The term “Ekklesia” or Ecclesia (Ancient Greek: ἐκκλησία) in Ancient Greece refers to the popular assembly, the highest organ of state authority. In Athens in the 5th century BCE, “ekklesia” denoted the supreme organ of the state, exercising legislative, executive, and judicial powers. Any male Athenian citizen wPnyx ho had reached the age of 20 could participate in the activities of the ekklesia. Additionally, other supreme organs in democratic poleis were also referred to as “ekklesia.” In oligarchic poleis, the powers of the ekklesia were restricted by other state organs such as councils and boards. In some states, popular assemblies had specific names like “apella” in Sparta, “agora” in Delphi and the cities of Thessaly, and “alia” in Argos, Epidaurus, Gela, and Acragas.
Powers of the Ecclesia
The authorities of the ekklesia included the following matters and responsibilities:
Facilitating Legislative Activities
In the first assembly each year, the presiding officers proposed whether all laws should remain unchanged or if changes were necessary. To provide clarity, the thesmothetes (a junior archon) had to gather conflicting laws and outdated but not formally annulled decrees and present them to the people. Additionally, everyone was allowed to make suggestions. Newly proposed laws (every repealed law had to be replaced by a new one) were publicly displayed for general knowledge.
The people elected defenders of the old laws, and in the third assembly, nomothetai (νομοθέται) were elected from the current year’s heliasts, before whom a formal process of the old and new laws took place. The first is defended by synegors (professional lawyers or defense attorneys), and the second by the one who proposed it.
The decision belonged to the nomothetai under the presidency of the thesmothetes, but if it favored the new law, similar to a psēphisma, it could be subject to graphe paranomon (a legal action), and its approval, as well as rejection, depended on the judges. The entire legal proceeding was called ἐπιχειροτονία νόμων. In later times, the people often bypassed this strict form and replaced laws with their own decrees.
Election of Officials
Since the election took place through χειροτονία (ordination, vote by show of hands), not by lot, according to the democratic institutions of Cleisthenes, elections were retained for those positions that required special abilities and guarantees regarding status—such as military and financial positions and some others. The elective assemblies, the timing of which cannot be precisely determined, are called magistrates (ἀρχαιρεσίαι). They were presided over by 9 archons. Candidates were called σπουδάρχαι, seeking office. Officials could be removed, and therefore, in the first assembly of each prytany, archons posed the question of whether the officials should be retained in their positions or replaced.
Ostracism Against Individuals
The act of ostracism in ancient Athens was not perceived as a punitive measure, and indeed, it had no detrimental consequences for the honor or property of the banished individual. Before the commencement of the seventh prytany, the assembly raised the question of whether it was necessary to apply this measure to specific individuals, typically for political reasons. If the answer was affirmative, anyone desiring the exile of someone had to write their name in the assembly on the agora. Those who accumulated 6,000 votes against them had to leave the city for 10 years initially, and later for 5 years, with the possibility of return upon the decision of the people. The last figure banished through ostracism was Hyperbolus in 417 BCE.
Judicial Duties
The people had judicial duties only in exceptional cases concerning those pursued through isangelia (public accusation of a statesman of crimes or acts that threaten the security of the state in Attic justice), although in most instances, the final decision belonged to the court. When the people pronounced a verdict, it only had a preliminary significance and, according to the law, did not influence the court’s judgment. Judges made decisions regarding accusations made against officials but presented them to the assembly through probol (a preliminary accusation).
Supremacy in State Affairs
According to established laws, the people had the ultimate decision-making power in all state matters, such as war and peace, alliances, and treaties. The authority of ambassadors emanated from the people. Returning envoys, along with ambassadors from foreign states, were received in the popular assembly after appearing before the council. The expenditure of public funds and changes in taxes and duties depended on the decisions of the people. In a similar vein, people themselves discussed issues relating to religion, such as the adoption of new cults. Additionally, alongside other corporations, the people bestowed honors and rights upon individuals, such as crowns, a seat in the prytaneum, and so forth. Finally, the people granted foreigners the right to citizenship.
Principles of Operation
The Athenian Ecclesia was the assembly of the entire people, citizens aged 20 and above (ἀγοραί represented gatherings of phylae and demes). In each prytany, there were four regular (νόμιμοι) assemblies; the first was called κυρία (in earlier times, it was likely the only one in the prytany); sometimes, all four were referred to as κύριαι. In special cases requiring immediate attention, citizens from villages were also summoned to an extraordinary assembly.
Each of the regular assemblies had a specific agenda. For the first, it included the impeachment or accusatio of officials, charges against state criminals, announcements of confiscated properties, and claims presented in court for inheritances. The second involved petitions to the people and proposals for pardons. The third dealt with negotiations with foreign states, and the fourth, finally, addressed religious and general public affairs. Additionally, the presiding officer had to announce the assembly’s subjects in advance through posters.
Whether the assemblies occurred on the same day in all prytanies or on different days cannot be definitively stated. The assembly was convened by the epistates between prytanies, later between proedri (see boule); sometimes, especially in times of war, strategoi called the assembly. Invitations through heralds were only necessary for “extraordinary assemblies”.
The assembly took place in the past in the agora, later predominantly on the Pnyx (Speaker’s Tribune), and even later, commonly in the theater, occasionally in the Piraeus theater for special occasions. Upon entry, each person received a small tablet, for which they received a fee (“assembly fee”), initially one obol and later three obols. The exclusion of those without the right was overseen by six lexiarchoi and their assistants. Those arriving too late did not receive payment. Before the assembly’s commencement, a sacrifice and prayer were performed. Then, the presiding officer, who called the assembly, proposed the subject for discussion.
Voting and Oratory in the Athenian Assembly
First and foremost, voting took place regarding whether the people wanted to adopt the council’s resolution, which usually accompanied the proposal. This voting was called preliminary (or “show of hands” in Greek). Following these debates, anyone not subject to atimia could participate if they expressed support for further discussion of the issue.
The dokimasia (ascertaining the capacity of the citizens) of orators was limited to investigating whether the speaker possessed all civil rights. Official orators did not exist, and there was complete equality of freedom of speech (ἰσηγορία). However, it was natural that individuals distinguished for state wisdom and talent, often beloved by the people for their eloquence and the flattery of demagogues, engaged in oratory as a significant part of their lives.
Indeed, the popular assembly was the sole arena for the activities of statesmen. During their speeches, orators wore a wreath as a symbol of their inviolability. If they deviated from the subject of the speech or violated existing customs or laws, the presiding officer could remove them from the platform and fine them 50 drachmas. For more serious offenses, they could be referred to the council or the nearest popular assembly for punishment.
However, in later times, when demagogues set the tone, these resolutions were no longer enforced with the same rigor. Since the assembly was not bound by the council’s decision (probouleuma), any orator could make their own proposal, which could be directly opposed to the council’s resolution. This proposal was handed to the presiding officers during the assembly, and they decided whether to present it to the people for voting.
Moreover, one of the presiding officers, at least the epistates, could, contrary to the decision of the others, with the risk of facing “demonstration,” hinder the voting if the proposal was against the laws (as Socrates did in the trial of the strategoi, Plat. Apol. p. 32). Furthermore, anyone in the assembly could speak against the orator and, with an oath, declare that they wanted to bring the proposer to trial for the unlawfulness of the proposal (“lawbreaker”). Voting in favor of an unlawful proposal could, in certain cases, lead to atimia.
Voting and Decision-Making in the Athenian Assembly
Voting took place by raising hands. In personal matters, such as in court, it occurred through tablets or pebbles (ψη̃φοι), hence ψηφίζεσθαι, which was a term generally used to mean “to vote.” The decision was called a psephisma and was recorded in the archives, often inscribed on bronze or stone. The formula for the decisions can be seen from the following inscriptions:
“It was resolved by the council and the people: Kēkropis was presiding, Mnēsitheos was the secretary, Euphēthēs was in charge. Kallias proposed (made a proposal) to give, and so on.” (from OI. 86, 3. 434/433).
Sometimes the time is more precisely defined by adding the name of the archon, the prytany’s name, and its day. Indications of the prytany’s day or even the day of the month were always practiced in later times. After the completion of the affairs, the chairman dismissed the assembly through a herald. The assembly was postponed when matters were not concluded or if thunder and lightning or other “diosemia” (unusual meteorological phenomena interpreted as an omen or divine sign) hindered the continuation of the deliberation.