively safe to use (though mishaps using dynamite are unfortunately common).
Shortly after its introduction, Nobel’s invention quickly became the most popular explosive in the world. Tunnels, canals, and mines could all be carved out of the earth with its aid. With the advent of dynamite, construction workers could finally realize their wildest dreams.
1 Million Pounds (lbs) Of Dynamite Used in a Tunnel Construction
Major projects, like the 15-kilometer Gotthard Tunnel that snaked its way through the summits of the same-named mountain range in Switzerland, demonstrated the efficacy of the new explosives. Engineers drilled into the mountain to a depth of around a meter before using dynamite for blasting. Construction of the Panama Canal also made use of the explosive.
However, the invention of dynamite resulted in not only a powerful industrial explosive but also a terrifying weapon. The brutal use of dynamite dates back to the Franco-Prussian War, long before Alfred Nobel improved his explosive by combining it with blasting gelatine to make it even more destructive.
In addition, dynamite was crucial to a wave of terrorist assaults that swept over Europe at the close of the 19th century. So many working-class revolutionaries and anarchists used dynamite to strike the ruling class and wreak widespread destruction.
The Russian Tsar Alexander II was their most recognizable victim. While on a carriage trip through St. Petersburg, he was murdered by a dynamite device. After that, many European countries restricted access to dynamite and other explosives due to widespread abuse of the substance.
In 1884, for instance, the German Reich discoureged the “criminal and murderous use of explosives” by passing the so-called Dynamite Law. Despite Nobel’s best intentions, his technology was increasingly being put to lethal use. His creation was a mixed gift and a curse.
The Nobel Prize
Nobel’s will with a surprise.
Alfred Nobel made a fortune and left a legacy by commercializing his innovation on a global scale. The name of the Swedish scientist and businessman was still widely connected with more than just dynamite. His enduring financial legacy was also a perennial newsmaker. After all, it’s the basis for the Nobel Prize, the highest honor in the scientific and social fields.
Acts of Generosity
Nobel, who died childless in 1895, left most of his riches (around 31 million Swedish crowns) to a fund in his testament. The inventor stipulated in his will that the interest accrued be split into five equal parts and “given as rewards to those who have made the greatest contribution to humanity in the last year.”
The prize would be awarded for exceptional work in physics and chemistry, the two scientific disciplines that inspired Alfred Nobel’s idea. The scientist, on the other hand, also saw medicine as a legitimate academic field. Additionally, Alfred Nobel, who wrote numerous short stories and poems himself, included an award for literature in his testament. Also, the fifth portion of the award was meant to recognize “the person who shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations.”
Winners of the Very First Nobel Prizes
The first Nobel Prizes were awarded in December 1901.
After Nobel’s death on December 10, 1896, his will was finalized three and a half years later. The proposal for the Nobel Foundation’s founding laws was approved by the Swedish Government in June 1900. Once the five months passed, the management of the foundation assumed charge of the money. The first Nobel Prize was given out on the fifth anniversary of Alfred Nobel’s death.
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, who discovered the radiation we now know as X-rays, was awarded the first Nobel Prize in Physics. Both Dutchman Jacobus van ‘t Hoff, who discovered the rules of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions, and German military doctor Emil von Behring, who discovered a treatment for diphtheria, won the first prizes in the Nobel chemistry category. Frédéric Passy, known across the globe as the “Apostle of Peace,” and humanist Henry Dunant will forever be remembered as the first recipients of the Nobel Prizes in Literature and Peace, respectively.
Others followed in their footsteps as Nobel laureates. With the exception of a few years, particularly during times of war, when the award was not presented, the Nobel laureates are announced annually around the beginning of October, and the Nobel Prizes are awarded on December 10. The award money is still paid out of the interest and revenue from the inventor of dynamite’s inheritance. Each winner gets eight million Swedish kronor (now equivalent to roughly 700,000 dollars).
“Merchant of Death” or Advocate for World Peace?
There was widespread surprise when news of Alfred Nobel’s donation of a peace award emerged after his death. After all, people tended to identify the name “Nobel” with explosives and other advances that could be used in conflict, but not with nonviolent causes. In fact, in an erroneous obituary, journalists even referred to the scientist as a “merchant of death.”
Is it possible that the scientist had mixed feelings about the impact of his work in the armaments business, and that he hoped to use the money from the award to atone for the “evil side” of his inventions? It’s impossible to know for sure from where we stand now. It is evident, however, that Alfred Nobel was essentially running in parallel on issues of war and peace throughout his lifetime.
Deadly Inventions
However, he seemed endowed with a lifelong fascination with the science of guns and explosives. His father was also an engineer with a deep interest in this field; he helped create rapid-fire guns and naval mines used in the Crimean War. Dynamite, Nobel’s own great innovation, was also used in war despite its original intention.
And it wasn’t only dynamite; far into his senior years, the brilliant scientist continued to work on a wide range of technologies with the potential to be used as weapons. A patent applicant, he sought protection for a wide range of armaments, including rockets, cannons, and novel formulations of gunpowder.
Alfred Nobel: The War Resister
In contrast, Nobel cared deeply about topics related to world peace. Thus, he became quite close with the pacifist Bertha von Suttner via letters. At the tail end of the nineteenth century, the Austrian was one of the primary proponents of the peace movement that was gaining momentum throughout Europe.
Inspired by her, Nobel became a member of the Austrian Peace Society and donated money to its cause. It is likely that von Suttner was also responsible for the rich businessman’s decision to endow a peace award with a portion of his estate.
Alfred Nobel does not seem to find any inconsistency between his work in the arms business and his desire to promote world peace. Instead, he seems to subscribe to the view, widespread in the 19th century, that a scientist is not responsible for the application of his research.
Each new scientific finding, in this perspective, is apolitical at first, but has the potential to be used for either good or evil. Alfred Nobel had a similar nave belief in the possibility of good coming from his arsenal of explosive weapons. In 1963, the “Nobelium” element was named for Alfred Nobel.
In Nobel’s view, only the military might can guarantee lasting peace. He believed that with the appropriate weapon, the idea of deterrence might one day render conflicts inconceivable. Since he passed away so soon, he never got to see the First World War or realize how wrong he was.
