From the opium-laden rituals of the ancient Sumerians and Assyrians to the ceremonial drinking of alcohol by the ancient Egyptians, our ancestors have dabbled in a wide variety of psychoactive substances. As we traverse continents and eras, we’ll explore historical pharmacopoeias and observe how the ancient Chinese and Greeks utilized ephedra, the Mediterranean fascination with mandrake, and the emergence of the poppy in the Middle East.
Opium (Ancient Sumerians and Assyrians)
Used for its pain-relieving properties, opium was cultivated by the Sumerians around 3400 BCE and consumed in various forms.
Opium is a narcotic drug obtained from the unripe seedpods of the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum. The ancient Sumerians and Assyrians used opium as a medicine and a ritual substance. The Sumerians called it Hul Gil, the “joy plant,” and passed it on to the Assyrians, Babylonians, and Egyptians. Opium has been used to treat pain, insomnia, cough, diarrhea, and other ailments. It was also burned as incense or mixed with wine to induce visions and communicate with the gods.
Alcohol (Ancient Egyptians)
Beer and wine were common beverages in ancient Egypt, consumed not only for social and religious reasons but also as a dietary staple.
Alcohol is a psychoactive substance that yeast produces by fermenting sugars. The ancient Egyptians produced beer and wine from barley, wheat, grapes, and other fruits, and they consumed a lot of alcohol. Beer was a staple drink for the lower classes, while wine was reserved for the elite and religious ceremonies. Alcohol was used as a social lubricant, a source of nutrition, a medicine, and an offering to the gods. The ancient Egyptians had a god of wine, Osiris, and a goddess of beer, Tenenit.
Marijuana (Ancient Chinese)
Cannabis was used in traditional Chinese medicine for medicinal and ritualistic purposes, including pain relief and anesthesia.
Marijuana is the term for the dried flowers and leaves of the cannabis plant Cannabis sativa, which contains psychoactive compounds such as THC and CBD. The ancient Chinese used marijuana as a medicine, fiber, and ritual substance. The Chinese emperor Shennong, who lived around 2700 BC, is credited with discovering the medicinal effects of marijuana, which he used to treat gout, rheumatism, malaria, and other diseases. Marijuana was also used to make paper, rope, clothing, and oil. The Chinese also burned marijuana as incense and mixed it with wine to communicate with spirits.
Hallucinogenic Mushrooms (Ancient Mesoamerican Cultures)
Various indigenous cultures in Mesoamerica, such as the Aztecs and Maya, consumed hallucinogenic mushrooms in religious ceremonies.
Hallucinogenic mushrooms, harboring substances like psilocybin, psilocin, and muscimol, have a rich history in ancient Mesoamerican cultures. The Olmec, Maya, and Aztec civilizations utilized these mushrooms as entheogens, inducing spiritual experiences. Referred to as teonanacatl, translating to “flesh of the gods,” by the Aztecs, these fungi played a pivotal role in religious ceremonies, healing rituals, and divination practices. They were thought to facilitate communication with the gods, ancestors, and the spirit world.
Coca Leaves (Ancient Andean Cultures)
Chewing coca leaves for their stimulant effects was a practice among indigenous people in the Andes, including the Inca civilization.
Coca leaves are the leaves of the coca plant, Erythroxylum coca, which contains the stimulant alkaloid cocaine. Ancient Andean cultures, such as the Inca, used coca leaves as food, medicine, and a sacred substance. Coca leaves were chewed or brewed into tea to alleviate hunger, fatigue, altitude sickness, and pain. Coca leaves were also used as offerings to the earth goddess Pachamama, the sun god Inti, and the mountain spirit Apus. Coca leaves were considered a gift from the gods and a symbol of life and fertility.
Henbane (Ancient Greeks and Romans)
Used in the ancient Mediterranean for medicinal and ritualistic purposes, henbane contains tropane alkaloids with hallucinogenic effects.
Henbane is a plant of the nightshade family Hyoscyamus niger, which contains the hallucinogenic alkaloids hyoscyamine and scopolamine. The ancient Greeks and Romans used henbane as a medicine, poison, and magical substance. It was also used to treat insomnia, epilepsy, and mental disorders and to poison enemies, drive them mad, and cause death. The plant was associated with the underworld and the god of sleep, Hypnos, while witches and wizards used henbane to create flying ointments and to induce visions.
Ephedra (Ancient Chinese and Greeks)
Ephedra, containing the stimulant ephedrine, was used in traditional Chinese medicine and by the ancient Greeks for respiratory conditions.
Ephedra is a genus of plants containing the stimulant alkaloid ephedrine. The ancient Chinese and Greeks used ephedra as a medicine and performance enhancer. It was used therapeutically for asthma, bronchitis, colds, and allergies. It was also effective in increasing energy, stamina, and alertness. Athletes and warriors therefore used ephedra to increase their physical strength and fight fatigue. It is called Ma Huang in Chinese and Sphygmia in Greek.
Mandrake (Ancient Mediterranean)
Mandrake, with hallucinogenic alkaloids, was used for its analgesic properties and associated with magic and fertility rituals.
Mandrake is a plant of the nightshade family, Mandragora officinarum, which contains the hallucinogenic alkaloids atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine. The ancient Mediterranean cultures, including the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, used mandrake as a drug, a narcotic, and a magical substance. Mandrake was used to treat pain, insomnia, depression, and infertility. It was also used as an anesthetic, a sedative, and a hallucinogen. Mandrake was believed to have supernatural powers and was associated with love, fertility, and death. Witches and sorcerers also used mandrake to conjure spirits and cast spells.
Hashish (Ancient Middle East)
Derived from the Cannabis plant, hashish has been used in the Middle East for recreational and ritualistic purposes.
Hashish is a resinous substance derived from the cannabis plant, Cannabis sativa, which contains psychoactive compounds such as THC and CBD. The Persians, Arabs, and Turks of the ancient Middle East used hashish as a medicine, a stimulant, and a spiritual substance. Hashish was used to treat pain, nausea, depression, and epilepsy. It was also used to enhance mood, creativity, and sociability. Hashish was also used as a sacrament and a means of communion with God.
Betel Nut (Ancient Southeast Asia)
Chewing the betel nut, a mild stimulant, was a common practice in Southeast Asia for its stimulating effects.
The betel nut, a seed derived from the areca palm (Areca catechu), contains the stimulant alkaloid arecoline. Betel nuts served as food, medicine, and a social substance in ancient Southeast Asian cultures like those of the Indians, Malays, and Filipinos. Its applications included the treatment of toothache, stomachache, headache, and worm infections. Additionally, it served as a nutritional source, providing energy and acting as an appetite suppressant. Beyond its medicinal and dietary roles, the betel nut symbolized hospitality, friendship, and respect. Typically, it was chewed alongside betel pepper leaf, lime, and spices, forming a quid that imparted a red stain to the teeth.