Five Good Emperors: History and Timeline

The Nerva-Antonine Dynasty was a dynasty of the Ancient Roman Empire that consisted of seven emperors during the middle period of the Principate (AD 96 – 192): Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus, and Commodus. It refers to the reign of these emperors collectively.

The first five emperors of the Nerva-Antonine Dynasty are historically referred to as the “Five Good Emperors.” This term was coined by the humanist thinker Machiavelli in 1503 and later used by historian Edward Gibbon in his work “The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire” in 1776. The “Five Good Emperors” include Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. Their reigns marked the zenith of the Roman Empire, characterized by prosperity and peace that the empire would never achieve again.

The Background of Five Good Emperors

In the Nerva-Antonine dynasty, similar to the initial Julio-Claudian dynasty, the succession of the imperial throne occurred through a complex process, rather than a simple direct hereditary line.

The emperors of this dynasty, except for Nerva, had certain blood relationships (for example, Hadrian and Aurelius were relatives). However, they adopted a unique form by prioritizing the adoption of capable relatives over direct blood relatives for ascension to the throne. This has led many scholars to interpret that they prioritized ability over blood ties. Consequently, there is a tendency to criticize the fact that the meritocratic system was undermined when Emperor Aurelius passed the throne to his son Commodus.

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Nevertheless, today such views are considered to overly idealize the succession method of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty. The first five emperors until Aurelius simply couldn’t have male successors (Nerva was elderly, Trajan and Hadrian were homosexual, Antoninus had only daughters, and Lucius died young), so they had no choice but to place capable relatives on the throne. Aurelius was able to have a successor in Commodus, so he could choose an emperor without considering biological issues. Also, as mentioned before, while they were not directly related, except for the founding emperor Nerva, they were relatives, so the adoption of completely unrelated individuals as emperors occurred only between Nerva and Trajan.

Especially considering the close blood relationships from Antoninus to Commodus, some also consider dividing the dynasty into the Nerva-Trajan dynasty (Ulpian dynasty) and the Antonine dynasty.

Nerva-Trajan Dynasty

The Nerva-Trajan Dynasty includes three emperors, and it is named for the event of adoption between Nerva and Trajan. Hadrian, who belonged to the Ulpian gens through his mother (and to the Aelia gens through his father), succeeded Trajan, which is why this dynasty is also referred to as the Ulpian Dynasty.

Antonine Dynasty

The Antonine Dynasty encompasses four Roman emperors who ruled from 138 to 192. It is characterized by hereditary succession from the Aurelian family and their relatives in the Annia family. The Annian family is also related to the Ulpian family, creating a connection between the two.

In 138, Hadrian designated Antoninus Pius, his trusted ally, as the next emperor before passing away. Additionally, Antoninus was married to Faustina the Elder, who was related to Hadrian and Trajan (the great-great-granddaughter of Trajan’s sister and the great-great-grandniece of Hadrian’s cousin). Antoninus Pius nominated two successors: Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, his nephew through marriage, and Lucius Verus, the son of a prominent official. After Lucius Verus’ death, Marcus Aurelius ruled alone. He married his cousin, Faustina the Younger, the daughter of Antoninus.

Commodus, born to Marcus Aurelius and Faustina the Younger, had Antoninus as his maternal great-grandfather, and through the Welles family, which was the lineage of both his parents, he had connections to the families of Trajan and Hadrian. His sister, Lucilla, was married to Lucius Verus. Although Commodus had strong bloodline continuity, his tyrannical rule led to his assassination, ending the line of emperors from the Antonine or Nerva-Antonine dynasties.

Bloodline of the Post-Dynasty Nerva-Antonine Era

The bloodline of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty continued through Marcus Aurelius’s eldest daughter, Galeria Faustina, and her sister Cornificia (122/123–152/158), who was Commodus’s aunt. This ancestral line persisted by means of the union between Galeria’s offspring, Tiberius Claudius Severus Proculus (163–218, the progeny of Gnaeus Claudius Severus, 133–197), and Annia Faustina (165–218, the granddaughter of Cornificia through her daughter Ummidia Cornificia Faustina, 141–182). From their marital bond, they brought forth Annia Faustina (approximately 201–approximately 222).

Subsequently, Annia entered into matrimony with Elagabalus, a sovereign belonging to the Severan dynasty who also held the distinction of being the great-nephew of Julia Domna, the spouse of Septimius Severus. This marital union was strategically planned to ensure the continuity of the previous dynasty’s legacy. However, their union did not bear offspring. Prior to her marriage with Elagabalus, Annia had already become a mother through her prior union with Pomponius Bassus (175-221), bringing forth two children (Pomponius Bassus, 220-271, and Pomponia Ummidia, 219-275).

The continuation of her lineage can be traced as far back as the 8th century, marking a span of approximately 540 years since the conclusion of the Antonine dynasty. It’s worth noting that among the notable figures stemming from this lineage is the Roman Emperor Olybrius, who held his reign during the twilight years of the Western Roman Empire.

Characteristics of Five Good Emperors

Nerva

Born as the son of a consul, Marcus Cocceius Nerva, he belonged to the typical aristocratic elite who inherited the family’s leadership and became a senator in due course. Although the Cocceia gens and the Nerva lineage it encompassed had an ancient lineage dating back to the Republic, their renown was relatively modest until Nerva’s grandfather’s time, when they started to gain prominence on the public stage. The family gained influence during the Julio-Claudian dynasty, and Nerva, upon inheriting leadership, became a confidant of the emperor.

As the dynasty fell, Nerva adeptly supported the rebellion of his old friend, General Vespasian, utilizing clever political maneuvering. He continued to safeguard his family’s position during the ensuing Flavian dynasty. With the decline of the Flavian dynasty in his later years, Nerva used power struggles within the Senate to secure the imperial throne by outmaneuvering more influential contenders.

However, while Nerva excelled in political maneuvering, he did not possess exceptional talents or accomplishments in military expeditions or governance. Moreover, he lacked strong support from the forces that upheld the throne: the military, the Senate, and the populace. Not incompetent by any means, Nerva, as an emperor, had only average abilities and a fragile power base. He opted for methods like salary increases and tax reductions to garner loyalty from those around him.

Yet, these actions inevitably led to financial difficulties, and even with financial resources, his control over the military remained inadequate. Additionally, despite his advanced age, he was unfortunate to not have any offspring, which further compounded the lack of a strong male heir within his family. These circumstances proved to be setbacks for Nerva.

Feeling cornered, Nerva nominated his trusted confidant as his successor in a bid to maintain some semblance of influence. However, even this choice was overturned under pressure from the military. The military’s preference was for Trajan, a general with many achievements to his name, and Nerva was left with no authority whatsoever. After a short period following Trajan’s nomination as successor, Nerva died of illness, and his remains were interred in the Mausoleum of Augustus by Trajan. Nominal as it may seem, Trajan officially inherited the Nerva family’s leadership as an adopted heir (the Nerva-Trajan dynasty), marking the beginning of the Nerva-Trajan dynasty.

In the commemorative coins issued later by Trajan, both his biological father and his father-in-law (Nerva) were depicted, showcasing that while practically Trajan was the founder of the dynasty, the revered Nerva, his father-in-law, was held in esteem for the dynasty’s legitimacy.

Trajan

After the demise of Emperor Nerva, Marcus Ulpius Trajan rose to prominence as the successor to the throne and the head of the dynasty. He is known as the first emperor of provincial origin, although this signifies being the first individual born and raised in a province to ascend to the position. The Trajan family itself, however, hailed from an ancient Roman lineage rooted on the mainland. Within the Flavian dynasty, Trajan distinguished himself as a prominent military figure, earning the admiration of the imperial forces. With a solid foundation of military support, Trajan commenced a stable rule. His reign, much like his rise, was adorned with illustrious military achievements.

Three years into his reign, Trajan orchestrated an expedition to the Dacian Kingdom, a venture that the Flavian dynasty had previously attempted but failed. After several battles and negotiations, Trajan defeated King Decebalus of Dacia and incorporated the Dacian Kingdom into the Roman Empire as the province of “Dacia.”

Simultaneously, he extended his reach to the Eastern Nabataean Kingdom, assimilating it and forming the province of “Arabia Petraea.” In recognition of this series of accomplishments, the Senate bestowed upon him the title “Dacicus Maximus” (Great Victor Over the Dacian), furthering the territorial expansion of the Roman Empire. However, this was merely the beginning of Trajan’s conquests.

A few years later, after focusing on domestic governance for a while, Trajan once again began planning external campaigns. This time, his target was the Parthian Empire in the east. As Parthia invaded the disputed region of the Kingdom of Armenia, Trajan swiftly launched a military expedition. The two armies clashed within the borders of Armenia, and victory favored Trajan. He fully subjugated Armenia, annexing it as the province of “Armenia.”

The following year, Trajan shifted to an offensive stance and penetrated deep into southern Parthia, declaring the establishment of the province of “Mesopotamia” in the occupied territories. As the Parthian side began to falter, Trajan expanded his ambitions, aiming for the complete conquest of the Parthian Empire.

Ultimately, Trajan’s expedition reached as far as the Kingdom of Characene along the Arabian Sea. He organized the province of “Assyria” in the territory stretching from Mesopotamia to the frontlines. This grand expedition, often compared to Alexander the Great’s eastern campaign, was a monumental achievement. However, similar to Alexander, Trajan fell ill during the campaign and passed away on his journey back to Rome. Hadrian, Trajan’s nephew and his cousin’s son, succeeded to the throne since he had no male heir.

Hadrian

Trajan had a paternal aunt named Ulpia, who had a child named Publius Aelius Hadrianus Afer from her marriage to Senate member Publius Aelius Hadrianus Marullinus. This very child, the son of his cousin Hadrianus Afer, would go on to become none other than Hadrian.

Although Hadrianus Afer passed away during the Flavian dynasty, Hadrian played a supportive role for the emperor Trajan and established his presence within the dynasty as an imperial nephew. Accompanying Trajan in the Dacian Wars and the Parthian expedition, Hadrian was quick to step forward for the imperial succession as soon as Trajan, who didn’t have a son, passed away during a military campaign. By securing support within the dynasty, including Trajan’s wife, Empress Pompeia Plotina Claudia Phoebe Piso, Hadrian ensured his accession to the throne in a manner that upheld the Nerva-Trajan lineage.

Upon ascending the throne, Hadrian initiated a policy of territorial contraction, which contrasted with the expansive efforts of his great-uncle. This measure, while unsettling to the triumphant public, Senate, and military, reflected Hadrian’s pragmatic character, aiming for effective governance of a more manageable territory rather than reckless expansion.

He purged hardline generals from the military, negotiated a friendly peace with the Parthians by returning significant portions of conquered lands, and bolstered border defenses with formidable fortifications in newly restructured imperial territories like Dacia and Arabia Petraea, while also opting to maintain and fortify these regions due to their strategic significance (Hadrian’s Wall).

Furthermore, Hadrian dedicated himself to the development of his realm by thoroughly inspecting the provinces and investing heavily in the administration of the vast empire, making it a lifetime endeavor to reorganize the expansive territory.

However, such a seemingly passive rule garnered displeasure from his surroundings. Hadrian’s use of purges and repression to quell dissent only fueled animosity toward him. Additionally, like Nerva and Trajan, Hadrian remained childless (though due to his homosexuality), and this, coupled with power struggles within the dynasty, added to the complexity of his later years.

Ultimately, Hadrian chose his loyal minister Titus Aurelius Antoninus as his successor, albeit under conditional terms. One of these conditions was the nomination of Marcus Aurelius, the nephew of Antoninus’s wife, Faustina the Elder, as a co-successor. Faustina the Elder was Trajan’s great-niece and also a part of the dynasty.

Shortly after Antoninus Pius became his successor, Hadrian passed away. Those who held animosity towards him tried to tarnish his reputation, but Antoninus adamantly refused to comply with their wishes, preserving Hadrian’s legacy.

Antoninus Pius

Antoninus, the son of Senator Titus Aurelius Fulvius, was a prominent figure favored by Emperor Hadrian and counted among his influential advisors. When his political rival, Lucius Aelius, passed away, Antoninus was chosen as his successor. However, there were conditions attached to his ascension. He had to nominate Marcus Annius Cattilius, the nephew of his wife Faustina and the son of Lucius Aelius, as well as Lucius Verus, the orphaned son of Lucius Aelius, as his heirs.

Accepting this arrangement despite the loss of his own son, Antoninus became emperor and bestowed the titles of co-emperor and heir upon his nephew and his rival’s son. His aunt and uncle took in his nephew Cattilius during this time, who later went by the name Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.

Initially, Antoninus worked to defend Emperor Hadrian, who was facing the threat of posthumous dishonor, and secured his recognition as a deity in the Senate, following the customary practice for past emperors. This tale led the Senate to bestow upon him the title “Antoninus Pius” in honor of his compassionate character, a nickname by which he is more commonly known than his full name. His rule favored a governance approach that distanced itself from the military, similar to Hadrian.

However, in contrast to his predecessor, he never left the mainland, never traveling beyond it during his reign. As a result, he fostered deep trust with the Senate and demonstrated a strong hand in reforming Roman law on the domestic front. Nevertheless, his reign saw limited involvement in the defense of the empire, with minimal actions taken both in terms of offense and defense.

His stable rule spanned a significant period, rivaling the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius in terms of duration. Regarding his choice of successors, he excluded Lucius’s son from all official positions while favoring his nephew Aurelius, thus ensuring a clear path for succession within his wife’s family. Additionally, he orchestrated a marital union between his own daughter, Minor Faustina, and Aurelius, his nephew, ensuring the continuation of his lineage into the grandchild generation and solidifying a pattern of succession within the family. This paved the way for subsequent dynasties to be referred to as the Nerva-Antonine Dynasty, or simply the Antonine Dynasty. Once the succession matters were settled, Antoninus passed away due to illness, with his daughter and nephew at his side.

Marcus Aurelius

Trajan, as mentioned above, was childless and had no male relatives, and the male line of Trajan’s family ceased in his generation. However, the female line continued through his sister Ulpia Marciana, one of whose descendants was the family of Verus, a member of the Annia gens. The House of Verus played an important role as a member of the dynasty, and its authority reached its zenith when Antoninus Pius, the husband of Faustina the Elder, daughter of Marcus Annius Verus, succeeded to the imperial throne, and Marcus Aurelius, Faustina’s nephew (son of her brother), was named his successor. The authority of the emperor reached its zenith.

Aurelius, as a member of the dynasty, was nurtured among the nobles, being groomed as the heir to his uncle, who would later become an emperor. However, his inclination towards the Stoic philosophy, known for its strict ethical principles, during his early years served as a catalyst, shaping him into an upright individual who abhorred the decadence within the noble society. Some accounts even suggest he was hesitant about inheriting the throne, but preparations for his succession by his uncle were gradually put in place, including his marriage to his cousin, Faustina the Younger. Aurelius himself excelled in various disciplines, particularly Stoic philosophy, and exhibited remarkable administrative skills that earned him recognition within the Senate.

In contrast to Lucius Verus, another heir to the throne, Aurelius enjoyed the trust and support of his uncle and his surroundings. After his uncle’s death, he seamlessly assumed the throne. Being averse to conflicts, Aurelius chose a conciliatory approach, not only refraining from purging his political rival Lucius Verus but even marrying off his daughter, Lucilla, born from his marriage with young Faustina, to integrate her into the family fold. He governed with mercy toward the populace and maintained harmony with the Senate.

Through the Parthian campaigns and the Marcomannic Wars that ensued with the invasion of the barbarians, Aurelius garnered near-reverent support from the military. Especially during the Marcomannic Wars, which lasted for a remarkable 12 years with intermittent truces, he led the troops and personally cared for his soldiers on the front lines. Even his only drawback, the lack of military prowess, was mitigated by his resolute handling of the empire’s crises and his ability to win the support of his generals.

Though Aurelius and Faustina the Younger had seven sons, only one of them reached adulthood. However, Aurelius succeeded Vespasian (who successfully established direct hereditary succession through his son Titus) as the second ruler in a lineage that had experienced succession problems since the time of Augustus, who had primarily daughters.

The name of his son was Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus, who later became one of the tyrants in Roman history.

Lucius Verus

The orphaned Lucius Verus, son of Lucius Aelius, became the successor to Antoninus alongside Marcus Aurelius through the will of Hadrian. Antoninus disliked Verus, who was the son of his political adversary, and did not grant him any official position until he reached adulthood. This was in stark contrast to Marcus Aurelius, who had been appointed consul at a young age. Additionally, those around Verus did not consider him fit for the role of emperor due to his idle lifestyle. At the time of Antoninus’s death, even disinheritance was being contemplated for Verus. However, with the intervention of Marcus Aurelius, he became a co-emperor, and a political marriage was arranged with Marcus Aurelius’s daughter, Lucilla.

Nonetheless, Verus’s idleness persisted. Despite his involvement in the campaign against the Parthians and his presence at the battlefront, he achieved no notable triumphs. Amidst the Marcomannic Wars, Verus perished under mysterious circumstances while on a front-line visit with Aurelius. A hypothesis proposes that Aurelius might have orchestrated his demise due to disillusionment, though the actuality remains uncertain.

While his ineptitude is frequently underscored, it cannot be denied that Lucius Verus played a part in the inaugural joint governance of the Roman Empire, enabling concurrent military endeavors on two fronts—against the Parthians and the Germanic tribes.

Commodus

At an early stage, Marcus Aurelius was fortunate to have an heir, but only one of his children survived. He cherished his son deeply and personally educated him, even appointing him as consul at the age of 16. During the Marcomannic Wars, Marcus Aurelius always had his son by his side as a prince during military reviews. The generals also held deep loyalty to the young prince on the frontlines. With a lineage that connected him to his grandfather Antoninus and his father Aurelius, as well as to Hadrian and Trajan, the reign of Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus held great expectations.

Upon the death of his father, Commodus, who had garnered the loyalty of the generals on the field, took over the command of the Marcomannic Wars. The generals advised him to go on the offensive, but Commodus saw the advantageous opportunity of negotiating peace with the surrounding barbarian tribes while the empire was in a position of strength. The empire succeeded in bringing some barbarian groups under its control through peace agreements and continued attacking the non-compliant factions until they surrendered. After achieving withdrawal or submission from the barbarian tribes, he returned to the capital and initiated military budget cuts by reducing the oversized legions. This measure effectively controlled the ballooning military expenses, a success that lasted until the military reforms of the Severan Dynasty. Unlike later emperors who attempted the same, Commodus’s actions were well-received by the military, preventing any rebellion due to the deep respect he commanded.

Commodus succumbed to the decadence of the nobility as his reign advanced without incident, but it gradually became characterized by madness. He became obsessed with gladiatorial games, which led him to value only personal valor and bravery, neglecting the affairs of the state. He extravagantly hosted numerous grand gladiatorial events at the state’s expense and, at times, even participated in the games himself to showcase his courage in battles to the public. It is even said that he claimed to be the incarnation of Hercules, adorning himself with the skin of a beast and wielding Hercules’s club as he sat on his throne. Anyone who attempted to soothe the mad emperor, regardless of who they were, was executed by his own hand. Commodus, who started as a benevolent ruler like his father and grandfather, descended into a tyrant known to posterity.

However, even in the midst of his madness, he did not completely lose his compassion for the common people, and he continued to provide charity and entertainment until the end of his reign. The loyalty of the military remained unshaken as well. A characteristic of the imperial era was that challenging the emperor was nearly impossible with the Senate alone. Commodus’s reign was a prominent example of this, with his madness being evident throughout. His insanity continued until he was assassinated by a lover, and with his death, the Nerva-Antonine dynasty came to an end.

Five Good Emperors from Written Sources

The historical interpretation of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty as a period characterized by “emperors of meritocracy” was provided by the political philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli from early modern Italy. He stated:

From the study of this history we may also learn how a good government is to be established; for while all the emperors who succeeded to the throne by birth, except Titus, were bad, all were good who succeeded by adoption; as in the case of the five from Nerva to Marcus. But so soon as the empire fell once more to the heirs by birth, its ruin recommenced.

Discourses on Livy, 1503.

Machiavelli further argued that such selection of rulers based on merit also garnered support from the citizens:

Titus, Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus and Marcus had no need of praetorian cohorts, or of countless legions to guard them, but were defended by their own good lives, the good-will of their subjects, and the attachment of the senate.

Discourses on Livy, 1503.

Edward Gibbon, an 18th-century historian, asserted:

If a man were called to fix the period in the history of the world, during which the condition of the human race was most happy and prosperous, he would, without hesitation, name that which elapsed from the death of Domitian to the accession of Commodus.

The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 1776.

Gibbon viewed these five emperors as “Benevolent dictators” while heavily criticizing the later emperors as cruel and unworthy rulers.

The vast extent of the Roman empire was governed by absolute power, under the guidance of virtue and wisdom. The armies were restrained by the firm but gentle hand of four successive emperors, whose characters and authority commanded involuntary respect. The forms of the civil administration were carefully preserved by Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines, who delighted in the image of liberty, and were pleased with considering themselves as the accountable ministers of the laws. Such princes deserved the honor of restoring the republic, had the Romans of their days been capable of enjoying a rational freedom.

The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 1776.

This one-sided perspective was long established, but modern ancient history scholarship is increasingly challenging the views of Machiavelli and Gibbon. Furthermore, the assertion of Machiavelli about “merit-based adoption” is also questioned. In addition to the mentioned circumstances, historical figures like Tiberius, Nero, and Caligula, who were not direct successors but were adopted as heirs due to a shortage of successors, existed both before and after the Nerva-Antonine dynasty. Moreover, such “adopted emperors” did not necessarily bring about good governance.