Author: Hrothsige Frithowulf

Timeline of the Wheel: History and Invention
How was the wheel invented, and how has it evolved throughout history? The origin and timeline of the wheel begin with the prehistoric utilization of circular motion, man-made prehistoric round objects, the rollers made of tree logs, and finally the potter’s wheel. The first pottery wheel, as the forerunner of the wheel, was invented in the Near East around 5200 BC. The first pottery wheel with an axle design was invented in Mesopotamia around 4200 BC, and the first wheel used for transportation is believed to have been invented by Sumerians in Mesopotamia in about 3500 BC.
Clay oxen wheel, Gavallomouri (Crete), 800-700 BC. (Clay – CC BY-SA 4.0)
The wheel is the simplest but most important invention in human history. The invention of the wheel revolutionized the first recorded instances of warfare, allowed cargo to be transported over long distances, and enabled the development of the first automated processes, along with more efficient exploration and colonization of the planet.
Prehistory – Round Objects and Rotational Motion
A Neanderthal round hut from around 60,000 BC. P. Galibert, INRAP
The origin and invention of the wheel can be traced back to our natural inclination towards round objects. Circular shapes can be found throughout nature. Animal eyes, stars, circles in water, and fruits are just a few examples. In human culture, round huts have been used for tens of thousands of years. The majority of natural forms are rounded, and for us, they are more comfortable and secure than sharper forms like animal teeth or pointed rock.
In 400,000 BC, fire by means of heat could be generated by striking one piece of flint rock against another using a rotational motion. In 150,000 BC, beads and pendants were perforated using a technique where a rotating vertical motion was used to create holes. This method was improved with the help of tools such as a bow drill during the latest periods of prehistory.
The bullroarers (“rhombuses”) were used for making music and for long-distance communication since 18,000 BC. (Photo by Wikimedia)
And at least 20,000 years ago, Homo sapiens were swinging diamond-shaped bone objects called “bullroarers” (rhombus), which were attached at the end of a rope to produce strident sounds in a rotational motion. Dating from at least 18,000 BC, they are among the oldest musical instruments, still being used in Papua and Australia today.
12,000 BC – Log Rollers
From 12,000 BC to 3500 BC, the Neolithic people placed their loads on rollers made of logs.
The natural world is filled with spherical and mobile objects that could have been used as wheels by ancient humans. Humans discovered that rolling things over a circular surface, like a log from a fallen tree, made the task of moving the object easier.
The earliest known use of wheels was by Neolithic men, who used log rollers to transport heavy loads, such as large stones used for megalithic construction. From 12,000 BC to 3500 BC, the Neolithic people placed their loads on rollers made of logs.
However, some logs were always uneven, and this proved to be an inefficient method due to the difficulty of keeping everything in line. Archaeologists believe that humans later came up with the sledge as a way to drag large objects. The logs or sticks were placed beneath this sledge. To move the sledge from one roller to the next, humans placed many logs or rollers side by side or even created tracks out of logs.
It is believed that when the logs were worn down by being dragged with sledges, grooves were formed which then served as an axle for the sledges. It seems that after the invention of the potter’s wheel, wooden carts with wheels were widely available and quickly took the place of sledges.
The invention of the wheel began with the use of tree logs that were sliced horizontally and transformed into flat pieces of wood. These wooden disks were then placed on a circular axle, which was secured in place through the use of wooden pegs. This was the first method of creating a wheel.
The invention of using logs to transport heavy objects, such as the massive stone slabs used in megalithic burial structures or “dolmens,” was specifically intended for these large, tens of tons weighing stones. In Europe, several of those dolmens are dated to the late 5th millennium BC.
5200 BC – Potter’s Wheel
This miniature potter at work on his pottery wheel dates back to about 2500 BC. (Uchicago.edu)
With the invention of the potter’s wheel around 5200 BC, wheels began to be used in industrial processes. The idea behind the rolling logs and the potter’s wheel was adapted to make the first wheel: In 3500 BC, wooden disks connected by an axle were invented.
The first known evidence of human-created wheels was discovered in Mesopotamia. Around 10,000 BC, the first ceramics made using the coiling method were created by placing mats or large leaves underneath the clay to rotate the pot instead of walking around it to add more coils.
Then, the tournettes, sometimes called “slow wheels,” were invented in the Near East around 5000 BC. They were the forerunners of the wheel, consisting of a disk rotated manually without an axle. The oldest slow wheel was discovered in Iran at the Tepe Pardis settlement from the prehistoric Halaf-Ubaid period of 5200–4700 BC.
4500 BC – Spindles
A precursor in the timeline of the wheel: Spindles and spindle whorls. The ancient craft of weaving fabric required the use of a stick and a disk-shaped item with a hole in its center. (Photo by The Portable Antiquities Scheme/ The Trustees of the British Museum, CC BY SA)
The domestication of sheep and the subsequent exploitation of wool led to the development of a tool similar to the bullroarer. A circular flywheel with a spindle fixed in its lower part is known as the “spindle whorl.” The spinner braided the strands of raw wool into a continuous thread, winding it at the same time around the rotating spindle.
These stone and particularly clay spindle whorls are the earliest known “wheels,” and despite their diminutive size, they had the concept of a transverse axle. Dating back to the 5th millennium BC, the spindle whorls were already widely used in Europe in the Copper Age (4500–3800 BC). One of the oldest shafts of a spindle is dated as far back as 4300 BC.
4200 BC – The First Wheel with An Axle
The invention of the wheel’s original purpose was not for transportation. The first wheel with an axle, also called the true potter’s wheel, was invented in Mesopotamia around 4200–4000 BC. Around this time, the Sumerians were living in a location called Sumer, some 100 miles upriver from the Persian Gulf in what is now Iraq. The smooth spinning and wheel-and-axle system distinguished this design.
This potter’s wheel was first used to mechanize industrial work. Heavy, swiveling stone wheels were used to shape the clay. The potter’s wheel made it easier to produce clay pots since it spun the clay quickly while allowing the craftsman to mold the pot with their hands.
4000 BC – The First Wheel Used for Transportation
A Ram-Headed Vessel with Mesopotamian wheel, second half 3rd millenium BC. (Photo: Brooklyn Museum, Creative Commons-BY)
Because the concept of a wheel most likely evolved over time, there was no single or multiple inventors of the wheel. For instance, a wheeled bull figurine from 3950–3650 BC was discovered in western Ukraine, and it is the oldest identified object that utilized a wheel. The artifact can be viewed at the Museum of Cultural Heritage located in Kiev.
Late Uruk signs for wagons from Temple of Inanna in Uruk, 3500–3370 BC. (“Palaeohistoria 47/48“, by E. Drenth; J.A. Bakker)
In ancient Mesopotamia, we also find one of the earliest evidences of wheels being used for transportation. Investigations into the ancient Sumerian metropolis of Uruk, uncovered clay tablets with illustrations of four wheeled wagons dating back to 3500–3370 BC. The development of social hierarchies and the practice of domesticating plants and animals both occurred during this period.
Researchers have discovered two parallel lines in the vicinity of the prehistoric cemetery at Flintbek, Germany that have been confirmed to be the imprints of a wagon that dates back to approximately 3400 BC. (Photo by Dieter Stoltenberg; artwork by Susanne Beyer)
3500 BC onward, indications of more wheeled vehicles appear throughout Europe in the form of miniature toy cars, artistic renderings, and wagon tracks. The earliest known wheel tracks of a cart were discovered in northern Germany and are believed to date back to 3400 BC. They are marked by two distinct parallel lines.
Researchers have discovered those parallel lines in the vicinity of the prehistoric cemetery at Flintbek, Germany. Seven large stone tombs dating back to the Stone Age were discovered in this area, together with 14 burial mounds laid out in a crescent shape. The cattle carts seen in the artwork may have been used in the building of these massive megalithic tombs.
One of the earliest depictions of wheeled vehicle, 3550 BC. A pot from Bronocice, Poland. (Credit: Silar, CC BY-SA 3.0, modified from original)
Around the mid-fourth millennium, wagons appeared in Central Europe: An ancient pot named “Bronocice pot” (dated to c. 3500 BC) bearing a depiction of a four-wheeled vehicle is among the oldest and most accurately dated illustrations of such a contraption in the world. Around c. 3300, the Baden culture of Hungary left behind wheeled miniature cups in the form of clay models in their graves. In western Europe, in the Jaunay-Clan commune in France, remnants of wheels dating back 5,000 years have been found.
3500 BC – Wooden Wheel with Axle
The Ljubljana Marshes Wheel is the oldest wooden disk wheel and axle ever discovered.
It was the addition of the axle that made the discovery of the wheel functional in the first place. As late as 4000 BC, humans were able to transport massive stones by rolling them along logs. Then, someone got the bright idea of drilling a hole in the middle of a round slice of wood and mounting an axle on it. This was the birth of solid disk wheels.
The first wheels used for transportation were axle-mounted wooden disks, which were developed in Europe (Ukraine) and Mesopotamia (Ur) around similar times. The Ljubljana Marshes Wheel is the oldest disk wheel from the Copper Age. It has a diameter of 72 cm (28.35 inches) and was discovered 12.5 miles (20 kilometers) south of Ljubljana in Slovenia.
3000 BC – The First Chariots
A depiction of a cart with disk wheels on the Sumerian Standard of Ur (c. 2500 BC).
The disk wheel was first employed on carts and then later on chariots used in war. Around 3000 BC, the chariot was invented in Mesopotamia as a result of the solid wheels. The Sumerians used these disk wheels in their chariots. A depiction of a war cart with disk wheels on the Sumerian Standard of Ur from 2500 BC can be seen above. The chariot also quickly became popular in Egypt for various purposes, such as hunting, parading, and warfare.
The Fifth Dynasty (2465–2323 BC) of ancient Egypt is when the wheel first appears in written records. The Egyptian wagons with up to eight wheels and the ancient Egyptian carts are well documented. The earliest military uses of wheels can be traced back to a scaling ladder and a siege tower.
2000 BC – First Spoked Wheels
Tutankhamun (r. 1333–1323 BC) on a war chariot with spoked vehicles. (File -Share Alike 4.0 International)
A drawing based on the original painting of Tutankhamun on a war chariot with spoked vehicles.
However, the disk wheels were too heavy. To decrease the weight, the first wheels with spokes appeared around 2000 BC. Wheels with spokes were lighter, and they allowed a lighter animal, such as a horse, to be used along with the cart.
The spoked wheel was first developed in the steppes of Central Asia around 2000 BC: The earliest discovered chariots with spoked wheels are from the burials of the Sintashta culture in Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia. Around the same time, chariots with spoked wheels also appeared in Anatolia (Asia Minor).
The spoked wheel later spread to Egypt in 1600 BC. And it wasn’t until around 1500 BC that the spoked wheel made its debut in Mesopotamia. The invention of spoked wheels made it possible to create faster vehicles. A typical Bronze Age spoked chariot was able to move 10 times faster than any Roman soldier in 1200 BC. It was only around 1600 BC that lighter wheels with a break mechanism were developed.
1323 BC – The Chain Brakes
For a long period of time, wheeled vehicles could only be moved on certain surfaces using animal traction. This was true regardless of the design of the wheel and the vehicle. The first brakes have been a part of wheels since ancient times, especially on chariots. According to archaeologists, the chariots had a chain brake. A wooden piece was attached to the front of the rear wheels, and when the driver pulled up a chain, the piece of wood would rotate up against the front of the rear wheels and stop the vehicle.
750 BC – Wheels with an Iron Rim
A typical Celtic chariot with a wooden wheel and a metal rim around it. (Photo by Wolfgang Sauber, CC BY SA)
As long as the conditions allowed, the wheel soon made its way from the Near East and Eastern Mediterranean through the rest of Eurasia, all the way to China and the Celtic world. Some of the graves of the so-called Pit Grave culture (or Yamnaya culture, c. 3300–2600 BC) in the Ukraine and southern Russia have yielded evidence of wheels and wheeled vehicles. This society buried their noteworthy individuals in holes covered with a mound of dirt and stone called a “kurgan.”
The oldest documented examples of chariots with an iron rim around the wheel date to the Celtic era (800–450 BC). The Celts added iron rims to the wooden wheels to increase the durability of their chariots on rough surfaces. They managed to do this by nailing the hot iron strips around the wheel, which snapped into place as they cooled. The iron rim made the construction of faster and more durable vehicles possible, enabling long-distance transportation.
300 BC – Water Wheel
Ancient Syrian water wheel pump for irrigation.
The water mill, which was created by the Greeks and used to grind grain, was groundbreaking at the time. The Greeks invented water wheels that put the power of running water to work. They used these water wheels both to raise a bucket of water to higher levels for irrigation and to drive a shaft that drove a grinding machine. The first water wheels were not vertical. They had grindstones positioned atop vertical shafts with lower ends that dipped into rapid streams using a vane or paddles.
100 BC – Wheelbarrow
Han Dynasty tomb brick showing a wheelbarrow. (Image)
The Chinese built a wheelbarrow with a large central wheel on which the entire load was mounted. It was easy to push around, and some large wheelbarrows were used by up to six people.
Gears were also used in the mechanism of Antikythera, a wheel-shaped astronomical calculator built in Greece around 100 BC, but they were probably used much earlier in China.
1035 – Spinning Wheel
Medieval woman at a spinning wheel, 1275–1325. British Library.
In China, a wheel was invented that included a hand shaft that allowed automatic and simultaneous operation of multiple hand shafts. Plant and animal fibers were transformed into thread or yarn by the spinning wheel, which was then used to weave textiles on a loom. It is uncertain whether the spinning wheel was invented in India before China, as there is no definitive evidence to confirm it.
Due to the continent’s rough topography, plentiful foliage, and absence of draught animals, the invention of the wheel was not necessary in pre-Columbian America. Some ancient Central American civilizations never invented the wheel. Peru was included in this. Mexico’s Aztec civilization developed the wheel but used it as a toy.
Spinning wheels, paddle wheels, norias for irrigation (a hydropowered scoop wheel), and many cogwheels are just a few of the various ways the wheel has been put to use outside of the textile industry.
The 1800s – The First Lever Brakes
The oldest braking mechanism had wooden brakes activated by pulling a chain. During the industrial revolution, wheels came in completely different forms. With the first lever brakes in the 1800s, a lever pushed a block of wood against the wheels. The mechanism was used for many years on carriages pulled by horses. This kind of brake included a long handle that served as a lever to facilitate braking.
Spoked wheels have survived to the present day because of constant refinement, from metal strapping in the Iron Age through rubber tires and the eventual replacement of wood with metal. As time went on, people stopped using animals to pull their heavy loads and instead relied on engines.
Nevertheless, human power is still required in vehicles with wheels, such as bicycles, rickshaws, and wheelbarrows used for carrying lighter loads. Since the time of the Romans, the invention of the wheel has required the construction of straight and paved roadways.
1845 – Hardened Rubber Car Tire
Robert Thomson used hardened rubber, discovered by Charles Goodyear in 1842, to patent a pneumatic tire in 1847 that was lighter and more resistant to wear. John Boyd Dunlop perfected his creation in 1888 and went on to start a factory in 1890. The hardened rubber tire was a milestone in the evolution of the wheel.
1848 – Mansell Wheel
A preserved Mansell wheel set at the Buckinghamshire Railway Centre. (Photo by Oxyman, CC BY 2.5)
The evolution of wheels continued unabated, with materials such as iron and steel being used to make wheels. Quieter and more flexible, the Mansell railway wheel had a central steel core surrounded by a solid disk of 16 oaks. In the 1840s, it was a popular design for passenger trains in England.
1902 – The First Drum Brakes
Mercedes 35hp by Wilhelm Maybach. (CC0)
Louis Renault, a French automaker and pioneer, invented the mechanical drum brake in 1902. But it was Gottlieb Daimler who first thought a cable-wrapped drum connected to a vehicle’s frame might halt movement. And in 1899, he made the first prototype of a drum brake. Wilhelm Maybach created the first Mercedes in 1901 with a mechanical drum brake activated by a hand lever.
1915 – Radial Car Tire
Patented by Arthur Savage, the radial car tire consisted of rubber-coated steel or polyester strips. These radial tires were further developed to change the radial tire industry once Michelin obtained the patent from Savage. Today, it continues to be used as a standard tire in almost all cars.
The 1930s – Airless Tires
Michelin airless radial tire. (Image by TweelTech CC BY SA)
One recent breakthrough in wheels came with airless tires. Early in the 20th century, James Vernon Martin, a well-known inventor of automobiles and aviation, created various innovations, including airless elastic tires. He gave them the names “Lightweight Resilient Tire” at first, “East Biding Tire” next, and “Elastic Tire” last.
The use of high-tech alloys such as titanium or aluminum in modern wheels has resulted in much faster, lighter, and less power-hungry vehicles. Today, racing bikes are made with composite carbon brakes, and car wheels have magnesium, titanium, and aluminum brakes.
Conclusion
The invention of the wheel marked the start of the modern era of equipment and greatly improved the efficiency of using horse traction in farming. This was accomplished by developing a dependable mechanism for controlling the direction of applied forces. Additionally, it opened up the possibility for new ways to both transmit and reduce force. Wheels are utilized in a vast array of applications in modern society, making it difficult to enumerate all of their uses.
FAQ About the Timeline of the Wheel
Who invented the wheel?
The first pottery wheel, as the forerunner of the wheel, was invented in the Near East, in Iran, by ancient Mesopotamians, around 5200–4700 BC. And the first wheel with an axle was invented in 4200 BC by the Sumerians. However, because the wheel’s concept most likely evolved over time, there was no single inventor or multiple inventors of the wheel.
Was the wheel discovered or invented?
What already exists naturally does not require creative interpretation. Humans stumbled across the wheel, and axles were invented. The natural world is filled with spherical, mobile objects that may have served as wheels for ancient humans.
Did ancient Egypt have the wheel?
The Fifth Dynasty (2465–2323 BC) of ancient Egypt is when the wheel first appears in written records. The Egyptian wagons with up to eight wheels and the ancient Egyptian carts are well documented. The earliest military uses of wheels can be traced back to a scaling ladder and a siege tower.
Why didn’t the Aztecs invent the wheel?
The ease with which boats could transport food and supplies provided the Aztecs with a significant advantage over wheeled vehicles. They resided in a hilly area, making wheels an impractical form of transportation. It was relatively simpler for them to transfer their goods over water.
Did ancient China have the wheel?
The ancient Chinese people had a wheel. The wheel is thought to have been invented around 5000 BC by the Mesopotamians, and the oldest evidence regarding wheels in China is from around 2800 BC.
Why didn’t the Incas invent the wheel?
Despite their sophisticated culture, the Incas never perfected the use of the wheel. The Inca Empire included the second-highest mountain range on Earth, making the wheel impractical for transporting goods there. Instead of wheels, the Incas used llamas and alpacas for transportation.
Did Africans invent the wheel?
There is no scientific evidence that Africans invented the wheel. But they probably utilized rolling objects such as tree trunks to move heavy objects in a more convenient way.
Did the Mayans have a wheel?
The Maya did not invent the wheel. The wheel was not there because there was no need for it. A little around 5000 BC, the wheel was invented in Mesopotamia.
Did the Native Americans have wheels?
Since they didn’t have access to wheeled transportation before Columbus’ arrival at the end of the 15th century, it is assumed that Native Americans were living in primitive, pre-industrial cultures for a long time.
Is the wheel older than the pyramids?
The wheel is older than the pyramids but when the ancient Egyptians constructed the pyramids, they relied on stone and copper instruments carried by the Nile River in boats rather than wheeled vehicles.
What is the oldest wheel ever found?
A wooden wheel was found in 2002 by Slovenian archaeologists around 12.5 miles (20 km) southeast of Ljubljana. This wheel is believed to be between 5,100 and 5,350 years old. It is the oldest wheel ever unearthed.
Who invented the pottery wheel?
Ancient Mesopotamians invented the pottery wheel. The first pottery wheel was invented around 5000 BC in the Near East in the form of tournettes, or “slow wheels,” operated by hand with significant effort. Then, around 4100 BC, the Sumerians of Mesopotamia invented the “true potter’s wheel.” Clay was never the same after that.
References
Attema, P. A. J.; Los-Weijns, Ma; Pers, N. D. Maring-Van der (2006). “Bronocice, Flintbek, Uruk, Jebel Aruda and Arslantepe: The Earliest Evidence Of Wheeled Vehicles In Europe And The Near East“. Palaeohistoria. University of Groningen. 47/48: 10–28 (11).
“Wheel“. Online Etymology Dictionary.
“Transportation“. ISBN 9788184972436.
Mitchell Lewis Ditkoff (2008). Awake at the Wheel: Getting Your Great Ideas Rolling (in an Uphill World). Morgan James Publishing. ISBN 9781600377709.
Hans J.J.G. Holm: “The Earliest Wheel Finds, Their Archeology and Indo-European Terminology in Time and Space, and Early Migrations around the Caucasus.” Archaeolingua Alapítvány, Budapest, 2019, ISBN 978-963-9911-34-5.
September 4, 2022
History of Geometry: Timeline of Discoveries, and Famous Geometers
September 4, 2022
Code of Hammurabi: The First Written Laws of History
The city of Babylon, which was established along the Euphrates River in Mesopotamia, became one of the developing states in the region at that time. The city was built centuries after the Sumerians settled in Mesopotamia and established the first civilization, but by 1900 BC, it had become the capital of a small kingdom.
The legendary king Hammurabi, the first great ruler of Babylon, ruled from about 1792 to 1750 BC. He expanded his kingdom to include most of the fertile land between the Euphrates and Tigris, making Babylon the center of a growing empire. For centuries, he was revered as the one who made the laws of Babylon. The Code of Hammurabi was little changed over the course of 1,000 years and remained in effect for much longer.
How Did the City of Babylon Shine?
The ruthless ruler: Sinahheriba, the feared king of Assyria, drives in his chariot. Sinahheriba destroyed Babylon in 689 BC.
Babylon’s splendor also aroused the interest of many invaders.
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The city came under Kassite rule in the 16th century which would last for about 400 years. During this period, Marduk, formerly the local god of the Babylonians, was elevated to the position of supreme god of Mesopotamia.
Babylon came under the rule of the Assyrians in the 9th century but the unrest did not subside. A series of uprisings to break free from the Assyrian yoke were suppressed and Babylon was destroyed by the Assyrian king Sinahheriba in 689 BC, and its temples were destroyed. The statue of Marduk was moved to the Assyrian capital Ninovana, and the Euphrates River’s flow was intended to be changed to drown the city and wipe Babylon from the face of the earth.
However, the period when Babylon no longer existed was short-lived. Because the city was reestablished by Sinahherba’s successor Asurahiddina. By the end of the 7th century BC, the Babylonians had regained their former power. In 626 BC, they declared their independence against the Assyrians under the influence of their new king, Nabopolassar, and 14 years later they united with the Medes, defeated the Assyrian army, and destroyed the capital city Nimova. Babylon entered its heyday with this victory against the Assyrians.
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They used wheeled machines with iron-studded rams to pierce the city walls.” class=”wp-image-7489″/>
Frightening warriors: the Assyrians instilled fear in the Old World with their fighting skills. They used wheeled machines with iron-studded rams to pierce the city walls.
When Did Nebuchadnezzar Rule?
Nebuchadnezzar ascended the Babylonian throne in 605 BC, after the death of his father, Nabopolassar. In his 43-year reign, he re-established the Babylonian Empire and virtually rebuilt the capital, Babylon. He built temples all over his empire. Tablets bearing the name of Nebuchadnezzar are unearthed at almost every excavation site in Babylon.
King Nebuchadnezzar II used workers from all corners of his empire to complete this incredible rebuilding program. Among these were the Jews exiled from Judah when Nebuchadnezzar sacked Jerusalem in 586 BC. As described in the Torah, the Babylonian soldiers looted all the belongings of Solomon’s Temple and exiled all the people of Jerusalem, including their commanders, valiant warriors, artisans, and blacksmiths, a total of ten thousand people. No one was left except the poor people of Judah.
Law and order: Shamash, the sun and justice god, grants King Hammurabi of Babylon the authority to make laws. This figure is located on the upper part of the thick black stone on which the 282 codes of Hammurabi are written.
According to the Book of Daniel, it was king Nebuchadnezzar who ordered the Jewish leaders Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed Nego to be thrown into the fiery furnace for refusing to worship the golden statue. The king then went mad from God’s wrath. The Prophet Daniel says of him, “He was driven away from people and ate grass like the ox.” Contemporary scholars believe that this quote actually refers to Nebuchadnezzar’s son and successor, Nabonidus.
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Nabonidus was perhaps mentally ill and is known to have been away from Babylon for many years.
What Were the Codes of Hammurabi?
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The Laws of Hammurabi, which were still governing Babylonian society during the reign of King Nebuchadnezzar, were written on a basalt tablet in the 1750s BC. The rules on the cuneiform tablet, which is now in the Louvre Museum in Paris, covered a wide range of aspects of social life, from how thieves should be punished to how medical problems should be treated to how children should be raised.
Under the king, society was divided into three classes: nobles, commoners, and slaves. In all three classes, men were viewed as superior to women. The punishments were based literally on the “eye for an eye” principle. The eye of someone who damaged the eye of a Babylonian noble was being removed. If a nobleman blinded a commoner, only a penalty was given.
Divine hand: The Book of Daniel tells how the three Jewish preachers that Nebuchadnezzar had thrown into the fire were saved from burning by God. Nebuchadnezzar was said to have gone crazy, so the painter William Blake made a dramatic picture of it.
Many crimes were punishable by the death penalty. Stealing from a burning building was punished by throwing the criminal into the fire, while those who committed adultery were tied together and thrown into the river. The hands of the children who laid a hand on their fathers were cut off. The same punishment was given to surgeons who, under their “bronze blades,” caused the death of a noble patient. When a house collapsed on the head of its owner, the builder was either killed or heavily fined.
The cost of hiring pack oxen, the wages of artisans and workers, and the wages for professional services were determined by other laws. Many Jewish laws of the period mentioned in the Old Testament bear considerable resemblance to those of Hammurabi. However, this does not mean that Moses’ laws were derived from Hammurabi, or vice versa, that Hammurabi was influenced by the Prophet Moses. It is more likely that similar social conditions under similar climatic and economic conditions led to more or less the same legal decisions.
What Did the Babylonians Believe?
As with the ancient Greeks and Romans, the peoples of the Middle East had a number of common deities. The Sumerians, Assyrians, and Babylonians worshipped three main gods: Anu, the king of the gods; Bel, the storm god; and Enki, or Ea, the god of wisdom and magic. Sometime in the second millennium B.C., the Babylonians elevated Marduk, or Bel, to the top of the gods.
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He was the son of Enki and one of the second-period gods. A statue of Marduk was located in the Esagila Temple. The entrance to the temple was guarded by winged creatures known as kurub.
Sacred seal: Different peoples living in Mesopotamia shared the same gods. In an ancient Akkadian tablet, the sun god Shamash appears between the winged goddess Ishtar and the god of wisdom Ea.
Sacred marriages between Babylonian kings and the goddess Ishtar were also celebrated in Esagila to ensure the fertility of their country and the longevity of the kings. At the top of the ziggurat, beside the temple, was the altar where Marduk descended to visit his people. On holy days, the people watched in awe as the king and priests climbed to the top of the steps to greet the god.
Ishtar, whom people can observe in the sky as the planet Venus, was the goddess of love and war. Herodotus describes the “shameful tradition” that every Babylonian woman had to go to the temple of Ishtar once in her life and have sex with a stranger there. Some ugly women also say that they had to wait in the temple for four years until a man chose them.
It is also said that the Babylonians were very cautious about the prophecies. For instance, if a dog raised its leg at a man, it would predict disaster for that man, and he would have to make a clay figurine of the animal and throw it into the river to fend it off. Meanwhile, he had to repeat some magical words. After the work was done, the man had to go to the tavern.
September 4, 2022
How Addicted Was Hitler to Drugs?
September 4, 2022
History of Metalworking: Timeline and Inventions
What is the historical development of metalworking? Metals have played a key role in the production of many objects since 8000 BC, the earliest known use of metals in human history. Today, they permeate every aspect of modern civilization through the use of composites and specialty polymers. Metals found in nature, and copper, in particular, began to be used to make small objects such as needles in Western Iran and Eastern Anatolia around 7000 BC.
These objects were made by simply crushing and hammering copper into shape. The method of heating copper to make it softer was probably invented by accidentally setting the metal on fire. On the other hand, the invention of the method of melting copper in a crucible around 3800 BC led to the wider use of metals.
The Invention of Alloys
The world’s oldest and most spectacular prehistoric metal hoard. Found near the Dead Sea in Israel, dated to 4300 BC – 4000 BC. Crowns, scepters, and mace heads found in the ‘Treasure Cave’ in the desert are more than 400 prestigious metal artifacts. (Photo: Kenneth Garrett)
Bronze, the first alloy, was produced around 3000 BC. Made by melting tin and copper in a crucible, bronze was stronger and easier to work with than its constituent materials. Bronze remained the primary metal for making objects and weapons until the invention of ironworking around 1250 BC.
The technology for smelting pure iron was only invented in the 19th century. The first iron objects were therefore made by first melting iron ore into an impure iron “flower”, then separating the iron pieces and combining them in a furnace.
This production method continued in Europe until the invention of pressure furnaces in the 15th century. The 18th-century Industrial Revolution brought new techniques and the use of coke in pressure furnaces.
However, it was the invention of the Bessemer converter by the British inventor Henry Bessemer in 1856 that enabled the large-scale production of steel, a strong, high-quality iron and carbon alloy.
Later advances in the industrial revolution made it possible to develop other metals such as aluminum, magnesium, and titanium, whose lightness and strength played vital roles in the development of the aerospace industry.
Timeline of Metalworking History
The discovery and growth of the metals sector:
- Prehistory — Western Iran and Anatolia. Copper ore was crushed or hammered into shapes to make small items such as rosary beads.
- 2600 — 2400 BC – Use of wrought copper foil. Early copper smelting methods were still fine enough to allow hot copper to be hammered into more complex shapes.
- 1500 — 1200 BC – Development of bronze casting. New techniques were developed for casting bronze vessels and decorating them by hammering through them.
- 1500 — 30 BC – Purification of gold. Around 1500 BC, the ancient Egyptians learned to separate gold from silver and began to use it more widely for decorative purposes.
- 900 BC — 100 AD – Use of iron. Ironworking spread from western Anatolia, reaching Greece around 900 BC and West Africa around 400 BC, making it possible to make more robust tools and objects.
- 540 — 500 BC – Metal as money. Metal coins (a mixture of gold and silver) were first used in Lydia (present-day Turkey) around 640 BC. The ancient Greeks adopted this idea and spread it throughout the Mediterranean.
- 100 — 700 – Anglo-Saxon metalworking. The Anglo-Saxons took metalworking to an advanced level, often using animal forms for decoration.
- 700 — 800 – Sword-making. Sword-makers in Europe forge layers of carbon-added iron and thin strips of iron and then weld them together to produce stronger swords.
- 800 — 1300 — 1450 – Christian objects of precious metals. Medieval Christians made sacred objects such as crosses and reliquaries from gold and other precious metals, sometimes inlaid with precious stones.
- 15th century – Weapons made from cast metals. Cast iron was developed which found immediate use in artillery because it was strong and could be formed into cylindrical shapes.
- 1810 – Tin can. British inventor Peter Durand patented a tin can for storing food. His patent was a box made of iron and coated with tin to prevent the iron from rusting.
- 1856 – Bessemer converter. The Englishman Henry Bessemer invented a converter that allowed the production of high-quality steel.
- 1910 – Aluminum foil. The first aluminum foil was produced. The mass production of the metal became possible after the invention of a method in 1886 that involved passing an electric current through melted ore.
- 1950s – Titanium aircraft. Due to its high strength-to-weight ratio, titanium is widely used in military aircraft. It is now also widely used in commercial aircraft.
References
Materials and Processes in Manufacturing – Internet Archive
The world’s oldest and most spectacular prehistoric metal hoard – Researchgate.net
September 4, 2022
History of Navigation: Methods and Inventions
Navigating at sea is like navigating in the desert: Your only reference points are the positions of the Sun, the stars, and the planets. You need to keep track of your compass bearing and distance traveled and mark your position on a map. Perhaps the most surprising aspect of the history of navigation, or navigating at sea, is that until the 18th century it was impossible for explorers and sailors to accurately determine their position. Today, thanks to advances in navigation technology, it is possible to pinpoint a location with a margin of error of a few meters. So how did we get to this point?
Navigating at Sea
Early sailors calculated distances and directions based on specific positions on the shore or the positions of the Sun, Moon and stars. They kept their ships from stranding by measuring water depth using simple-sounding methods like weighted ropes.
In short, they had no other means of navigating than using their sight. Instruments such as the magnetic compass, astrolabe, and sextant (measuring the angle of the Sun or a star on the horizon) allowed reasonably accurate estimates of direction and latitude at sea, but longitude remained a problem for a long time.
The calculation of longitude is based on comparing local time with “universal” time (it is Greenwich, England as of today). Those are linear time zones and each one-hour difference means a difference of 15 degrees in longitude.
So calculating longitude at sea was not possible until John Harrison developed his chronometer in the 18th century. Until the chronometer, navigation had always been a problem. It was only in the 20th century with the development of the gyroscopic compass, radar, and, from the 1990s onwards, the global positioning system (GPS) resulted in major advances in maritime navigation.
Timeline of the History of Navigation
3000 – 1500 BC – First Sonars
Ancient Egyptians used reeds to create sound and measure the depth of water and estimate the distance from the shore.
150 – Ptolemy’s World Map
Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaios), one of the first Romans living in Egypt, used a grid system to create a world map, which influenced nautical charts until the 17th century. Ptolemy formed a grid system of latitude and longitude lines as a reference for geographically locating known elements such as lands, coasts, islands, and towns on a map. Longitude was expressed in time zones, while latitude was indicated by the number of hours in the longest day of the year.
The world map from Ptolemy’s “Geographia”, published in Ulm in 1482 by Lienhart Holle, engraved by the author Johannes Schnitzer.
15th Century – Dead Reckoning
The hourglasses are used for the dead reckoning calculation: this tool allowed one to calculate the position of the ship by measuring the travel distance, time elapsed, and speed.
1100 – Compass
Chinese sailors were the first to use the magnetic compass (a magnetic needle is used to indicate north and south directions) for navigation which greatly advanced nautical navigation.
1300 – 1500 – Nautical Charts
Portolan (Italian for “related to ports or harbors”) nautical charts of the Mediterranean and European coasts allowed sailors to navigate from port to port using compass landmarks.
16th-century portolan map of the Black Sea.
1480 – Astrolabe
Sailors began to use the astrolabe to estimate latitude by calculating the angle of the Sun or a particular star on the horizon. The astrolabe improved navigating at sea.
1753 – 59 – Chronometer
John Harrison makes his first chronometer, the H1, in 1735. He later developed further versions, producing the H4 in 1759. The chronometer was used to determine longitude at sea, enabling the measurement of the time at a known location and the time at the current position.
John Harrison’s marine chronometers.
1907 – Gyroscopic Compass
The American Elmer Sperry invents the gyroscopic compass, which is a major advance in maritime navigation because it always points north and does not deviate.
1930s – 40s – Radar
The invention of radar made it possible to determine the position of an object even if it could not be seen.
Late 20th Century – Global Positioning Systems
Satellite-based GPS has made it possible to pinpoint locations and navigate at sea with a margin of error of a few meters.
September 4, 2022
The Fall of Babylon: The Grand Plan That Destroyed a Nation in Its Heyday
How was Babylon destroyed? All spring and summer the Persian army led by Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II or Kurash II) waited outside Babylon’s magnificent walls in the hope that the city would succumb to famine. The Persians had conquered their arch-rivals the Medes and the rich and legendary Lydia in a series of victorious campaigns. Once Cyrus had conquered Babylon, he would rule not only Mesopotamia but also Syria and Palestine, which had been under Babylonian rule. But how did the fall of Babylon come about?
The Unexpected End of Glorious Babylon
The Babylonian army entered Babylon via the Euphrates through the center of the city. In the Book of Daniel in the Torah, the prophet Daniel describes the fall of Babylon with a feast given by Belshazzar, the regent of Babylon.
The Babylonians, well aware of Cyrus’ ambition, had taken a wise precaution and stored enough food to last them for years. However, they did not take into account one of their greatest defensive weaknesses, the Euphrates River, which runs right through the middle of the city. Cyrus was quick to realize that the river was the route that would lead his troops right into the heart of Babylon.
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Cyrus ordered a canal to be dug from the banks of the river a little above the city of Babylon and connected to the nearby marshes. So the waters of the Euphrates flowing through the canal into the marshes receded, and when they were knee-deep, the Persians jumped in and marched along the riverbed to the city. The Babylonians were celebrating a feast that day and before they even realized the Persians were approaching, the city fell to the enemy. The fall of Babylon was happening.
Cyrus II, unlike his contemporaries, was a merciful commander. He was warmly welcomed by the Babylonians and green branches were spread before him as he entered the city. He was also kind to the Babylonians and showed his goodwill by participating in the worship of their greatest god, Marduk.
According to the Greek historians Herodotus and Xenophon, this is how the legendary city of Babylon fell. But the prophet Daniel, who lived there, preferred to see the fall of the city to the enemy as an expression of divine vengeance. In the Book of Daniel chapter of the Torah, the Prophet Daniel is acting as regent in the absence of his father Nabonidus. Belshazzar, who is recognized as king in the chapter, is reported to be giving a feast for thousand nobles.
As guests drank from sacred cups taken from the temple in Jerusalem, a hand appeared writing on the wall, prophesying the fall of Babylon: “Mene, mene, tekel, upharsin.”
The guests were drinking wine from the holy vessels of the Jews, which 47 years before tonight the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar II had plundered from Jerusalem. As the feast continued, a hand appeared and wrote these words on the wall: “Mene, mene, tekel, upharsin.” Babylon had been prophesied to be lost and destroyed.
Return to Jerusalem From Exile
The prophet Daniel interpreted these words as follows: “God has numbered the days of your kingdom and put an end to it; it has been divided in two and given to the Medes and Persians.” The prophecy of Daniel was fulfilled, the Persian army marched into the city and Belshazzar was killed before dawn, probably not by Cyrus’ soldiers, but by his own men who had rebelled.
One of the first things Cyrus did was to end the Jews’ long exile in Babylon and send them back to Judah to rebuild Jerusalem and Solomon’s Temple. The Jews saw Jehovah’s hand in all this. Ezra, the leader of the Jews, tells how Cyrus, inspired by the God of the Israelites, sent the Jews home and allowed them to take with them “five thousand four hundred” special cups that had been used in Belshazzar’s feast, looted from the temple.
The Tower of Babel mentioned in Genesis.
Greek historians and Jewish prophets agree on the power and greatness of Babylon. The name Babylon means “gate of God”. Spread over 4000 hectares of land, Babylon was the largest city in the world at the time and still retains the splendor that King Nebuchadnezzar brought to it. The outer ring of the city’s double walls was 17 kilometers (10mi) long and protected by regularly spaced bastions.
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At the top of the busy quay along the river rose the Ziggurat, or “tower of Babel” mentioned in Genesis. The tower was a man-made hill of mud bricks rising to 90 meters (295ft) high and could be seen for miles across the flat Euphrates plain.
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At the top of the tower, which consisted of many platforms connected by stairs, was a temple. The Babylonians called it Etemenanki. Next to it was a temple complex called Esagila. It was here that the Persian king Cyrus won the Babylonians’ trust by worshipping Marduk.
Gardens and a Glittering Palace
The Gardens of Babylon
On that fateful night, Belshazzar must have feasted in the glittering palace on the north side of the old city, overlooking the Euphrates. The famous “Hanging Gardens of Babylon” were not far away. The city was entered through eight gates, the most magnificent of which was the Ishtar Gate. From here, a ceremonial road more than 20 meters (65ft) wide led south through the city to the temple area.
The surrender of Babylon to Cyrus II marked the end of Babylon’s legendary splendor, even though the city had been the capital of the richest provinces of the Persian Empire under his successors. The fall of Babylon had begun. In 482 BC, when the people of Babylon revolted against Xerxes, he had the walls and temples destroyed and the statue of Marduk melted into gold.
In 331 BC the city of Babylon surrendered to Alexander the Great and in 275 BC most of its population moved across the Tigris to the new capital Seleucia. The wind-swept ruins of Babylon would stand for more than 2,000 years until Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein bulldozed much of it in 1990 to make way for “New Babylon”.
September 4, 2022
Oppidum: The First Towns North of the Alps
The word “oppidum” (plural oppida) has its roots in Latin, and it refers to a hilltop settlement that was fortified around the end of the Iron Age and was modeled after Celtic culture. Oppidum is largely linked to the Celtic La Tène culture, which emerged in Europe during the 2nd and 1st centuries BC and expanded from Britain and Iberia in the west to the eastern margin of the Hungarian plain. The Gallic oppidum began as a small walled sanctuary used only in times of danger; over time, it evolved into a true city with commerce and the development of crafts.
For the majority of the time, they occupied important locations that were placed on high ground. Some of them became the capitals of one of the several tribes that inhabited Gaul, for example, Bibracte, which was the capital of the Aedui and was located on Mount Beuvray (Morvan). During the Gallic Wars, which Julius Caesar was leading, two more fortified sites, Gergovie and Alesia, were at the center of the conflict.
More than 90 oppida are found around the world to this day. The most popular countries are Germany, France, and Belgium.
The Celts’ Migration and Subsequent Settlement of Gaul
Around the second century BC, the people who later became known as the Celts halted their migration across various areas of Europe. They established their first settlements, known as an oppidum, in the region of Gaul. Some towns were the consequence of a hamlet that was relocated or transformed into another site. Others were built in places where there used to be no people at all.
Historians believe that the Cimbri and Teutons’ invasion of Gaul at the end of the second century BC and the creation of the Roman province of Narbonnaise led to the founding and growth of these settlements. Both of these events took place in the region now known as Narbonne. The first one highlighted the need to take precautions.
The second one gave the Gauls the opportunity to study Roman towns before attempting to recreate them. Archaeological finds over the past few decades have shown that the founding and growth of these towns are linked to major changes in the social structure of the Gallic civilization.
The Construction of Oppidum in Gallic Lands
Siege of Alesia, 52 BC.
The Siege of Alesia in 52 BC was one of Julius Caesar‘s biggest successes. The conflict ended the Gallic Wars and Celtic control in Western Europe. The war took place in one of the most popular oppidum towns, Alesia, located in today’s France.
The oppidum towns were surrounded by fortifications made of stone and wood, and they usually covered an area that was around 1000 acres or several square miles. The homes have the shape of rectangles with sides of around 33 feet (10 m). They consist of a wooden frame with clay panels attached to it and coated with clay. The streets meet at right angles to one another.
The excavations of towns like Villeneuve-Saint-Germain have shed information on the specialization of some neighborhoods, such as the presence of artisans who worked with skin, textiles, or metal. Sometimes the oppidum will have an open area that will provide a safe haven for the people living in the surrounding area as well as the livestock in the event of an emergency.
Around the year 100 BC, the towns began to expand and assume an increasingly prominent role in the region. They are true strongholds since the defensive walls around them were constructed using a method that originated in Gaul. They are constructed of dry stones and have an internal structure made of wood and iron.
Their length ranges from a few feet to several miles. The majority of the oppida are built into the terrain and are situated on higher ground. They are typically located on top of a hill that has a narrow plain in the middle connecting it to the plateau. These defenses were necessary against enemies. The Roman ram was not able to break through the walls of the oppidum since they were sturdy enough.
The Function Played by the Oppidum
Given their importance, it was sufficient to capture the rest of the populace in the area by capturing these towns. Thus, the function of the oppida settlements was important in Caesar’s Gallic War. They were the most important settlements in a region that was mostly comprised of villages and scattered farms, and they served as the primary hubs for economic and political activity.
There were other gatherings and festivals that took place there. It appears that the towns’ economic importance and the need to defend themselves from the enemy determined the location of the oppidum. In fact, given their location, they were often in a position to dominate significant trade routes.
Some of these towns were prosperous as a result, such as Bibracte, which was the capital of the Aedui and served as a hub for commercial commerce with the countries of the Mediterranean. These oppida were also the sites of a considerable amount of industrial activity. The rural regions were responsible for the production of raw materials and foodstuffs, while the cities were home to skilled artisans who were able to make completed items (tools, utensils, fabrics, weapons, etc.).
Bibracte Was a Popular Gallic Oppidum
Up until 1853, researchers believed that Bibracte, which Julius Caesar referred to as “the biggest and wealthiest city of the Aedui,” was the same as Autun, a Roman-built city.
On the other hand, what was once believed to be the walls of a Roman camp were later discovered to be the remnants of the ancient capital.
Since that time, we have learned via archaeological digs that Bibracte was a vast urban center that was totally encompassed by ramparts that were anywhere from 3–4 miles (5–6 km) in length.
This city served as a wonderful illustration of an oppidum. The excavations on Mount Beuvray have brought to light masonry structures that most likely belonged to wealthy Aeduan aristocrats.
This is in contrast to the findings made in the other cities, where no vestiges of habitat have been identified due to the wooden constructions used in their making.
This city’s prosperity may be attributed to two factors: first, its commerce with the areas around the Mediterranean, and second, the metallurgical industry that sprung up in the area.
Numerous remnants of blacksmith ovens and workshops have been discovered, in addition to a massive forge that is part of a network of workshops comprising a structure that is 260 feet (80 m) in length.
The Evolution of Gallic Cities
The famous oppidum Alesia. (Image credit: u/Zarth__)
Significant shifts could be seen in the structure of Celtic society as a result of the emergence of oppida around the same time. An oligarchic system replaced the hereditary monarchy as the dominant social structure throughout time. Power was held by important aristocratic families, who were dependent on support from the vast majority of the populace.
They agreed to provide their legal protection in return for the payment of taxes and the performance of military duties. When an aristocrat had more safeguards in place to protect him, he carried greater sway in society and was more persuasive in legal proceedings. Because of their privileged status, these families were able to exert influence on the religious, political, and economic aspects of Gallic culture.
The development of a Gallic cavalry and the disappearance of necropolises with burial grounds next to an oppidum are two additional significant shifts that are visible to the naked eye. At the same time that these communities were established, a cavalry force that would remain in existence permanently was formed, in contrast to the past, when soldiers were only mustered on an as-needed basis.
These new soldiers put quite a lot of time and effort into their training, and they chose a career in combat. They battled either for their city or for the wealthy aristocrats who employed them. They carried long swords and defended themselves with helmets, shields, and even chain mail at times. Their predecessors were not as well prepared as they were.
Because there is no evidence of graves in the area around these urban sites, it is hypothesized that the locals were incinerated and their ashes were buried instead of being laid to rest. This change happened at the same time as the first oppidum was built. This is more physical evidence that the oppidum was made in response to a major change in Celtic culture.
Following the Roman invasion, the majority of the oppida were demolished to make way for the construction of brand-new towns that were situated on plains or near rivers.
References
Oppida: A European Civilization – An international project by Culture 2000
John Collis, The Celtic World, (1995).
Digital reconstruction of the Staffelberg oppidum.
September 4, 2022
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
The Ancient Greeks were ardent admirers of art and indefatigable explorers. As a result, they compiled a list of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. These monuments symbolized humanity’s foundational principles as well as its creative aspirations. These are the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus in Turkey, the Lighthouse of Alexandria, the Pyramid of Khufu in Giza, which is the only one that is still visible today, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Colossus of Rhodes, and the Statue of Zeus in Olympia. It is still unknown how this list was compiled in the third or second century BC, or who wrote it.
The Origin of the Seven Wonders and Their Symbolic Significance
The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World are shown in this Maerten van Heemskerck painting as a background for Paris’ abduction by Helen. (Image: Walters Art Gallery, Google Cultural Institute)
The history of the list that is comprised of the seven wonders of the world is obscure and difficult to reconstruct. The list that is attributed to Philo of Byzantium is a later collection of material from earlier sources. Regarding this author, we have no information whatsoever. In addition to that, he does not make any reference to the lighthouse in Alexandria. However, it is vital to understand the lighthouse of Alexandria as it provides a limited date for the list. The Seven Wonders of the World only retain seven monuments because the ancient Greeks were probably influenced by the Pythagorean circles and by their love for numbers and lists. Today’s historians think that the list was most likely compiled in literary circles in Alexandria. Callimachus of Cyrene is often said to have made the list of the seven ancient wonders, but this doesn’t prove anything.
There is no doubt that throughout the time of the Romans, this list was a common source of information. At the time of the opening of the Colosseum in Rome in the year 80 A.D., the poet Martial described it as one of the many monuments that aspired to compete with the famous Seven Wonders. The elegiac poet Propertius believed that his verses were more indestructible than the pyramids, the Mausoleum, or the temple of Zeus at Olympia. A short time later, the treatises started to discuss the superiority of each monument, including the ones from Philo of Byzantium, which date back to the 3rd century BC, as well as others that date back to the 6th century AD and were written by Gregory of Tours, and Bede the Venerable (7th century). They served as a source of inspiration for painters throughout the Renaissance.
Similar to the seven sages of ancient Greece, the seven hills of Rome in paganic antiquity, and the seven deadly sins in Christianity, the symbolism of the Seven Wonders starts with the number seven. At first glance, the list may appear to be disjointed, with two statues dedicated to worship (one of the sun god Helios in Rhodes and one of Zeus in Olympia), two royal tombs (the pyramid of Cheops and the mausoleum of Halicarnassus), gardens (those of Babylon), a watchtower (the lighthouse of Alexandria), and a temple (the Artemisia in Ephesus). However, these are all examples of ancient structures that have been deemed worthy of preservation.
But what all of these structures have in common is that they have left an indelible mark on the collective imagination. Some of these structures have been so influential that they have given rise to words that have entered common usage: “colossal” refers to any monument that has huge proportions, such as the Colossus of Rhodes; “mausoleum” refers to the luxurious tombs of great personalities, in honor of the one that King Mausolus of Caria constructed at Halicarnassus in modern-day Turkey, or the “lighthouse” that has coined the term since the first one appeared on the Egyptian island of Pharos.
They Weren’t Originally “Wonders”
While making the list, the word “wonder” was not the term that was initially employed; rather, they were just monuments considered worthy of being seen. It wasn’t until much later that the concept of wonder came into use. It is comparable to a pamphlet geared towards tourists. The Great Pyramid of Giza is the only one of these landmarks that have been discovered by modern archaeologists. This marvel is exempt from voting since the New 7 Wonders of the World has bestowed upon it the title of “honorary status”.
The majority of the marvels provide challenges for historians since they are not widely understood (either in terms of their appearance or the techniques that were used to create them): the Hanging Gardens and the Colossus of Rhodes are still, to a significant degree, mysteries.
The Great Pyramid of Giza
There is a plethora of information, theories, and speculation about it. The Great Pyramid of Cheops at Giza is the oldest of the seven wonders of the world. The name Cheops is a Hellenization of Khufu, and the pyramid is more commonly referred to as the Great Pyramid of Giza today. It was constructed more than 4,500 years ago. It is not the oldest of the pyramids, but it may be the one with the most completed construction. For many centuries, the pyramid stood as one of the tallest structures anywhere on the globe, thanks to its height of 480 feet (146.5 meters). Even though the pyramid was probably built to be Pharaoh Kheops’ tomb, we were never able to find his remains.
This issue has piqued the interest of scholars from a wide variety of fields, and it is only one of the many challenges that the building of such a monument presents. The pyramid is shrouded in mystery, and the fact that it has three burial rooms contributes to this impression. This historic landmark is preserved in a state that is satisfactory to our eyes. Al-Ma’mun dug up the pyramid in the year 832 and it continues to fascinate people today.
But Vivant Denon’s scientific expedition during General Bonaparte’s Egyptian campaign and the famous Battle of the Pyramids on July 21, 1798, was the main thing that made the French more interested in this wonder and Egyptology.
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
The gardens are one of the Seven Wonders of the World that very few people are familiar with. These gardens, which were constructed in the 6th century BC under the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, are a symbol of the allure that Babylon exerted on humanity throughout history. Other notable structures inside the city include the walls, the Gate of Ishtar, and the Tower of Babel. All of these landmarks contributed to the city’s rise to prominence.
The gardens are not unique to Babylon; for instance, Nineveh had opulent gardens as well (some have even thought that the Hanging Gardens were not in Babylon but this city). The enormous size of the gardens of Babylon is primarily responsible for its widespread popularity. There is a lot of uncertainty around the history of the monument, and we do not know what happened to these gardens or why they were destroyed.
The Statue of Zeus at Olympia
One of the most well-known sculptures from ancient times is this incredible work of art made of gold and ivory. The piece, which dates back to the 5th century BC and was created by Phidias, was eventually placed in the temple of Zeus at Olympia. Before the construction of the Statue of Athena Parthenos at the Parthenon, Phidias had already created a chryselephantine statue that became highly well-known in antiquity. He completed his career with the statue of Olympia. We can get a very good idea of what the Statue of Zeus looked like by looking at different sources, especially coins, and the readings of the time it was made.
The statue would have been the most magnificent ever created in Greece: it was 65 feet (20 meters) high. Zeus is shown as a seated figure on his throne, clutching in his right hand what seems to be the god of Victory or Nike, and in his left hand what appears to be a scepter topped with an eagle. He sports a victory wreath made of branches on his head, much like the competitors who took first place in the Olympic Games. The use of gold and ivory is a reference to aesthetic concerns that were highly popular in ancient times. Ivory highlights the radiance of the God’s skin, while gold emphasizes his exquisite clothing and accessories. Throughout all of antiquity, the statue was held in high esteem.
In the year 380, when Emperor Theodosius outlawed pagan practices, the monument was not desecrated in any way. In the 5th century, it was moved to Constantinople, where it remains to this day. On the other hand, a fire in the year 475 put an end to it.
The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
The tomb of the satrap, or King Mausolus of Caria, which was located in Halicarnassus, which is now known as Bodrum, Turkey, astonished contemporary observers. The roughly 148-foot-tall (45-meter) monument was first constructed by Mausolus during his lifetime, and then, after he died in 353 BC it was finished by his sister and wife Artemisia II. The friezes and figures that were used to decorate the monument were of the highest quality and stood up to 10 feet (3 meters) tall.
The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus gives an architectural synthesis of the world of the Eastern Mediterranean before the conquests of Alexander the Great. In a sense, it is a synthesis of the aesthetic canons of Greece, Asia Minor, and Egypt.
Because of its size and level of decoration, it became known as a mausoleum, which later became a generic term for any grandiose burial. Following it, there was an increase in the number of mausoleums. Such as the Mausoleum of Augustus or the Mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome, both of which are now occupied by the Castel Sant’Angelo. Up until the 13th century, the tomb maintained its upright position. The land in question was turned into a quarry to build Saint Peter’s Castle. Charles T. Newton, in the 19th century, was the one who made the subsequent discovery of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. Several pieces were found at the site that shows how beautiful the tomb of Mausolus must have been back in ancient times.
The Temple of Artemis
In the year 334 BC, Alexander the Great admired this temple while it was still being constructed. The Artemision, also known as the Temple of Artemis, is located at Ephesus and has dimensions of 377 ft (115 m) in length, 180 ft (55 m) in width, and 62 ft (19 m) in height. This temple was burned down in 356 and had to be rebuilt. It is dedicated to the Greek goddess who is thought to protect the city.
Why is it that this temple is considered one of the seven wonders of the world? Its great size and elaborate decorating led to this honor. The world-famous statue of Artemis of Ephesus may be seen within the temple. It is an Artemis of fertility that was worshipped at this location, and the popularity of the statue is directly linked to its polymastia, which translates to “many breasts.”
There are copies of this statue that can be viewed in various museums today to demonstrate what the original looked like. The most impressive of these copies is the one that is still maintained and can be seen at the museum in Naples. Despite this, the temple of Artemis was demolished much later, towards the tail end of the ancient world, and for mysterious reasons. Archaeological data, on the other hand, make it possible for us to have a concept that is rather close to the actual look of the monument. The British Museum is home to several carved columns that were discovered during the excavations.
The Colossus of Rhodes
It is the marvel that has been seen by almost all people for a considerable amount of time. After being constructed at the beginning of the third century BC, the colossus was destroyed by an earthquake in 227–226, which was a little more than fifty years after it was first built. The colossus that was supposed to depict the deity Helios was 13 feet (34 meters) tall. This statue is responsible for altering the definition of the term “colossus”, which was originally used to refer to a simple statue but has since come to imply a colossal sculpture. The worship of Helios was significant on the island due to the mythology that Helios was the one who pulled the island of Rhodes up out of the water. The monument was placed near the port’s primary access point. The colossus that is shown spanning the port in the fictitious images is a product of inaccurate knowledge that was prevalent throughout the 14th century.
To this day, it is not quite clear where exactly the colossus is situated. The placement of the Colossus of Rhodes on the list of the seven wonders of the world may largely be attributed to the fact that the structure is a magnificent example of Hellenistic architecture and artistic achievement. As a result of the colossus falling to the ground, the remnants of the statue were protected from being looted, and tourists like Pliny the Elder were able to see them. It wasn’t until the year 654 AD that the very last remnants were removed from the site for good.
The Colossus of Nero is a successor of the Colossus of Rhodes, much as the Statue of Liberty is a successor of the Colossus of Rhodes in our day. However, this statue had significant posterity.
The Lighthouse of Alexandria
People are still captivated by this well-known lighthouse, which has been featured in a great number of cartoons and films. The Lighthouse of Alexandria had a height of 422 feet (135 meters) and served as a navigational aid for mariners. It was most likely situated on the location of the existing Qaitbay fort. The building of this monument may be traced back to around 290 or 280 BC. When approaching the Ptolemaic capital from the sea, the monument was the first thing that could be seen on the shore.
Ptolemy I had the idea for the lighthouse at Alexandria, but Ptolemy II was the one who built it. The lighthouse was intended to be a symbol of the grandeur and splendor of the city. The name of the lighthouse derives from the island of Pharos, which is where the monument was first constructed. It wasn’t until much later that all of the structures of this kind were given the name “lighthouse” to describe them.
Today, the name of the archaeologist Jean-Yves Empereur is associated with this landmark. Empereur led underwater excavations around the Qaitbay fort, and during those excavations, he discovered, among other things, a statue of Ptolemy that was intended to be placed at the entrance of the lighthouse. The monument persisted through antiquity and did not vanish until the 15th century when it was destroyed by an earthquake. Even now, the lighthouse serves as the unofficial symbol of the city that Alexander the Great established.
Why Are None of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World in Rome?
Greece is the birthplace of all seven of the world’s wonders. Herodotus, a renowned traveler who is often regarded as the father of history, focused the opening chapters of his book, Histories, on the marvels that might be found in Babylon and Egypt around the 5th century BC. Some structures such as the pyramids had already existed for one thousand five hundred years when he contemplated them. Their imposing proportions and magnificent beauty capture the attention of the historian’s eye and spark the imagination of the people who read his work.
However, the Greeks contributed to the grandeur of the early monuments, the technical mastery of the details, and the refinement of their creations, with examples like the gold and ivory chryselephantine statue of Zeus at Olympia. This enabled them to compete with the great Eastern civilizations of the past.
As a result, the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World have continued to captivate people for many years. The memory of these monuments has been brought back to life because of the various descriptions and pictures that have been created, many of which are fantastical. These monuments, on the other hand, are a celebration of the genius that is possessed by man. They are also a reflection of the dominance that the Greeks had over the rest of the globe throughout the Hellenistic era. Their world is based on the Eastern Mediterranean, so it does not include Rome or Carthage since those civilizations had not yet reached their zenith of dominance. If it had been done a few centuries later, when the Roman Empire was at its height, the list of the Seven Wonders of the World would have been completely different.
Bibliography:
1. Peter Clayton and Martin J. Price, The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World (1990)
2. Stephanie Dalley, The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: an elusive World wonder traced (2013)
3. Panorama with the Abduction of Helen Amidst the Wonders of the Ancient World
September 4, 2022
How Did Latin America Gain Independence from Spanish Fule?
September 4, 2022

The Manhattan Project and the First Atomic Bomb

By the summer of 1945, the Allied powers had defeated Germany and turned their full attention to Japan, with over 2 million troops ready to fight to the end and 9,000 airplanes ready for suicide attacks. US experts estimated that an attempt to invade Japan could result in the deaths of 500,000 American soldiers and several million Japanese.

Why Did the US Use the Atomic Bomb?

Unable to risk such incredible losses, the Americans proposed using the atomic bomb. On July 26, 1945, the United States, Britain, and China called on the Japanese to surrender unconditionally and warned them that otherwise, they risk “immediate and total annihilation”. There was no mention of the atomic bomb.

The Japanese, anxious to buy time, ignored these demands. Some of the advisers of President Truman insisted on the atomic bomb to be detonated in an unmanned area to display how deadly the new weapon was; while others tried to pressure him to use it on Japan without prior warning. On August 6, the world learned of Truman’s decision.

The use of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and three days later on Nagasaki has long been debated. Some adherents believed it ended the war and saved the lives of Allied soldiers. The feared Japanese could be defeated, no matter how mercilessly.

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Who Invented the Atomic Bomb?

The scientists on the Manhattan Project team: The scientists on the Manhattan Project team developed the atomic bomb: Robert Oppenheimer, David Bohm, Leo Szilard, Eugene Wigner, Otto Frisch, Rudolf Peierls, Felix Bloch, Niels Bohr, Emilio Segre, James Franck, Enrico Fermi, Klaus Fuchs and Edward Teller — The scientists on the Manhattan Project team developed the atomic bomb: Robert Oppenheimer, David Bohm, Leo Szilard, Eugene Wigner, Otto Frisch, Rudolf Peierls, Felix Bloch, Niels Bohr, Emilio Segre, James Franck, Enrico Fermi, Klaus Fuchs and Edward Teller

As early as 1939, Albert Einstein and several prominent scientists had written a letter to President Roosevelt suggesting that the United States should launch a special research program to develop an atomic bomb. The Americans only needed such a weapon after Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in 1941. Since the first atomic bomb studies had begun at Columbia University in Manhattan, a top-secret atomic bomb development program called the “Manhattan Project” was launched in 1942.

With the Manhattan Project, thousands of scientists set to work in various parts of the country to build atomic bombs. Security at the Manhattan Project was extremely tight; only a few of the scientists knew what their colleagues were doing. At the Manhattan Project’s purpose-built facilities in Los Alamos, New Mexico, the scientific director of the atomic bomb Dr. Robert Oppenheimer oversaw the drawing and preparation of the bomb, or “The Beast” as it was code-named.

Three years later, at 5:30 a.m. on July 16, 1945, in a remote corner of the New Mexico desert, the first Manhattan Project atomic bomb was tested. A huge fireball lit up the sky above the desert and a mushroom cloud rose to a height of 7,580 miles (12,200 meters). Oppenheimer interpreted the event by quoting a Hindu sacred text: “Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds.”

The Manhattan Project team that invented the atomic bomb consisted of the following scientists: Robert Oppenheimer, David Bohm, Leo Szilard, Eugene Wigner, Otto Frisch, Rudolf Peierls, Felix Bloch, Niels Bohr, Emilio Segre, James Franck, Enrico Fermi, Klaus Fuchs and Edward Teller.

How Does An Atomic Bomb Work?

The atoms that make up matter consist of a central nucleus surrounded by electrons. The nucleus is held together by strong binders that are difficult to break.

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In 1919, New Zealand-born physicist Ernest Rutherford, working at the University of Manchester, showed that the nucleus of an atom could be broken apart if bombarded with extremely powerful energizing particles. However, he was skeptical that there was a source of energy on Earth that could produce this kind of transformation, as it would take a great deal of energy to break apart the binding forces in the nucleus.

However, Ernest Rutherford had not taken uranium into account. In a way, like a drop of water that stretches and finally splits in two, the uranium nucleus wobbles when it reaches the very edge of instability, and it only takes a slight collision with a neutron to shatter it. Discovered in 1938 in Berlin by Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner, this so-called “nuclear fission” produced two lighter elements from a heavier one which released a huge amount of energy and demonstrated how an atomic bomb could work.

Enough Uranium

The nuclear tests were carried on before and after Hiroshima.

What made this discovery so revolutionary was this: In the process of fission, the uranium nucleus releases two neutrons, which are enough to fission two more nuclei, thus freeing four neutrons, and so on indefinitely. All that is needed for a self-sustaining chain reaction was to use enough uranium so that the neutrons produced would not escape until they had caused more fission.

This “enough” which is called the “critical mass” was different for each element. The intriguing result of fission was that two lighter atoms were produced from the heavy atom that was scattered, and their combined mass was lighter than the heavier atom. This mass was converted into energy according to Albert Einstein’s equation E=mc².

So, to make a nuclear bomb, it was necessary to create a critical mass of uranium, known as uranium-235, which is only 0.7 percent of naturally occurring uranium. Another route to the atomic bomb was to use plutonium, an element that could be produced by neutron bombardment of U-238, a more abundant form of uranium that does not occur in nature. The atomic bomb on Hiroshima used uranium, and the atomic bomb on Nagasaki used plutonium. But both worked by fusing the critical mass at the moment of detonation.

Who Are the Hibakusha?

In Japan, hibakusha, meaning “bomb-affected person”, is the name given to the thousands of Japanese who survived the atomic explosions in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Although deaths from the immediate effects of radiation ended within the next two months of the bombs being dropped, many hibakusha who were exposed to radiation at the time went on to die from bomb-related diseases such as cancer and leukemia. Others, disfigured beyond recognition, lived in pain and torture for years.

Because no one knows for certain how many of the hibakusha died of bomb-related diseases, the Japanese have never released a complete list of atomic bomb deaths. The experiences of these unfortunate people have since become the basis for the limits of trust in X-rays or other forms of radiation emission and the radiation applied. Based on the dose received by the victims and the level of radiation-induced illnesses, a limit was set for the radiation that people could tolerate, including those working in the nuclear industry.

What Happened After?

The atomic bombs dropped three days apart on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki forced Japan to surrender on August 10, 1945. In an unexpected radio broadcast, Emperor Hirohito addressed his nation, many hearing his voice for the first time: “We have resolved, by enduring the unendurable and bearing the unbearable, to pave the way for a grand peace for all generations to come.”

The Soviet Union detonated its first nuclear bomb in 1949. Britain followed in 1952. More and more sophisticated and deadly atomic bombs were built. The bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were toys compared to these new ones. Today, at least ten nations in the world belong to the “nuclear club”.

Country	Warheads	First test	Number of tests
United States	5,428	16 July 1945 (Trinity)	1,054
Russia	5,977	29 August 1949 (RDS-1)	715
United Kingdom	225	3 October 1952 (Hurricane)	45
France	290	13 February 1960 (Gerboise Bleue)	210
China	350	16 October 1964 (596)	45
India	160	18 May 1974 (Smiling Buddha)	6
Pakistan	165	28 May 1998 (Chagai-1)	6
North Korea	20	9 October 2006	6
Israel	90	1960–1979	N/A

The current status of the “Nuclear Club” countries.

Atomic technology has also been used for the benefit of humanity. Nuclear reactors produce energy all over the world and radioactive isotopes are used in research, industry, and especially medicine.

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The most valuable lesson to be learned from the events in Hiroshima is that nuclear weapons should be seen as a last resort deterrent in future wars. Using a nuclear weapon could be the end for both sides or a catastrophe for the whole world.

Manhattan Project at a Glance

What was the Manhattan Project?

The Manhattan Project was a research and development program initiated during World War II with the goal of creating an atomic bomb. It was a collaborative effort between the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada.

What led to the creation of the Manhattan Project?

The Manhattan Project was prompted by fears that Nazi Germany might develop atomic weapons first. It was initiated in response to a letter from Albert Einstein to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, expressing concerns about the potential military applications of nuclear fission.

Who were the key scientists involved in the Manhattan Project?

Several prominent scientists played crucial roles in the Manhattan Project, including Enrico Fermi, who led experiments on nuclear fission, and J. Robert Oppenheimer, who directed the Los Alamos Laboratory, where the bomb’s design was developed.

How were the atomic bombs developed during the Manhattan Project used in World War II?

The atomic bombs developed during the Manhattan Project were used in the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, in August 1945. These bombings played a significant role in hastening Japan’s surrender and ultimately ending World War II.

What was the Trinity test?

The Trinity test was the first detonation of an atomic bomb conducted as part of the Manhattan Project. It took place on July 16, 1945, in New Mexico, and successfully demonstrated the explosive power of a nuclear weapon.

September 4, 2022

History of Tea: The Origin of a Global Phenomenon
The tea plant, Camellia sinensis, is part of a Chinese beverage tradition. This beautiful evergreen shrub (or tree, if it is allowed to grow) likes high-altitude, warm, acidic soils with good rainfall. Like coffee and certain other plants, its leaves contain two important alkaloids: caffeine and theophylline. Both stimulants and addictive, these alkaloids explain why tea (and coffee) are so widely drunk.
How Is Tea Made?
Camellia sinensis, the plant from which tea is harvested, is the source of this beverage. This plant comes in two different types: It is the Camellia sinensis assamica plant that is used to make Assam tea or Indian tea, whereas the Camellia sinensis plant is used to make Chinese tea. The former can survive harsher conditions and has smaller leaves.
Even though tea plants have the potential to grow to 55 feet (17 meters) in height, when planted for commercial purposes, they are regularly clipped so that they stay shrubs no higher than 6.5 feet (2 meters). It’s the same plant that produces both black and green tea. However, fermentation is a vital step in the making of black tea. Following the harvest, the leaves are dried by airflow, which also stimulates enzyme production. After that, the leaves are crushed between two surfaces to break down the cells and release the sap that gives the tea its distinctive taste.
Origin of Tea
Camellia sinensis, the tea plant.
It is not known how tea drinking began in China, but by the middle of the 1st century BC, the leaves of this plant were being collected and perhaps brewed with other herbs. The leaves of C. sinensis were regularly chewed in the southwestern regions of China, the homeland of C. sinensis, just like today. The cultivation, preparation, and consumption of tea are intertwined with China’s tumultuous history going back to ancient times. Used as currency and as an official form of payment, the tea was subjected to consistently high taxes and monopolized by the state to maximize profits. The plant’s taste was so popular that it became almost a sacred herb.
Drinking tea was so important in Chinese society that tea was sometimes ceremoniously sipped. In 805, Buddhist monks studying in China took the plant back to their homeland, and the tea-drinking ceremonies were thoroughly ritualized in Japan. The Japanese tea ceremony achieved its highest form under a Japanese tea master named Sen Rikyu.
The ceremony was conducted in a special room built for this purpose with a group of five guests and was governed by strict rules. Entrance and exit from the room, the utensils used, the dialogue, and the sequence of actions were all carefully regulated. In a sense, the tea itself was overshadowed by the symbolism of the ceremony, but it still had to be carefully prepared, brewed, and perfectly presented. After Sen was killed in 1591 (for unknown reasons), different versions of the ceremony were made, but the importance of tea in ceremonies stayed a part of Japanese culture.
How Did the Russians Discover Tea?
Tea plays an important role in social life around the world. Mongol invaders adopted tea, which they mixed with milk and butter. The tea gradually spread to Russia and other Asian countries. The first Russians to be recorded drinking tea were two envoys sent to negotiate with a Mongol prince at the beginning of the 17th century.
The samovar seems to have been invented (or introduced to Europe) by the Russians after this encounter, and it became popular across the vast Russian territory. With its cleverly arranged internal apparatus, the samovar kept the water hot and the tea ready to drink at all times, which made it the embodiment of Russian domesticity. The tea plant came to Russia mainly via Kyakhta. This town on the border with Mongolia used to be very prosperous, and its historical importance flourished from the tea markets that were held here.
Tea Introduced to Europe
The shipping of tea at the port of Guangzhou, formerly Canton.
The tea plant was first taken to Europe by ship and reached Portugal and the rest of Europe in the 15th century with the discovery of ocean routes to Asia via the Cape of Good Hope. The Dutch began importing the tea plant to Europe in the early 17th century. The diarist Samuel Pepys recorded his first experience with this “Chinese drink” on September 25, 1660.
But when was tea widely introduced in England? In England, the herb started to be sold in Thomas Garraway’s famous coffee house in London’s Exchange Alley and quickly became popular along with coffee. Since the import tax for tea was set too high, most of the tea was smuggled into England.
Since the trade in the tea plant was carefully controlled and few foreigners ventured beyond the main port of Canton, for two long centuries, Europeans did not know in which part of China the tea was grown. Transporting tea from the interior lands, where it was grown and processed, to the port was time-consuming and required considerable organizational skills. At this time, it was thought that green tea and black tea came from different plants.
Opium Wars Between China and the British
The Opium Wars ended in China’s defeat.
The benefits and harms of tea had long been discussed, and lexicographer and tea drinker Samuel Johnson even had to publicly justify his tea addiction in the 18th century. But soon, the plant gradually became central to English social life. The English people highly demanded the plant, and the Chinese’s preference to get paid in silver led to the search for a bartering product to offset the costs of importing tea from China. For that, opium was perfect for the job.
One of the causes of the Opium Wars of the 19th century was the British obsession with tea. In the mid-19th century, the first fast cargo ships were competing to reach England from Chinese ports, and this competition was widely described in the newspapers. But the speed of the ships had nothing to do with the quality of the tea drink, as properly prepared herbs lasted a long time.
Intense market demand for tea led to a search for new regions where the plant could be grown. But after some unsuccessful experiments, tea began to be cultivated in greater and greater yields in British India, first in Assam, then in Darjeeling and other hilly regions. Tea plantations were established in Kenya and elsewhere in East Africa. In Ceylon (Sri Lanka), tea became popular after a fungal disease wiped out the country’s coffee plantations.
Robert Fortune: The Tea Spy
A poster from “The Great American Tea Company” from the early 18th century demonstrates that tea had already become a popular drink in the United States.
Even though India now consumes and produces more tea than any other country, commercial tea cultivation in India did not begin until the middle of the 19th century. The British East India Company engaged in a crafty act of biopiracy that facilitated the growth of the tea trade in the East. As demand for tea grew in Europe, the company saw an opportunity to overtake China as the biggest player in the tea market.
The Royal Horticultural Society sent Robert Fortune, a Scottish plant collector. “The tea spy,” Robert Fortune, despatched the tea seeds to Calcutta. According to his book, “A Journey to the Tea Countries of China,” he was able to secure nearly 20,000 tea plants, eight first-class tea farmers, and a wealth of equipment from the finest tea districts of China to the Himalayas in 1852.
India’s tea exports to the United Kingdom increased in value from £24,000 in 1854 to £20,087,000 in 1929. Today, there are now 3,300,000 US tons (3,000,000 metric tons) of tea manufactured each year to meet the global tea demand, making it the most widely consumed soft drink in the world.
The World’s First Tea Bags
The Twinings company was founded in 1706.
Tea remains one of the world’s most popular beverages, especially in the UK, Australia, Turkey, China, and India, where it was first produced. Today’s leading tea brands are often named after early tea entrepreneurs, such as Lipton, and Twinings. So is Earl Grey, flavored with bergamot peels. The introduction of the shaken tea packet in 1908 democratized tea, which was once drunk only by the elite, even though it was initially reviled by tea connoisseurs.
Types of Tea
The main difference between green tea and black tea is the collection and processing. Only the top three leaves of the tea plant—the top two leaves and the bud—are harvested by hand. Green tea leaves are picked when they are a little fresher and are not fermented (not allowed to oxidize). In China, green tea was most popular for its delicate flavor. The more resistant black tea, which undergoes more processing, is the national drink of many nations. Somewhere in between, oolong tea is also popular.
Camellia sinensis is a flowering branch of the tea plant. It is a plant in the same genus as garden camellias. The tip of the branch, or “two leaves and a bud”, is collected twice a year, in early spring and late spring/early summer. The “bud” of this plant is not an unopened flower but an immature leaf. The preparation of tea for drinking is a delicate process that requires knowledge and skill. When properly prepared and packaged, the tea plant lasts a long time, which is one of the reasons why it is loved all over the world today.
Sources:
1. James A. Benn (2015-04-23). Tea in China: A Religious and Cultural History. Hong Kong University Press. p. 173. ISBN 9789888208739.
2. Waley, Arthur, ed. The Opium War through Chinese eyes (1960).
3. Wong, John Y. Deadly Dreams: Opium, Imperialism, and the Arrow War (1856–1860) in China. (Cambridge UP, 2002)
September 4, 2022
The British East India Company
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Ellis Island: How Did 30 Million People Immigrate to the United States?
September 4, 2022
Invincible Armada: How Was the Spanish Armada Defeated by England?
England and Spain were allies rather than enemies for much of their history. Queen Mary, the Catholic daughter of Henry VIII, cemented this alliance by marrying King Felipe II of Spain in 1554 (a childless marriage). When Mary’s Protestant sister Elizabeth succeeded her as queen of England in 1558, the old alliance began to break down. Elizabeth began to nurture English power and with it Protestantism, which Philip considered heresy.
When the Dutch rebelled against Spanish rule in 1566, Elizabeth encouraged them; when the rebel leader Prince William began to support Protestant pirate ships (known as “Sea Beggars” or Geuzen) to harass Spanish ships, English ports gave them shelter and English citizens joined them.
In 1567, John Hawkins, an English pirate, challenged the Spanish monopoly by selling African slaves in America. The following year he and his young lieutenant Francis Drake were expelled from New Spain (Mexico).
When Felipe ascended the Portuguese throne and united Spain and Portugal in 1580, rumors began to circulate in Europe about the threat of invasion. But it took time for Felipe to devote himself to his “divine mission”, which he defined as reclaiming the rights of his dead wife and reviving the Catholic faith in England. In 1586 he ordered the preparation of the Invincible Armada; it was to be fought.
Why Did the Armada Fail?
When Felipe II began to plan his invasion, he had only a few guides to follow. Until then, there had been no major clashes between fleets of sailing ships. A few boats were enough to protect treasure-laden ships from the New World. Spain never had a permanent navy until 1580 when it joined Portugal. An invasion by sea on this scale and distance was never planned by anyone, anywhere (except Spain).
Unfortunately, Felipe’s plan to use his navy to transport his army was a flawed idea. The main Spanish warship, the galleon, was essentially a floating fortress. Galleons were heavy and cumbersome ships. Victory depended on catching enemy ships with hooks and boarding them. The British had a completely different approach. They had a long-established navy, and a well-functioning maritime administration system, and had recently built better ships.
In 1573, John Hawkins, a former privateer who had recently made the Treasurer of the Navy Admiral changed the naval design by abandoning the bowsprit and building slimmer and faster ships. British warfare techniques were also different. British victory depended on sailors, not soldiers, defensive evasion and broadside fire from a safe distance.
The logistics of the Armada were also difficult, requiring 2.5 million gallons (11 1/4 million liters) of wine and water, 1000 tons of salted meat and similar quantities of rice, chickpeas, and beans. By the time the last supplies arrived, the previous ones were usually exhausted, the crews were sick and the ships had to be repaired.
Even for a king with resources like those of Felipe, the costs were extremely high. The Armada cost 4 million ducats, equivalent to half a year’s royal income, more than a hundred times the cost of Elizabeth’s defense. These difficulties and costs led to the final mistake: The assumption that the fleet and the army in the Netherlands could be united. In the end, this was not achieved, and in retrospect, the venture was doomed to fail from the start.
Invincible Armada’s Defeat Against the English
The 120 ships that made up the Spanish Armada fleet were anchored off Calais. The English fleet was less than two miles away. It was the most nerve-wracking moment since the Spanish invasion force had been sighted off the coast of England just over a week earlier at the end of July 1588.
The British knew that the Spanish were in desperate need of rest, food, ammunition, and men. If they stayed where they were, the French could lend support to their struggle and they could take advantage of the weakening of the Spanish army that had occupied the Netherlands. Refreshed and strengthened, thus, they could easily reach the shores of England. The British admiral, Charles Howard, Baron of Effingham, knew he had to drive the Spanish away. For Howard, the world had never seen a fleet like the Spanish Armada.
However, the Baron’s solution was devastating: Flaming fireships filled with oil, tar, and explosives, with cannons loaded with shells that ignited when heated and burst into flames. Floating on the water, with a favorable current and wind, those floating bombs approached just after midnight, crackling with flames and their cannons firing random salvos. Panic-stricken Spaniards cut their anchors and the ships were damaged by crashing into each other as they fled in panic. At dawn, the Spanish fleet came into view and the disorder was prevailed and the fleet was vulnerable to attack. The British made their move.
King Felipe II of Spain, the creator of the Invincible Armada (La Armada Invencible), wanted to consolidate his position in Europe and the world. Spain recently united with Portugal, had estates in the Netherlands and Italy, and colonies across the Atlantic rich in gold. Felipe’s income was ten times that of Queen Elizabeth’s. But the Netherlands had rebelled against the Spanish, the English were supporting the rebels, and Englishmen like Sir Francis Drake, or El Draque (The Dragon) as the Spanish called him, who pirated with government permission, were plundering Spanish treasures in the New World.
At El Escorial, his palace near Madrid, Felipe sifted through many plans. The final decision was to move half the army to the English Channel, to be supported by the troops of the Duke of Parma, Felipe’s commander in the Netherlands, and to mount a joint land and sea campaign to carry the combined army by ship to England and victory.
Francis Drake’s Confidence
The scenes behind the Queen depict the Armada.
In late April 1588, an invading fleet of 130 ships, more than 3,000 guns, 8,000 sailors, and 19,000 soldiers left Lisbon. It took Spanish Armada three months just to reach the English Channel. Storms drove the fleet into the port of Coruna in northern Spain. Ships fell apart, food rotted, and soldiers fell ill. The British, however, prepared as best they could. On Friday, July 29, a small scout ship arrived in Plymouth to report the long-awaited contact, while messengers on fast horses delivered the news to London within hours.
Drake was playing a game of ball at Plymouth Hoe when he received the news and knowing the sea currents well, he was reported to have said this, “There is time to finish the game and beat the Spaniards too”. When the tides turned, about 60 English ships sailed from Plymouth.
“If you fail, you fail; but the cause being the cause of God, you will not fail.”
Felipe II to Medina Sidonia
Medina Sidonia, the Spanish commander, had hoped the British would stay windward. But with a southerly wind, they appeared directly behind them on Sunday morning. In an extraordinary display of naval discipline, the remaining 120 Spanish boats slowly turned and formed an impenetrable half-moon. For nearly a week the two powers tried to outmaneuver each other. The Spanish ship San Salvador was blown up. Rosario’s bollard broke and fell victim to Drake who seized the opportunity. But the Armada held together, ready to meet the Duke of Parma.
Parma’s Incompetence
Meanwhile, reserve forces from ports on the south coast joined British Howard’s fleet. Gunpowder and shells began to arrive from the coast at a time when the Spanish were running low on ammunition, food, and water. Late on Saturday, the Spanish Armada anchored off Calais, from where Medina Sidonia sent pleading letters to the Duke of Parma in Dunkirk, 30 miles away. But the Duke of Parma had no warships to put his men to sea, and barges were easy targets. He couldn’t even send reinforcements.
It was the English fireships tactic that sealed the fate of the Invincible Armada. No Spanish ships were burned down, but as dawn broke on Monday the Spanish ships were already seen scattering to the northeast.
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By the time the few Spanish ships that remained calm had gathered together, Drake’s Revenge had lined up a line of ships all of which had begun broadside firing. The other Spanish boats gradually gathered to form a final half-moon until each was out of ammunition.
Only then did the British get close enough to destroy the thick Spanish ship’s buttresses. One ship sank with its crew of 275 men. Again and again, the Spanish tried to catch the British ships with their broadside hooks to get their men on board. Each time the British changed course. Three Spanish ships ran aground and the others drifted with their masts broken. 600 Spaniards were killed and 800 were disabled. In contrast, the British ships were all operational and only 100 men were lost. Meanwhile, the rest of the Spanish fleet drifted north to an unknown fate.
In What Conditions Did the Sailors Live?
Elizabeth’s beheading of her Catholic cousin and heiress Mary Queen of Scots in 1587 deepened Philip II’s hostility towards England.
The scale of the Invincible Armada alone posed unique problems. All Europeans had a centuries-old tradition of seafaring, but it went no further than short voyages from port to port. To fulfill Felipe’s orders, thousands of sailors were crammed into tiny cabins for three months before the fleet even reached the English Channel. In midsummer, the food on the ships spoiled in a matter of days. The water stored in wooden barrels also developed a muddy layer of dirt. People living in crowds in damp conditions easily became ill.
The British had a crucial advantage: Because they fought from their home ports, they never had to board the ships for months. Even so, the disease was difficult to deal with. The British lost about 100 men during their attack against the Armada. But they had also lost about 3,000 people who died of food poisoning before reaching the harbor. Fewer people died in the battle from cannonballs and musket fire than from splinters of shattered ship wood.
At the Battle of Gravelines, when a Spanish ship turned on its side while changing direction, the British saw blood pouring from the deck holes.
How Did the Spanish Escape?
For four days, English ships pursued the northbound Armada for four days as it sailed around the British Isles, aiming to return home. Off the coast of Scotland, they turned back because the food was running low and the Spanish were no longer a threat. The Spanish continued on their way to the final destruction.
Their supplies were running low as well. Horses and mules were thrown into the sea to save water. The daily ration was reduced to 250 grams (8.8 ounces) of bread, half a liter of water, and half a liter of wine. Typhus was rampant. Ships were wrecked, their timbers splintered and the equipment badly damaged by cannon fire.
Only half of the Spanish Armada ships reached their ports with sick or dying men. Three out of every four people who set sail with the Spanish Armada died in battle or from wounds or diseases sustained during the battles.
The Main Consequences of the War
The defeat of the Spanish Armada was a sign that the balance of power in Europe was shifting from the Catholic south to the Protestant north. It also symbolized the transformation of Europe from a Europe of small dynastic states to a Europe of nations.
Protestantism in England was finally secured. Soon after Elizabeth’s death in 1603, England and Scotland were united by the Protestant King James I. The defeat of the Armada was also an experience for England that confirmed the benefits and advantages of a strong maritime policy and politics and the tradition of sea travel. Within 20 years, a great new empire began to take shape across the Atlantic.
Spain’s dominance in Europe up to that time was now coming to an end. The Dutch, supported by the English, was recognized as a nation by a treaty of truce that came into force in 1609. This nation would later establish its own empire in the East Indies, competing with its former masters.
KEY DATES OF THE INVINCIBLE ARMADA
August 20, 1585: Signature of the Treaty of Nonsuch
After Spanish troops took over Europe’s biggest port city, Antwerp, on August 20, 1585, England, which was at war with Spain, tried to get the rebels of the Netherlands to fight against its dominance. The Queen of England agreed to send a few hundred horsemen and foot soldiers to help the rebels. In response, Spain sent an army of ships called a “Armada” to attack Great Britain with the goal of taking it over.
April 19, 1587: Francis Drake destroys the Spanish fleet at Cadiz
In April 1587, when some English troops were gathering in Antwerp and the Queen of England decided to help the Dutch rebels, Spain got ready to invade the country with its powerful fleet, which was called the Armada. At the same time, Francis Drake, who had heard about the danger, led his first mission against Philip II of Spain and, on April 19, set fire to 37 Spanish ships in the port of Cadiz. This attack started up the Anglo-Spanish War again, and it didn’t end until the Treaty of London in 1604.
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August 8, 1588: The defeat of the Invincible Armada
Off Gravelines, the 190 ships of the English fleet beat the 130 ships of the Spanish fleet (near Calais). The Spanish Armada was defeated by a storm and the better strategy of the English. So, Philip II of Spain fails in his plan to invade England and overthrow Queen Elizabeth I and bring back Catholicism. Lord Burghley, an advisor to the queen of England, will give the Spanish fleet the name “Invincible Armada” after the battle to make fun of them.
April 15, 1589: Departure of the Drake-Norreys Expedition
During the Anglo-Spanish War, Admiral Francis Drake and General John Norreys led the Drake-Norreys Expedition. Their goal was to fight against the Spanish Armada. This trip was called the Counter-Armada. Elizabeth I of England claimed the land after the English won the battle of Gravelines. However, the campaign failed because the Spanish navy was stronger. Spain could count on Portugal’s help, but the Queen of England wouldn’t help the English troops that were already in the area.
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Because of this, 13,000 people died.
September 4, 2022

Author: Hrothsige Frithowulf

Prehistory – Round Objects and Rotational Motion

12,000 BC – Log Rollers

5200 BC – Potter’s Wheel

4500 BC – Spindles

4200 BC – The First Wheel with An Axle

4000 BC – The First Wheel Used for Transportation

3500 BC – Wooden Wheel with Axle

3000 BC – The First Chariots

2000 BC – First Spoked Wheels

1323 BC – The Chain Brakes

750 BC – Wheels with an Iron Rim

300 BC – Water Wheel

100 BC – Wheelbarrow

1035 – Spinning Wheel

The 1800s – The First Lever Brakes

1845 – Hardened Rubber Car Tire

1848 – Mansell Wheel

1902 – The First Drum Brakes

1915 – Radial Car Tire

The 1930s – Airless Tires

Conclusion

FAQ About the Timeline of the Wheel

Who invented the wheel?

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How Did the City of Babylon Shine?

When Did Nebuchadnezzar Rule?

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What Did the Babylonians Believe?

The Invention of Alloys

Timeline of Metalworking History

Navigating at Sea

Timeline of the History of Navigation

3000 – 1500 BC – First Sonars

150 – Ptolemy’s World Map

15th Century – Dead Reckoning

1100 – Compass

1300 – 1500 – Nautical Charts

1480 – Astrolabe

1753 – 59 – Chronometer

1907 – Gyroscopic Compass

1930s – 40s – Radar

Late 20th Century – Global Positioning Systems

The Unexpected End of Glorious Babylon

Return to Jerusalem From Exile

Gardens and a Glittering Palace

The Celts’ Migration and Subsequent Settlement of Gaul

The Construction of Oppidum in Gallic Lands

The Function Played by the Oppidum

Bibracte Was a Popular Gallic Oppidum

The Evolution of Gallic Cities

The Origin of the Seven Wonders and Their Symbolic Significance

They Weren’t Originally “Wonders”

The Great Pyramid of Giza

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon

The Statue of Zeus at Olympia

The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus

The Temple of Artemis

The Colossus of Rhodes

The Lighthouse of Alexandria

Why Are None of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World in Rome?