Daughter of King Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, Elizabeth I was Queen of England and Ireland from 1558 to 1603. She was the last representative of the Tudor dynasty. Sometimes nicknamed the “Virgin Queen,” she has long enjoyed a very positive image, being considered the greatest queen in English history and one of its greatest sovereigns. The Elizabethan era was an exceptionally brilliant period in English history, marked by intense artistic and literary activity. Elizabeth I’s reign also witnessed industrial and commercial expansion, with the creation of the London Stock Exchange (1566) and the foundation of numerous chartered companies, notably the East India Company.
Elizabeth I’s Difficult Accession to the Throne
Elizabeth did not ascend to the throne under the best conditions in 1558. Born in 1533 in Greenwich, she was the daughter of Anne Boleyn, Henry VIII’s second wife, who was ultimately executed on his orders. Her mother’s notorious reputation followed Elizabeth throughout her youth and much of her reign. She was not initially first in line for the throne; it was Edward VI, followed briefly by Lady Jane Grey (who reigned for just nine days), and then Mary I (Mary Tudor), daughter of Henry VIII and his first wife, Catherine of Aragon.
After a somber and studious childhood, Elizabeth also faced challenges during Mary I’s reign, including being implicated in Wyatt’s Rebellion in 1554. She was even imprisoned in the Tower of London for several weeks.
Nevertheless, she ascended the throne in 1558 and was crowned at Westminster on January 15, 1559. Her illegitimacy, her mother’s reputation, and suspicions regarding her involvement in the political plots of 1547-1558 meant that she was not universally accepted as queen at the start of her reign.
The Religious Question
Having outwardly displayed Catholicism under Mary Tudor, Elizabeth later established the Anglican Church. Debate remains regarding her exact role and motivations, but her pragmatism is evident. This led to the passage of the Act of Uniformity and the Act of Supremacy in 1559, later confirmed by the Thirty-Nine Articles in 1563. Through these measures, she imposed an oath of loyalty on bishops and became the “Supreme Governor of the Church.”
Anglicanism, however, did not gain unanimous acceptance. Catholics rejected it (Pope Pius V excommunicated her in 1570, and Catholics faced severe repression), especially in the context of tensions with Spain. Additionally, some Protestants, soon called “Puritans,” criticized her for not adopting a more radical Calvinism. Nevertheless, these ambiguities eased England’s religious transition.
- Act of Supremacy (1559): Re-established the monarch as the Supreme Governor of the Church of England.
- Act of Uniformity (1559): Mandated the use of the Book of Common Prayer and attendance at Anglican services.
- Middle Way: Elizabeth sought a moderate Protestant settlement to avoid alienating Catholic factions while ensuring loyalty to the crown.
Elizabeth and the Exercise of Power
Elizabeth’s style of governance was also characterized by pragmatism. She initially retained many of Mary Tudor’s counselors but removed clergy from key governmental roles, making her council a secular body. A core group formed around her principal advisor, the experienced Secretary of State William Cecil, and Elizabeth ruled with this Privy Council. This allowed her to focus on managing relations with Parliament.
Parliament was summoned less frequently under Elizabeth than under her predecessors but was more tightly controlled. While she relied on Parliament for religious reforms and during the conflict with Spain, she could also assert authority, even authoritarianism, when necessary. It was only towards the end of her reign that Parliament began to emerge as a credible opposition force.
The Problem of Mary Stuart
In the context of establishing the Anglican Church, Elizabeth faced a formidable rival in Mary Stuart. Initially a political threat during Elizabeth’s accession, their rivalry escalated when Catholics rallied behind the Scottish queen. Elizabeth cleverly maneuvered Scottish barons against Mary, forcing her to abdicate in favor of her son, James, in 1567. Mary fled to England, where Elizabeth had her imprisoned.
Even in captivity, Mary remained a significant threat. Supported by Catholic factions, especially after Elizabeth’s excommunication in 1570, Mary was suspected of numerous plots. Elizabeth endured this situation for many years but ultimately ordered Mary’s execution in 1587.
Elizabeth I’s International Policy
Elizabeth’s reign marked the true beginning of England’s maritime and colonial expansion, though she encountered obstacles, particularly from Spain.
Supporting Protestant rebels in the Spanish Netherlands heightened tensions. Conflicts in Ireland, a Catholic territory under English control, further strained relations. Elizabeth imposed religious reforms in Ireland from 1560, leading to revolts by the late 1570s.
Spain responded militarily, especially after Elizabeth openly supported the Dutch rebels with troops led by the Earl of Leicester. The famous episode of the Spanish Armada, defeated by the English fleet in 1588, masked the financial strain caused by Elizabeth’s numerous conflicts.
Despite these challenges, England began its overseas expansion. This was the era of Francis Drake’s explorations (in the 1580s), the creation of the East India Company (1600), and the colonization of North America, including the founding of Virginia in honor of the “Virgin Queen.” English mariners ventured to Russia, Africa, the Euphrates, and even the Mughal court in India.
The “Virgin Queen”
Much of Elizabeth’s myth revolves around her virginity, a narrative she actively cultivated. She never married or had children. Although rumors suggest she had lovers, such as Robert Dudley or Robert Devereux, she rejected prestigious marriage offers from suitors like Philip II of Spain, Ivan the Terrible, and Henry III of France.
Political considerations primarily drove her decision to remain unmarried, as marriage to a foreign king or nobleman could have threatened her authority. By the 1580s, it became clear she would not marry or bear an heir. In 1601, James VI of Scotland was designated as her successor.
Elizabeth I’s Reign: Cultural Golden Age
Elizabeth’s personality, governance style, and carefully crafted image helped establish her as a nearly mythical figure who ruled during an extraordinary era.
While celebrated as a great queen, Elizabeth faced criticism for her temper, authoritarian tendencies, indecisiveness, and some strategic mistakes, such as her involvement in the Dutch rebellion. Her reign ended with a financially strained country and increasing tensions with Parliament.
Nevertheless, the Elizabethan era witnessed remarkable artistic and cultural achievements, epitomized by Shakespeare. Economic progress, though hampered by war expenses, transformed society, advancing agriculture and maritime commerce to the benefit of the burgeoning bourgeoisie.
Elizabeth I died in 1603, marking the end of the Tudor dynasty. She was succeeded by James VI of Scotland, who became James I of England. Beyond the myth of the “Virgin Queen,” her reign remains a pivotal period in English history, marked by the establishment of the Anglican Church, maritime expansion, and the flourishing of English culture—a legacy that continues to captivate to this day.
Elizabeth’s reign saw a renaissance in English culture, with advancements in literature, music, and theater.
- William Shakespeare: Flourished under Elizabeth’s patronage, producing plays like Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, and A Midsummer Night’s Dream.
- Christopher Marlowe: Another leading playwright of the Elizabethan stage.
- Literature and Poetry: The works of Edmund Spenser (The Faerie Queene) celebrated Elizabeth as a symbol of national pride.
- Music: Composers such as Thomas Tallis and William Byrd contributed to a flourishing musical tradition.
Elizabeth herself was highly educated, fluent in Latin, French, Italian, and Greek, and actively supported the arts.
