The ephemeral political regime in France, the Second Republic, lasted from February 25, 1848, to December 2, 1852. Often compared to the French Revolution, as if it were a condensed version, it indeed brought down a monarchy (the July Monarchy) and paved the way for an empire (the Second Empire). The Second Republic can be divided into three main phases. The first encompasses the revolutionary period, from the February uprising to the June 1848 crisis.
The second corresponds to the time of the bourgeois and moderate Republic, whose history is interrupted by the Napoleonic coup d’état of 1851. Finally, the last months of the Second Republic paved the way for the establishment of the Second Empire at the end of 1852.
The Republican Idea Since the Revolution
The term “republican” is generally applied to those who advocate, for any valid system of government, the establishment of a republic where each citizen, equal to others, would theoretically have acquired the democratic right to express themselves and intervene in the proper functioning of the state.
In France, under various regimes established by the Revolution and throughout the French First Republic, the term “republican” is rarely used. It is not until the establishment of the Consulate, which is nothing but the final development of the First Republic, and the coup d’état of 18 Brumaire do they truly reveal among opponents the imperialistic ambitions of Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821), the first uncompromising republicans.
Concerned with preserving the rights of all citizens against the state, Republic supporters rebelled against the gradual concentration of powers in the hands of the executive, embodied by the all-powerful Emperor of the French, Napoleon I. Various attempts against the person of the head of state were organized, but it was not until the First Restoration and Napoleon’s Hundred Days that the Republicans actively participated in the proper functioning of France.
From the second return from exile of King Louis XVIII to France in 1815, republicans, due to their support for the Revolution and Bonapartist supporters, were persecuted during the “White Terror.” Despite the moderation advocated by the king, legal measures of persecution were even endorsed by certain legal institutions of the kingdom, and massacres were also committed in the south of France.
It is necessary to await the writing of historical works on the French Revolution by supporters of liberalism, such as Auguste Thiers, for republican theses to once again arouse enthusiasm among the student youth. The alliance between liberals in the Chamber and the most moderate proponents of republican ideas finally led, in July 1830, to the uprising of the Parisian population and, ultimately, to the fall of Charles X and his descendants.
Constitutional Monarchy and the Republicans
During the reign of Louis Philippe I, there was an increasingly deliberate and determined opposition from the republicans. Initially, these individuals played a decisive role in the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty in 1830. However, the vivid memory of the French Revolution and the Reign of Terror, marked by massacres and atrocities, did not favor the establishment of a republican regime at that time.
Liberals and Democrats, through numerous publications and flourishing newspapers, gradually expressed their support for the idea of establishing a republic in France. Republicans, often the target of justice, formed associations, sometimes secretive, fueling resistance through armed struggle or polemical writings. In industrialized cities, the concentration of the working population facilitated the spread of progressive ideas.
The government of Louis Philippe I, adopting increasingly conservative measures, justified its repression against the republicans by the necessity of restoring order and social peace in the face of numerous incidents and periodic revolts shaking the kingdom. Some university courses, such as Jules Michelet’s, were even prohibited.
Gradually gaining access to the corridors of power, Republican supporters opposed and challenged the government during the Banquets Campaign in 1847 and 1848, where speeches against the king multiplied. During parliamentary sessions, the most progressive deputies accused the government, both for its domestic policy and the corruption prevailing in ministerial cabinets.
On the evening of February 22, 1848, a riot erupted following the intervention of the National Guard during a progressive banquet. The next day, a shootout occurred in front of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on Boulevard des Capucines. The rebels subsequently invaded the king’s residence at the Tuileries Palace.
Faced with turmoil and popular uprisings, Louis Philippe I eventually capitulated. The republicans rejected the sovereign’s proposals for dynastic continuity during his abdication. At the Palais Bourbon, the seat of the Chamber, the rebels compelled the deputies to establish a provisional government at the helm of a republican state.
Prominent figures took to the podium, and in line with the innovative ideas of their most emblematic representatives, such as Alphonse de Lamartine, François Arago, Louis-Antoine Garnier-Pagès, and Alexandre Auguste Ledru-Rollin, they finally succeeded in establishing, for the second time in the history of France, a democratic republic.
The Second Republic Under Construction
During the February 1848 revolution, all political actors and leaders rallied for the republican cause. Faced with the empowerment of the previously more or less silent popular masses, the privileged classes of that time feared losing their political supremacy and their predominant role in the state and government of France. Gradually, the notables would support the emergence of a counter-revolutionary opposition.
When the provisional government was formed, it immediately decided to implement social measures and restore freedoms. However, memories of abuses during the initial revolution lingered, and the bourgeoisie was apprehensive about direct universal suffrage, which, during the French Revolution, had led to numerous troubles and disillusionments.
While the moderate liberal bourgeoisie feared that socialist republicans might dominate political life, the republicans, in turn, were concerned that the provincial population might censure the Parisian revolutionaries. Over time, moderate liberals would align with conservative monarchists to confront the very social demands of the proletarian masses. Nevertheless, liberals would advocate for the establishment of a moderately social republic for a long time.
In the confusion surrounding the 1848 revolution, a provisional government was established, situated at the Hôtel de Ville in Paris. With the proviso that the people would ratify it, it definitively proclaimed the republic under public pressure. This government, born out of the uprising, lacked homogeneity and authority since it lacked military forces to enforce its decisions against the insurgent people.
Its president, Jacques-Charles Dupont de l’Eure, had to contend with members with diverse aspirations, including liberal Republicans opposed to socialists and neo-Jacobins. Despite its divisions, the government embarked on an ambitious reform program. This included the restoration of freedom of the press and assembly, opening the National Guard to workers, abolishing slavery in the colonies, and abolishing the death penalty for political offenses. Alphonse de Lamartine, through his eloquence, succeeded in adopting the tricolor flag and rejecting the red flag.
What Was the Policy of the Second Republic?
- Implementation of universal suffrage (implicitly male suffrage).
- Abolition of the death penalty for political reasons.
- Abolition of slavery in French colonies.
- Establishment of national workshops to combat unemployment.
- Limitation of the workday to 10 hours.
- Guarantee of freedom of the press and assembly.
- Conquest of Algeria.
Social Demands and Conservative Reaction
The revolution exacerbated the economic crisis. Consequently, many reforms by the provisional government inevitably carried profound social implications. The right to work was proclaimed, and the duration of the workday was established. The provisional government even established national workshops, following socialist Louis Blanc’s idea, eventually increasing the volume of contributions.
In the face of the very social demands of the leading masses in Paris, populations in the provinces were wary. Economic problems and the collapse of the stock market further displeased the country. On April 23, 1848, universal suffrage elections led to the establishment of a Constituent Assembly, with a few conservative representatives that should not be underestimated.
The elections for the Constituent National Assembly took place on April 23 through universal suffrage and a list system. The results were generally favorable to moderate Republicans. Subsequently, the Constituent Assembly appointed an Executive Commission to succeed the provisional government, excluding the socialists. The Republic was again proclaimed on May 4, 1848.
On May 15, faced with the eruption of defiant rioters at the Palais-Bourbon, the Commission used force to restore order. Revolutionary leaders were arrested and imprisoned. The supplementary elections on June 4 strengthened conservative representatives in the Assembly. On this occasion, Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, the nephew of Napoleon I, was elected for the first time as a deputy.
Towards a Democratic Republic
The financial difficulties encountered led to the abolition of the national workshops in Paris, triggering a serious social revolt in Paris from June 23 to 26. This was harshly suppressed by General Louis-Eugène Cavaignac, with the intervention of the National Guard and the army. The Constituent Assembly, the guardian of the liberal social order, had indeed appointed the general to head the executive.
Following the elections, General Cavaignac formed his government with moderate Republicans, while Marrast presided over the Constituent Assembly. However, the repression against the Parisian insurgents left profound marks. Subsequently, municipal elections and elections for general councils paved the way for conservatives to govern the country.
Constitution of the Second Republic
After a compromise between monarchy nostalgics and conservative republicans, the Assembly finally succeeded in adopting a Constitution on November 4, 1848. This Constitution distinguished the executive power, exercised by the President of the Republic, from the legislative power, represented by a National Assembly with a single Chamber. The text thus reinstated the principle of a strict separation of powers.
The President of the Republic was involved in the foreign policy of the state. After approval by the Assembly, he negotiated and ratified treaties. He ensured the defense of the state, exercising control over the army, which he could not, however, command or dissolve. He initiated laws that he had to promulgate and ensured their execution without exercising a veto. However, he could propose a new deliberation of the law but could not dissolve the Assembly.
He presented bills to the National Assembly through his ministers, who countersigned his acts. These ministers were appointed and revocable at the president’s sole discretion, similar to most representatives of the judiciary. The National Assembly could not remove the president; instead, the High Court of Justice had to accuse him. Finally, the president had the discretionary power to grant pardons.
A unicameral assembly, the National Assembly, chosen by direct universal suffrage, used the list system and ensured the exercise of legislative power for a period of three years. It had the authority to declare war and authorize the ratification of treaties. Members of the National Assembly received financial indemnities. The National Assembly could not be dissolved or convened permanently.
Presidential Election
Upon the adoption of the Constitution, presidential elections were scheduled for December 10 and 11, 1848. These elections aligned seamlessly with the political ambitions of Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoleon III). Despite an attempt by the republican Thouret on October 9, 1848, to prohibit, through an amendment, the candidacy for the presidential election for all members of families who had ruled France, the amendment was withdrawn, and the exile law affecting the family of Prince Louis Napoleon was repealed.
Republican votes were divided among the candidacies of General Cavaignac (representing the moderate Republicans), Ledru-Rollin (the most staunch Republicans), Raspail (the revolutionary socialists), and Lamartine, who had lost all popularity. The popular sentiment, represented by the more conservative candidates, cast its votes in favor of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte.
The prince’s carefully crafted election program included among other things, amnesty for all political convicts, a reduction in taxes and military conscription, an ambitious policy of major public works to combat unemployment, measures in social welfare, and the modification of industrial legislation.
On December 20, 1848, Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected with nearly three-quarters of the votes. He enjoyed support from peasants, a portion of the working class, and the Party of Order, whose influential figures would hold the most crucial ministries.
Conflicts of Opinion and Power
The legislative assembly election on May 13, 1849, revealed a division of opinion into two major trends. On one hand, there was the party of order, encompassing legitimists, Orleanists, Bonapartists, and moderate Republicans. On the other hand, the socialist Democrats were a significant force.
With Odilon Barrot becoming the President of the Council, the more conservative elements took control of the government. Swiftly, through the repression of opposition protests, they sought to eliminate democratic opposition. Martial law was even declared in Paris and Lyon. With the support of the party of order, the president managed to pass three conservative laws concerning academic freedom, universal suffrage, freedom of the press, and freedom of association.
Louis Napoleon, since the crisis of June 1849, has pursued an increasingly individualistic policy, attempting to gain not only the favor of his own party but also the support of provincial populations and the benevolent obedience of the army. A significant Napoleonian party took shape. Meanwhile, the monarchists became more divided, with Bourbon and Orleans supporters unable to agree on a single pretender. The potential candidacy for the presidency of the Republic by Louis Philippe I’s son, Prince de Joinville, further complicated the situation, especially as it implied a regency by the Duchess of Orleans.
The numerous conflicts within the party of order led to increasingly frequent disagreements with the president. The theoretical impossibility of the Prince-President’s reelection fueled tensions after the legislative elections on May 13, 1849, as the majority of deputies openly identified as monarchists.
Continuing his political maneuvers, Louis Napoleon organized military reviews where nostalgic soldiers expressed their loyalty to the Bonaparte family. Faced with resistance from certain high-ranking officers, Louis Napoleon removed Generals Neumayer and Changarnier, while the Assembly passed a vote of no confidence in the government. The Assembly rejected a new ministry’s request for an increase in the presidential allowance.
Barriers to Democracy
The Falloux Law, enacted on March 15, 1850, aimed to counter the influence of the most democratic and anticlerical opponents. The clergy now controlled public education, the university was no longer a monopoly, and congregational schools were established. Following the overly conspicuous victory of socialist representatives in the April 1850 elections, a new electoral law, through clever provisions, diminishes the voting rights of the proletariat.
Confronted with the evident constitutional imbalance at the helm of the state, thwarted plots, and conservative dominance, Prince Louis Napoleon began to rally a significant portion of the French bourgeoisie around him, terrified by the specter of a new revolution.
The Assembly does not have the necessary quorum to adopt the legal amendment to the Constitution that would allow the prince to run for reelection. To discredit the conservative majority in the Assembly, Louis Napoleon shrewdly proposed modifying the electoral law. The refusal by the deputies, perceived as reactionary by the popular masses, now portrayed the prince as a supporter of democracy.
The Coup d’État of 1851
Louis Napoleon Bonaparte orchestrated a coup d’état to overthrow the republic on the night of December 1 to 2, 1851, marking the anniversary of Napoleon’s coronation and the victory at Austerlitz (Battle of Austerlitz).
While deputies were detained in Paris for the parliamentary session, the president dissolved the Legislative Assembly by decree, reinstated universal suffrage, and declared a state of siege. Some deputies and generals were arrested.
Two days after his coup d’état, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte organized a bloody repression against the insurgent workers. The army, which supported the coup, overturned barricades on the Parisian boulevards. The initial uprisings in Paris were quelled, leaving only the provinces in resistance. Many departments were placed under a state of siege, and the resistance of the peasants was brutally suppressed.
Skillfully rallying conservatives and the clergy to his cause, the new regime forcibly subdued pockets of resistance, not hesitating to deport opponents to the penal colony of Cayenne or to Algeria.
Popular Approval and the End of the Second Republic
A referendum, requested by the prince-president, required approval of the coup d’état. Propaganda was in full swing. Press freedom, regulated by decree, now depends solely on the Ministry of Police, and many Republican-leaning newspapers were forced to close, while others, controlled by supporters of a new empire, advocated for a yes vote in the referendum held on December 21 and 22.
Following the clear and massive yes vote in the referendum demanding that Louis Napoléon be given full powers to adopt a new Constitution, the prince convened his government, which, on January 14, 1852, completed its drafting. The new constitution, modeled on that of the year VIII, grants the president a ten-year mandate and now gives him the initiative in legislation.
On November 7, 1852, a sénatus-consulte restored the imperial dignity. Following the referendum held at the end of November 1852, the policies of Prince Louis Napoléon were endorsed. However, it was not until the night of December 1 to 2, 1852, exactly 47 years after the coronation of Emperor Napoleon I, that a sénatus-consulte definitively conferred the title of emperor on Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, who became Napoleon III. The Second Republic then gave way to the Second Empire.