Damnatio ad bestias is a Latin term that translates to “condemnation to beasts.” It refers to a form of execution in ancient Rome where individuals, often criminals or prisoners of war, were sentenced to be killed by wild animals in public arenas. The condemned person would be exposed to wild animals, such as lions, bears, or other carnivores, in a public amphitheater. The execution was often part of the entertainment during gladiatorial games, and the condemned had little chance of survival.
Damnatio ad bestias: Origins and History
The first recorded use of damnatio ad bestias was in 167 BC, when the Roman general Aemilius Paullus ordered that the deserters of the enemy army of Perseus of Macedonia be crushed by elephants, a practice that originated in India. In 146 BC, Scipio Aemilianus included a damnatio ad bestias in the games he organized for his triumph after the destruction of Carthage. In this case, the victims were also enemy deserters, but the execution was presented as a public show.
The damnatio ad bestias became more frequent and elaborate during the imperial period, especially under the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Augustus, the first emperor, boasted that he had killed about 3,500 people by this method. Nero, infamous for his persecution of Christians, used the damnatio ad bestias to punish those who were accused of setting fire to Rome in 64 AD. According to the historian Tacitus, some of the Christians were dressed as animals and hunted by dogs, while others were crucified and burned alive.
The damnatio ad bestias continued to be used until the 4th century AD, when Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire. The emperor Constantine I banned the practice in 325 AD, as part of his reforms to protect human dignity and animal welfare. However, some sources suggest that the damnatio ad bestias was still performed in some provinces until the 6th century AD.
— Did you know?
Notable figures killed through damnatio ad bestias:
- Ignatius of Antioch (AD 107, Rome) – Source.
- Glyceria (AD 141, Trayanopolis, Thrace) – Source.
- Blandina (AD 177, Lyon)
- Perpetua and Felicity, Saturus and others (AD 203, presumably Carthage)
- Germanicus, second half of the 2nd century, Smyrna, (mentioned in the Martyrdom of Polycarp of Smyrna)
- Euphemia, (AD 303, probably at Chalcedon)
- Marciana of Mauretania, (AD 303, Caesarea, Mauretania Caesariensis)
- Agapius (AD 306, Caesarea)
Description and Purpose
The damnatio ad bestias was not only a form of punishment but also a form of entertainment and propaganda. The condemned person was often subjected to various humiliations and tortures before being thrown to the beasts. For example, they could be whipped, burned, mutilated, or forced to reenact mythological scenes of animal attacks, such as Prometheus, whose liver was eaten by an eagle, or Orpheus, who was torn apart by maenads.
The choice of the animals used for the damnatio ad bestias depended on the availability, the cost, and the symbolic meaning of the beasts. Lions, tigers, and bears were the most common and impressive, but other animals such as wolves, leopards, hyenas, boars, lynxes, dogs, and even elephants were also used. The animals were often starved or enraged before the execution to ensure a more violent and bloody outcome.
The purpose of the damnatio ad bestias was to demonstrate the power and justice of Rome, as well as to provide a moral lesson and a warning to the spectators. The victims of the damnatio ad bestias were usually those who had committed crimes against the state, the emperor, or the gods, such as traitors, rebels, deserters, pirates, robbers, arsonists, murderers, adulterers, blasphemers, or heretics. They lost out on a proper funeral and a peaceful afterlife as a result of the beasts eating them, and they also became associated with the brutality and barbarism of the animals.
‘Survivors‘ of Damnatio ad bestias
Far longer is the list of names of Christian saints who, according to the narratives of their hagiographies, were thrown to wild beasts but were spared by them—just like the Old Testament prophet Daniel.
It should be noted that while the miraculous rescue of martyrs thrown to lions (“beasts released upon the saint, approaching him, would fall before him and lick his feet”) is a quite common plot in Christian hagiography, these saints, after their salvation, typically met their fate almost immediately through some other form of execution—such as beheading with a sword.
- Apostle Paul (according to apocrypha and medieval legends based on his phrase: “I have fought with beasts at Ephesus” (1 Cor. 15:32)
- Anicetus and Photius (under Diocletian)
- Archelaus (under Diocletian)
- Blandina—a Christian martyr, a slave (177 AD, Lyon). Thrown together with other Christians. The relief of these 48 Christian martyrs rest in Lyon.
- Saint Valentine (circa 269 AD)
- Saint Vitus (303 AD)
- Venantius of Camerino (circa 250 AD)
- Great Martyr Eustathius (114 AD, Rome)
- Martyr Eleutherius (under Hadrian, Rome)
- Cyril of Nicomedia (303 AD)
- Mammes of Caesarea (in one version of the legend) (under Aurelian)
- Priest Martyr Mocius (312 AD, Emesa in Phoenicia)
- Potitus (under Antoninus)
- Tatiana of Rome (226 or 235 AD)
- Trophimus, Sabbatius, and Dorymedont (under Probus, Antioch)
- Saint Thecla (Antioch, Paul the Apostle) The lion became her attribute in iconography.
- Theodosia of Tyre (307 AD)
- Saint Januarius, Deacon Faustus of Pozzuoli, and Lector Desiderius (all three from Benevento), Deacon Sosius of Miseno, and laymen Eutychius and Acutius (circa 305 AD, Pozzuoli, Flavian Amphitheatre)
What Was the Role of the Bestiarii in Damnatio Ad Bestias?
The bestiarii were the gladiators who fought against the beasts in the damnatio ad bestias. They had different roles and motivations, depending on the type of bestiarii they were.
- The condemned: These were the bestiarii who were sentenced to death by animals as a punishment for their crimes or their status as enemies of Rome. They were usually unarmed and defenseless and they had no chance of survival. They were meant to suffer and die as a spectacle for the public and a warning for others.
- The volunteers: These were the bestiarii who chose to fight against the beasts as a profession or a hobby. They were trained and armed, and sometimes they fought in teams. They were motivated by money, fame, or a personal challenge. The general public admired them for their bravery and skill.
- The performers: These were the bestiarii who reenacted mythological scenes or historical events involving animal attacks. They wore costumes, used props, and sometimes staged fake deaths. The game’s organizers hired them to entertain and inform the public.
- The emperors: These were the bestiarii, who were the rulers of Rome, who occasionally participated in the damnatio ad bestias to show off their power and prowess. They usually fought against tame or wounded animals, and they always emerged victorious. The general public praised them for their magnificence and generosity.
— Did you know?
The training also depended on the type and purpose of the animals. Some animals, such as lions, tigers, and bears, were trained to kill the condemned person quickly and efficiently, while others, such as dogs, hyenas, and boars, were trained to prolong the suffering and the spectacle. Some animals, such as elephants, were trained to perform tricks, such as dancing, playing musical instruments, or throwing balls, to amuse the audience. Some animals, such as leopards, were trained to wear costumes and reenact mythological scenes, such as the rape of Europa or the abduction of Ganymede.
Conclusion
The damnatio ad bestias was one of the most cruel and spectacular forms of punishment in ancient Rome. It was a way of disposing of the enemies and criminals of the empire while also entertaining and educating the public. The damnatio ad bestias reflected the values and beliefs of Roman society, as well as the tastes and preferences of the emperors and the masses. It was a manifestation of the glory and brutality of Rome, a civilization that conquered and civilized the world but also oppressed and exploited it.
