During the Middle Ages, Western Christians led military expeditions to the Middle East in an effort to wrest control of Jerusalem and the Holy Land away from the Muslim Ottoman Empire. This included the site of Christ’s burial. Between 1095 and 1270, there were eight major crusades. The likes of Richard the Lionheart, Frederick Barbarossa, and Philip Augustus were among the great European kings and feudal lords who made their mark.
The great military epic of the Crusades was ultimately unsuccessful. These voyages to the East stoked the fires of holy war and vengeance by targeting the Muslim world, which had hitherto been tolerant of Christians. The Ottomans would eventually capitalize on these sentiments.
An Overview of Crusade History
In addition to being an era of incremental assertion of royal powers and the willingness of certain lords to go to war in order to gain wealth elsewhere, the Crusades were remarkable because they were an epic in their own right and took place within the greater global framework of Westward expansion. Finally, it’s the increasing influence of the Church in society that could be traced back to the Gregorian reforms, as well as the rivalry between the Church and other religious and political institutions like Byzantine Christianity and, of course, Islam.
For this reason, these “holy wars” were more than just a “clash of civilizations,” or religious conflicts, and they would continue for another two centuries.
After Roman Emperor Diogenes IV’s fall at the hands of the Seljuks of Alp Arslan in 1071, the province was firmly under the control of the Abbasid caliphate. However, the Turkomans in Anatolia and, more specifically, the Fatimid caliphate in Cairo, were formidable adversaries. Unless the Muslims can come together, the Byzantine Empire’s decline would not bring about peace. However, the Battle of Manzikert had Western repercussions and was frequently seen as one of the reasons why Urban II was called to the crusade.
It was widely agreed that the Investiture Controversy, or the pinnacle of the conflict between the Germanic emperor and the pope, began at the assembly at Worms in 1076 (Synod of Worms). The second group desired autonomy in politics and, by extension, acceptance. Within the framework of the coming crusades, this was crucial.
Alfonso VI of Castile’s conquest of Toledo in 1085 marked the beginning of the Reconquista, which was commonly referred to as a “crusade” in the Western world. The rivalry between the Papacy and the Empire further worsened with the passing of the great Pope Gregory VII.
In the Battle of Sagrajas, in 1086, the Spanish army was forced to retreat during Almoravid resistance against the Reconquista.
One possible precursor to the First Crusade was the 1087 sacking of Mahdia by an alliance of Genoese, Pisans, and Normans from Sicily. An indulgence was granted to the soldiers by Pope Victor III.
After the death of Seljuk Sultan Malik Shah in 1092, Turkish expansion ceased. At the same time as the Fatimids were rising to prominence and the Byzantine Empire was becoming more stable under Alexios I Komnenos’ rule, power was being contested by rival emirs.
First Crusade
Pope Urban II, who was elected during the chaos of 1088 and who took control of Rome in 1093, attended the Council of Clermont to legitimize his position in the kingdom of France, whose king, Philip I, he had excommunicated. On November 27, Pope Urban II issued a call for help in freeing the Holy Places and the tomb of Christ, as well as coming to the assistance of the Eastern Christians.
He promised salvation to the pilgrims. Even if the title “First Crusade” was not used at the time, this event marked the beginning of the conflict. The so-called People’s Crusade, under the leadership of St. Peter the Hermit, took the path of central Europe, while the crusade of the nobles opted for the southern route. The capture of Constantinople was a shared goal. Ahead of the Holy City.
The Byzantines rapidly carried the People’s Crusade over the Bosphorus to the other side, where the Turks slaughtered the crusaders. This all took place in 1097, after the crusade had been publicized by the plundering and killing of Jews. After some time, the barons got it to Constantinople, where they entered into difficult discussions with Alexios I Komnenos. The Crusaders had their first successes in Anatolia.
In 1098, the Fatimids retook Jerusalem from the Seljuks. In the North, the Crusaders founded the county of Edessa and took Antioch with difficulty. They did not return it to the Byzantines as planned, provoking the anger of the Basilians.
In 1099, the crusaders successfully captured Jerusalem. On July 15, the city was captured and “purified” in blood. Even though Godfrey of Bouillon was named “Advocate of the Holy Sepulchre,” many nobles and pilgrims left for the West. It was time to start building the Latin States of the East, which would be comprised of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the Principality of Antioch, and the Counties of Tripoli and Edessa.
From 1100 until 1118, Jerusalem’s first king, Baldwin I, ruled over the city. During his reign, he captured Acre (1104) and Beirut (1110), and he repelled raids from the Turks and the Fatimids. He oversaw the construction of Montreal’s iconic fortress in 1115. In addition, the monarch had to contend with rivalries within other Latin nations.
When Mawdud, the atabeg of Mosul, attacked the Latins at Harran in 1105, it was the first serious loss they had ever experienced. Baldwin II ruled Jerusalem from 1118 to 1131. Despite his best efforts, he ran into trouble and was eventually captured in 1123 while trying to carry out his predecessor’s mission.
The Crusaders suffered a devastating defeat at the Battle of Ager Sanguinis in 1119. This marked the beginning of difficulties for the county of Edesse.
The reign of Sultan Mahmud, 1127–1144, was marked by the appointment of a certain Zankî (or Zengi) as his atabeg. At first, this new powerful man aimed to conquer emirs like Damascus’, but he eventually turned on the Franks. By taking advantage of the Latins’ tensions with the Byzantine Empire over its claim to Antioch’s restitution, Zankî harassed the county of Edesse. In 1144, the first Latin state was wiped out when Turkish armies swiftly captured Edessa.
In 1145, Pope Eugene III issued a crusade summons and entrusted Bernard of Clairvaux with the task of preaching to the faithful. However, the volunteers were not making any significant efforts. French King Louis VII had to wait until the next year to propose while trying to convince Emperor Conrad III to join him.
Second Crusade
From 1147 until 1149, the Second Crusade‘s missions faced constant peril. The Byzantines and Normans were always at odds with one another because of the island of Sicily. Baldwin III was too young to lead, and the kingdom of Jerusalem was in disarray as a result of rivalries and Queen Melisende’s influence when the crusaders came. Moreover, there were whispers of Eleanor of Aquitaine’s adultery when she was married to Louis VII. The two sovereigns of the Crusaders were unsuccessful before Damascus because of bad advice. As the year 1148 came to a close, Conrad III made the decision to return to the West, and Louis VII soon after, in the spring of 1149.
After Zanki’s assassination in 1146, the dynasty remained united until 1163. Nur ad-Din (Nur al-Din), his son, took over the fight against the amirs and the jihad against the Franks after his father’s death. With his 1149 victory over Raymond of Poitiers, he posed a serious threat to the principality of Antioch, and with his 1154 conquest of Syria, he effectively ended that threat. On the other hand, he was aware of a few problems (the loss of Ascalon in 1153, the defeat of Harim in 1157, or the failure in front of the Krak in 1163). Next, Nûr al-Dîn decided to make contact with his Fatimid adversaries.
Amaury I of Jerusalem was king from 1163 until 1174. Egypt was his fixation. He made several unsuccessful attempts to invade it. In his final attempt, he perished as Nur ad-Din and Saladin both posed threats to the kingdom of Jerusalem from the north and south, respectively.
Nur ad-Din tasked Shirkuh with conquering Egypt between 1164 and 1174, and the latter did so with the help of his nephew Saladin. In 1169, he was appointed vizier and began openly challenging Nur ad-Din. After his death in 1174, Saladin rallied the Muslim faithful to resume the holy war (jihad) and retake the holy city of Jerusalem.
Baldwin IV of Jerusalem ruled from 1174 until 1185. After the “Leper” king defeated Saladin at the Battle of Montgisard (1177), he made valiant attempts to repel further attacks. Despite his relative success in handling the Raynald of Châtillon issue, he was unable to stop his sister Sibylle and her husband, Guy of Lusignan, from seizing the throne after his death and the brief reign of his nephew.
Saladin spent the years 1174-1187 battling the Franks and subduing the Zengid. By the mid-1180s, he had successfully rallied the Muslim world under his banner, deposed the Fatimid Caliph of Egypt, and begun the jihad to capture Jerusalem. Using the internal strife of the Latin realm to his advantage, he defeated the Crusaders at Hattîn (Battle of Hattin – July 1187) and captured King Guy of Lusignan. He marched into Jerusalem in triumph on October 2, 1187.
Frederick Barbarossa, Emperor of Germany, consolidated his power with the Peace of Constance (1183), which was signed between 1183 and 1188. In 1188, with the Empire at peace, he made the decision to take up the cross at the Diet of Mainz.
Western Europe was embroiled in a civil war between King Henry and his son Richard, both members of the Plantagenet dynasty, in 1186 and 1189. France’s King Philip II Augustus backed the latter. After becoming king of England in July 1189, Richard the Lionheart followed in his father’s crusade footsteps.
Third Crusade
After hearing the shocking news of Jerusalem’s reconquest by Saladin in 1187, Pope Gregory VIII and his successor, Stephen III, called for the Third Crusade. The conflict between Philip Augustus and Richard the Lionheart erupted during their halt in Sicily in 1190, and the two leaders ended up leaving together. Frederick Barbarossa died in the same year, in June, when he was swept away by the waters of the Goksu River, Turkey. Richard the Lionheart captured Acre with the King of France in 1191 and then fought Saladin at Arsuf in September.
While all this was going on, Philip Augustus went back to his country. In 1192, the English monarch, still hesitant to approach Jerusalem, and an increasingly frail Saladin continued their war. Richard signed a treaty with the Sultan and went back to the West, where John and Philip had taken advantage of the situation in his absence.
In 1193, Saladin passed away. There was a time of immense discord in the Ayyubid Empire.
Fourth Crusade
Richard the Lionhearted and Saladin made peace treaties in 1198 and 1204, but Pope Innocent III had no intention of honoring them. He instead called for a new crusade. But the crusaders had trouble organizing the Fourth Crusade and turn to Venice for help. The crusade was redirected by Enrico Dandolo, first to Zara in 1202, and then to Constantinople, where it encountered internal strife once more. On April 13, 1204, the “second Rome” was taken and pillaged, the Byzantine empire was broken up, and the divorce between Catholics and Orthodox was finalized.
The difference occurred in the Holy Land between the years 1204 and 1211. There had been splits within each camp. The Western Christian military leadership was pressing for a break in the truce and a rise in attacks on enemy territory for any reason. Saladin’s heirs were fighting amongst themselves, diminishing the empire the Sultan had built just as trouble was brewing in the East.
Between 1206 and 1207, the Mongols under Genghis Khan conquered Asia. The Crusade against the Albigensians began in 1209. For modern Western monarchies, the East was no longer a top concern.
The 1212 Children’s Crusade was remarkable because it was one of the first and most novel military excursions of its kind. Young people in France and the Empire caught up in a spiritual fervor and determined to make their way to Jerusalem. In the end, most of them were captured or sold into slavery, but the crusade’s fervor was reignited for a while. In the same year, the Spanish won a major victory at Las Navas de Tolosa against the Almohads, marking the beginning of the unstoppable progress of the Reconquista.
Fifth Crusade
1213-1221: Innocent III was determined to make up for the failure of the Fourth Crusade. He convened a council in Lateran for this purpose in 1213. Once again, volunteers were not plentiful, in a context of war involving France, England, and the Empire (French victory at Battle of Bouvines, 1214). Innocent III died in 1216, and his successor, Honorius III, renewed the call. Emperor Frederick II was reluctant to take part, so Leopold VI of Austria led the Fifth Crusade, once again without a major sovereign. Taking advantage of divisions among the Muslims, the crusaders captured Damietta in Egypt in 1219. However, being too isolated, they had to abandon their conquest by 1221…
Sixth Crusade
1215-1229: Elected emperor in 1215, Frederick II continuously postponed his departure on a crusade, despite pressure from the pope. Finally, in 1227, Pope Gregory IX excommunicated him! Nonetheless, Frederick II left the following year for the Holy Land, where he found himself amidst rivalries between barons and faced hostility from the Military Orders, except for the Teutonic Knights. Skillfully, he took advantage of Ayyubid weaknesses to negotiate a treaty, signed in Jaffa on February 18, 1229; it was a major diplomatic victory, as he managed to recover Jerusalem! He went there in March for his pilgrimage and to be crowned, then returned to the West.
1239-1240: Pope Gregory IX sent the Count of Champagne, Thibaut IV, to protect Jerusalem. Tensions grew, both between the Orders and the supporters of the German Emperor Frederick, and between the Franks and the Syrians.
1243: The Mongols defeated the Seljuks at Kose Dagh, in Anatolia.
1244: Sultan al-Salih used the Khwarezmians, who were fleeing the Mongols, to forcibly retake Jerusalem on August 23. On October 17 of the same year, most of the Frankish army was destroyed. The King of France, Louis IX, decided to take the cross (go on a crusade).
Seventh Crusade
Here is the translation of the article from French to English:
1248-1254: Departing from Aigues-Mortes, Louis IX’s crusade lands in Egypt and captures Damietta in 1249. However, the crusader army is defeated at Mansourah the following year by the Mamluk Baybars, and Louis IX is taken prisoner. Released for a large ransom, he must return Damietta. He nevertheless decides to travel to the Latin states, where he remains until 1254.
1250: The Mamluks assassinate Turân Shah and seize control of Egypt. The Ayyubids retain Syria.
1256-1264: Rivalries among the Latins reach their peak, with power struggles between barons, Templars, and Hospitallers, joined by the Italian cities of Genoa and Venice, who compete for control of the eastern Mediterranean. This is the War of Saint-Sabas (named after a monastery in Acre), primarily naval, and its stakes are Tyre and Acre.
1258: The Mongols sack Baghdad and execute the Abbasid caliph!
1259: The Mamluks halt the Mongols at Ain Jalut and take control of Ayyubid Syria.
1260-1271: Baybars becomes the Sultan of the Mamluks. He takes from the Franks: Caesarea, Arsuf, and especially Antioch (1268) and the Krak des Chevaliers (1271).
1261: The Byzantine emperor Michael Palaiologos recaptures Constantinople from the Latins.
1266: Charles of Anjou becomes King of Sicily.
1267: Louis IX once again takes up the Cross.
Eighth Crusade
1270: Advised by his brother Charles of Anjou, the King of France attacks Tunisia. However, the crusader camp is decimated by disease during the siege of Tunis, and Louis IX himself dies on August 25.
1272: Prince Edward of England, who was supposed to reinforce Louis IX, lands in the Holy Land for a few unsuccessful raids. He quickly turns back…
1277: Death of Baybars, offering a respite for the Latins.
1278: Charles of Anjou has himself crowned King of Jerusalem.
1282-1285: The Sicilian Vespers have repercussions as far as the Holy Land, where the Angevins struggle against the Italians. The war resumes between Acre and Tripoli. The Mamluk Sultan Qalawun takes advantage of this to capture the latter in 1289.
1291: Qalawun’s successor, al-Ashraf Khalil, after taking Tyre, captures Saint John of Acre following a five-week siege. This marks the end of the Latin states in the Holy Land.
The Crusades would leave a deep-seated hostility between Christians and Muslims, but on the other hand, they facilitated the development of economic and especially cultural exchanges.
The Crusades: Key Dates
August 19, 1071 – The Defeat of the Byzantines at Manzikert
Byzantine Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes suffers a crushing defeat against the Seljuks while attempting to reclaim the fortress of Manzikert, near Lake Van in Armenia. This defeat allows Turkish armies to capture almost all of Asia Minor. Seven years later, the Seljuks will take Jerusalem, making Christian pilgrimages increasingly difficult. This is likely one of the causes of the First Crusade, launched in 1095.
November 27, 1095 – The Pope Calls for the First Crusade
At the Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II urges the knights of the Western kingdoms to embark on a crusade. The goal: to liberate the Holy Land and capture Jerusalem. The first crusaders will depart in late summer 1096, with Godfrey of Bouillon leading the Lorraine contingent.
August 1096 – The People’s Crusade Reaches Constantinople
Led by Peter the Hermit and Walter Sans Avoir, a mass of common people reaches the gates of Constantinople. Following Pope Urban II’s call, the population sets out on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Without any organization or weapons, the pilgrims travel across Europe, some pillaging towns and villages and attacking Jewish communities. After crossing the Bosphorus with the help of the Byzantines, Peter the Hermit and his remaining 12,000 followers will be killed by Turkish forces a few months later.
June 3, 1098 – Antioch is Captured by the Crusaders
In response to Pope Urban II’s call, the noble-led crusaders capture the city of Antioch, then in Syria. The crusader armies are commanded by Godfrey of Bouillon, the Count of Toulouse, Bohemond I, and papal legate Adhemar of Le Puy. The previous year, they had reclaimed Nicaea but were forced to hand it over to the Byzantine Emperor Alexios Komnenos due to an agreement. Shortly after, they achieved a major victory over the Turks in Asia Minor, opening the path to further conquests, including that of Jerusalem in 1099.
July 15, 1099 – The Crusaders Take Jerusalem
Departing from France in 1096 at Pope Urban II’s call, the crusaders, led by Godfrey of Bouillon and the Count of Toulouse, enter Jerusalem. All the city’s defenders, both Muslim and Jewish, are massacred. The conquest of the Holy City results in the deaths of nearly 100,000 people. This marks the birth of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. Godfrey of Bouillon takes charge of the city’s administration as Advocate of the Holy Sepulcher.
February 15, 1113 – The Order of the Hospitallers is Recognized
Shortly after the crusaders’ capture of Jerusalem, Pope Paschal II officially recognizes the Order of the Hospitallers of Saint John of Jerusalem and places it under the protection of the Holy See. Initially, the order was merely a small hospital in Jerusalem to help sick or injured pilgrims. The religious community, which managed the hospital, is now tasked with defending the Holy City and the Kingdom of Jerusalem. By 1142, they will occupy the Krak des Chevaliers, a major fortress in Tripoli. After the last crusade, the knights will be forced to flee to Cyprus and seize the island of Rhodes, becoming known as the “Knights of Rhodes.” Later, when Charles V gifts them the island of Malta, they will be known as the “Knights of Malta.”
January 13, 1128 – The Templar Order is Approved
The Council of Troyes approves the rule of the Templar Order, making it officially recognized. It was, however, founded ten years earlier under the guidance of the knight Hugues de Payens. The King of Jerusalem, Baldwin II, had housed the knights in the former Temple of Solomon, from which they took their name. Their mission was to protect pilgrims traveling to the Holy Land. The Templar Order, or Order of the Temple, would rapidly grow wealthy and powerful. In 1307, the Templars would be arrested by Philip the Fair.
December 1145 – The Pope Calls for a Second Crusade
Weakened by internal conflicts, the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem loses Edessa, conquered by the Atabegs of Mosul in 1144. This event prompts Pope Eugene III to call for a new crusade, which will have little success for the Christians.
October 2, 1187 – Saladin Takes Jerusalem
For several months, Sultan Saladin has been reclaiming territories occupied by the crusaders. In 1187, he captures Jerusalem, giving Pope Gregory VIII a valid reason to organize another crusade to the Holy Land.
October 29, 1187 – Call for the Third Crusade
The Third Crusade consists of a massive army led by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, King Richard I of England (Richard the Lionheart), and King Philip Augustus of France. However, events quickly turn against the Christians. First, Barbarossa drowns in 1190, and then Philip Augustus returns to France after the capture of Acre. Left alone, Richard the Lionheart is unable to retake Jerusalem and signs a hasty peace with Saladin before returning to England.
January 1192 – Richard I of England Abandons Jerusalem
Deprived of the forces of the German Emperor and the French king, Richard the Lionheart is unable to reclaim Jerusalem. Needing to return to England, Richard I gives up the attempt to take Jerusalem and negotiates with Saladin. He secures Christian pilgrim access to the Holy City, maintaining peace for three years.
July 17, 1203 – The Crusaders Capture the Byzantine City of Constantinople
Following Pope Innocent III’s call in 1202, some knights set out on a crusade to Egypt. The Venetians agree to transport the crusaders by sea, on the condition that the knights capture Zara in Dalmatia for them. From then on, interest in reclaiming the Holy Land fades, and everyone focuses on restoring Isaac II Angelos to the Byzantine throne. Despite the pope’s excommunication of the Venetians, the crusaders proceed to attack other Christians. A few months after the first capture, they seize the city again, plunder it, and establish the Latin Empire of Constantinople.
1212 – A Crowd of Children Sets Out on a Crusade
Inspired by a youth from Cologne named Nicholas, poor people and children gather with the intention of embarking on a crusade to liberate the Holy Land. The movement, originating in Germany, spreads to France, where a boy named Stephen also claims to receive a message from Christ. Thousands of people set out toward Jerusalem and the Holy Sepulcher. Very few will return. Some die along the way, while others are sold into slavery.
November 30, 1215 – The Fourth Lateran Council
The Fourth Ecumenical Council of the Lateran, led by Pope Innocent III, prohibits the creation of new religious orders. It condemns the Cathars and Waldensians and issues a new call for a crusade.
February 11, 1229 – Frederick II Signs the Treaty of Jaffa
Having set out on a crusade the previous year, Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen signs an agreement with Sultan al-Kamil. He regains Bethlehem, Nazareth, Sidon, and Jerusalem. Peace is established for several years, and Frederick II crowns himself King of Jerusalem. However, his lack of piety is not appreciated, and he soon returns to his lands. Jerusalem will be reconquered by the Turks in 1244.
June 6, 1249 – Saint Louis Takes Damietta
Leading the Seventh Crusade, King Louis IX of France captures the city of Damietta. Encouraged by this victory, the king’s army continues its campaign and deals a crushing defeat to the Mamluks at Mansoura. Unfortunately, the army cannot withstand the plague. The Muslims take advantage and capture the survivors, including the king.
April 6, 1250 – Saint Louis is Taken Prisoner
After the capture of Damietta, Louis IX and his army face a plague epidemic. Weakened, they are forced to surrender. To secure his freedom, Saint Louis pays a ransom of 400,000 pounds to Sultan Turanshah. He also returns Damietta. The French king is released on May 6, 1250.
September 7, 1254 – Saint Louis Returns from the Crusade
Having left his kingdom for six years, Louis IX returns from the Holy Land disappointed by his failures during the Seventh Crusade. Reforming his kingdom becomes his new goal before he decides to embark on another crusade in 1270.
July 25, 1261 – Michael VIII Palaiologos Recaptures Constantinople from the Crusaders
Now the capital of the Latin Empire founded by the crusaders, Constantinople falls to the army of Michael VIII Palaiologos. After years of devastation and plundering, the city is reduced to ruins with little value. It is difficult to restore the former grandeur and power of the Byzantine capital. Michael VIII will be proclaimed emperor and found the Palaiologos dynasty, but he cannot stop the city’s decline.
August 25, 1270 – Saint Louis Dies in Tunis
At the age of 56, Louis IX sets out on a crusade again, this time to Tunis. This eighth and final crusade is marked by the death of the French king, who succumbs to illness after only a few weeks.
May 28, 1291 – The Crusaders Lose the Holy Land
The Crusaders’ possessions in the Holy Land definitively fall into the hands of the Muslims with the fall of Saint-Jean-d’Acre (today Akko, a fishing port in Israel). The city had been taken by the Crusaders and handed over to King Baldwin I in 1104. After a long siege imposed by the Mamluks under the leadership of al-Ashraf Khalil, a part of the northern wall gave way, and the city was conquered despite the resistance of the Templars and the Knights Hospitaller.
