Category: History

The Mosaic Map of Madaba (also known as the Madaba Mosaic or Madaba Map) is a fragmentarily preserved late antique to early Byzantine floor mosaic located in the modern Greek Orthodox Church of St. George in Madaba, Jordan. The Madaba Mosaic is the oldest surviving original cartographic depiction of Palestine on both sides of the Jordan River and Lower Egypt. It was created after 542, possibly during the reign of Emperor Justinian († 565).

The Madaba Map is renowned for its detailed representation of the city of Jerusalem, including walls, gates, main streets, and churches. Other cities, such as Ashkelon and Gaza, are similarly depicted in detail. The Madaba Map also contains some information about economic life: dates and balsam are cultivated in the Jericho area, and transport ships ply the waters of the Dead Sea. Pilgrimage tourism to Palestine was a significant economic factor in the 6th century, with the map featuring mostly biblical pilgrimage sites, supplemented by the stations of the overland roads that connected them.

A faithful stone copy of the Madaba Map is housed in the casting collection of the University of Göttingen. This article presents the details of the Madaba mosaic based on photos of this copy.

Discovery and Publication

Orthodox Arab Christians from al-Karak left their hometown in the 1880s due to a local conflict. They petitioned the Ottoman government in Istanbul to settle on the large tell of the Byzantine city of Madaba. The Ottoman authorities stipulated that churches could only be built where churches had stood centuries ago. Consequently, the late antique and Byzantine city of Madaba was specifically searched for the foundations of churches.

In 1884, the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem, Nikodemos I, was informed about the discovery of the mosaic floor during the construction of the Church of St. George; reactions are not documented. In 1897, Cleopas M. Koikylides, the librarian of this patriarchate, saw the mosaic in the now completed church in Madaba and recognized its significance. His publication drew the attention of the academic world to the mosaic map. Koikylides published a schematic drawing of the mosaic map. Later visitors did the same. In 1901, the German Association for the Exploration of Palestine commissioned the Jerusalem architect Paul Palmer to make an accurate reproduction. Palmer completed the colored drawing in 1902, and the association’s chairman, Hermann Guthe, published it as a colored plate in 1906. This set a new standard of quality. Palmer’s drawing served as the basis for literature on the Madaba Map for decades. Even Michael Avi-Yonah relied on it for his 1954 publication on the Madaba Map.

After the restoration of the Madaba Map in 1965, Herbert Donner and Heinz Cüppers published a volume in 1977 documenting the mosaic map with photos. This included the peripheral areas that were covered with cement during Palmer’s time and therefore were not drawn by him. There is no photographic panoramic view of the mosaic instead of Palmer’s drawing. Whichever angle one chooses, parts of the mosaic are always hidden by modern pillars.

Description

The Greek Orthodox Church of St. George in Madaba, completed in 1896, was built on the foundations of an early Byzantine predecessor church. The current spatial arrangement largely corresponds, except for the pillar placement, to the predecessor church, which was, however, larger. The mosaic was a rectangular picture field in front of the sanctuary. It originally measured about 24 m × 6 m and spanned the entire width of the church nave.

The Madaba Map originally depicted an area from Lebanon in the north to the Nile Delta in the south and from the Mediterranean in the west to the Arabian Desert in the east. The viewer looks eastward, from an imaginary location high above the Mediterranean, over Jerusalem and the Jordan, towards the east bank where Madaba is located. The mosaic map is not oriented to the north but to the east, aligning with the orientation of the church space.

The macro-topography, which is not easily discernible in the current fragmentary state, likely adhered to late antique table work conventions: mountain ranges depicted in brown hues, along with rivers, lakes, and coastlines (blue), structured the landscape. Numerous individual pieces of information were inserted into this basic structure. All natural geographic units are labeled in Greek script, mostly referring to the Old Testament.

In a combination of oblique perspective and bird’s-eye view, approximately 150 cities and villages are depicted and named on the mosaic map. The topography became quite busy due to this wealth of detail. A number of large city vignettes counteract this and facilitate orientation, especially in Jerusalem, but also in Neapolis, Pelusium, Charachmoba, Ashkelon, and Gaza, which are highlighted as centers of urban life. The tradition of city vignettes originates from late-antique city boards (compare the depiction in the Notitia dignitatum). With few exceptions, churches are marked with red roofs, palaces and residential buildings have yellowish-gray roofs, and squares are recognizable by their brown color.

A contiguous fragment of approximately 15.70 m × 5.60 m is preserved; this corresponds to about 25 percent of the original map. In addition, there are two fragments in the northern side aisle:

• Fragment A shows a location with a church, likely identifiable with ʿAkbara in Upper Galilee, attested to by the inscription ΑΓΒΑΡѠ[Ν] Agbarō[n].
• Fragment B, measuring approximately 1.25 m × 0.5 m, was first described by Eugène Germer-Durand in 1897. At his time, a part of the Mediterranean with a ship was still visible. In 1965, the fragment was smaller, showing only mountain ranges, two unidentifiable incomplete place names, and the blessing over the tribe of Zebulun (Gen 49:13 in the Septuagint version). While historically, this tribal territory is to be sought in Lower Galilee, the Byzantine mosaicist extended it to modern-day Lebanon.

The following division of the mosaic map into ten panels is based on the approach taken by Paul Palmer.

Top row:

• Panel I: Jordan
• Panel II: Confluence of the Jordan into the Dead Sea
• Panel III: Central Dead Sea and East Jordanian Highlands with Charachmoba (al-Karak)
• Panel IV: Southern end of the Dead Sea
• Panel V: (only parts of inscriptions)

Bottom row:

• Panel VI: Neapolis (Nablus) and surroundings
• Panel VII: Jerusalem and surroundings
• Panel VIII: Judean Desert with Philippus, Zacharias, and Abraham sanctuaries; Ashkelon
• Panel IX: Gaza and surroundings
• Panel X: Lower Egypt

Jerusalem and Surroundings (Panel VII)

The largest and most detailed element of the topographic depiction is “the holy city of Jerusalem” (ancient Greek Η ΑΓΙΑ ΠΟΛΙϹ ΙΕΡΟΥϹΑ[ΛΗΜ] hē hagía pólis Ierousa[lḗm]) at the center of the map. The city vignette of Jerusalem lay on the axis of the church. The site of Madaba, not preserved on the fragment, lay on the extension of this axis and directly in front of the bema. Jerusalem, as the center of the world, is also the focal point of the Madaba Map. In Jerusalem, it was not the Church of the Holy Sepulchre but the base of the column at the Damascus Gate that was chosen as the central point of the map.

Walls and Gates

Jerusalem is depicted within its city walls as an oval. From a fictional location high in the west, the viewer looks “perspectivally” down on Jerusalem; he sees the western wall from the outside and the eastern wall from the inside. The late antique Byzantine city wall of Jerusalem is depicted. According to widespread dating, it was completed in the 440s under Empress Aelia Eudocia. In contrast to the present-day city wall of Jerusalem, built in 1517 under Sultan Suleiman I, the Byzantine city wall also enclosed the southwest hill (Mount Zion) and the southeast hill (with the Pool of Siloam at its foot). However, it is also held that Jerusalem remained an open city in late antiquity. In this case, the Jerusalem vignette provides a terminus ante quem for the construction of the Byzantine city wall, as this wall is depicted on the mosaic.

Within the city walls of Jerusalem, there are 19 towers and several city gates. According to ancient and medieval tradition, the northern city gate is particularly emphasized. The northern gate, today’s Damascus Gate, was called the Gate of Stephen in Byzantine times. On the city side of the gate square stood a column, probably dating from the time of Emperor Hadrian, which is now interpreted as the “symbol of the center of the world” and therefore forms the geographic reference point of the Madaba Map. Continuing clockwise from the Damascus Gate, two smaller gates can be seen in the city wall: the Lion’s Gate (in Byzantine times: Eastern Gate) and the Golden Gate. The southern part of the city wall is no longer included in the mosaic fragment. On the western side of Jerusalem, i.e., seen from the nave of the church, there is an inconspicuous gate that corresponds to the present-day Jaffa Gate and was called the Gate of David in Byzantine times.

Streets

The main streets of Byzantine Jerusalem are highlighted in white. The oval of the city is horizontally divided by the late antique Cardo Maximus (= Suq Chan ez-Zeit) with covered colonnades on both sides of the street. The stairs of the Constantinian Church of the Holy Sepulchre interrupt the colonnades on the west side.

From the column square at the Damascus Gate, the Cardo secundus (= Tariq al-Wad) branches off, running through the inner-city valley in the east of Jerusalem. It also has covered colonnades, but they are only depicted on the eastern (rear) side of the street. The street from the Cardo secundus to the Lion’s Gate is now known as the beginning of the Via Dolorosa, an inner-city pilgrimage route that did not exist in early Byzantine times.

The late antique Decumanus is depicted without colonnades. It starts from the Jaffa Gate and appears to end at the intersection with the Cardo Maximus on the Madaba Map, which does not correspond to reality and is probably due to the mosaicist’s lack of space.

Churches and Pilgrimage Sites

In the center of the city is the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, which is seen from the nave of the church upside down. This resulted from the mosaicist wanting to depict the Cardo Maximus in all its splendor, and therefore with colonnades on both sides. The main street was, so to speak, “unfolded,” and the western colonnades are upside down. The staircase leading to the propylaeum of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre interrupts the western colonnades; therefore, the church is also upside down.

The most significant church in Christendom is depicted in detail. It features the characteristic arrangement of surrounding and overarching rooms typical of Constantinian church architecture. From the Cardo, the visitor entered the basilica through the propylaeum and atrium, depicted on the map with a roof and gable, and reached the Holy Sepulchre shrine in the center of the Constantinian Anastasis rotunda, depicted on the map with a yellow (gilded) dome.

On the southern side of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was a subsidiary building, poorly known from sources, interpreted as a baptistery. On the mosaic map, it appears as a house with a flat roof, two doors, and a window. West of it is a diamond-shaped square, perhaps the forum of the late antique city. North of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, three residential buildings near the Cardo Maximus are tentatively identified as the palace of the Jerusalem Patriarch, the house of the clerics, and the guesthouse of the Patriarchate.

Of the numerous churches and pilgrimage sites in Jerusalem, only the major and securely identified ones are mentioned below. They are located in the southern part of the city:

• The large basilica in the southeast, adjacent to the Cardo Maximus with its gable wall, is the Nea Theotokos Church, built under Emperor Justinian. It is distinguished by a yellow (gilded) double portal.
• The slightly smaller church next to it on the right, with a yellow (gilded) gable, is the Pilgrimage Church, which commemorated the healing of the man born blind by Jesus. In the courtyard in front of its entrance, the Pool of Siloam is depicted as a black, white-framed square. Along the long side of this pilgrimage church, the Pool of Siloam is followed by an outdoor facility. Max Küchler characterizes the entire complex in the 6th century as a “religious-secular healing spa.”
• The dominant church in the southwest of Jerusalem is the Basilica on Mount Zion. It bore the honorary title “Mother of all Churches” and, after the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, had the second-highest rank. This was because the upper room was located here, where, according to the Acts of the Apostles, the Pentecost event took place. On the Madaba Map, this large church is depicted with a yellow (gilded) double portal and gable field; to the south, it is followed (with a red roof) by the diaconicon, whose connection to the current pilgrimage sites of David’s Tomb and the Cenacle is unclear.

The Temple Mount in the southeast is depicted as disproportionately smaller, reflecting its lesser importance in the Byzantine city. A rectangle divided into three stripes at the southern end of the Cardo secundus on the Madaba Map is suggested by Herbert Donner as the great staircase that led from the south to the esplanade of the Temple Mount. Michael Avi-Yonah, on the other hand, considers this structure to be “the earliest preserved representation of the Western or Wailing Wall.”

Before the Gates of Jerusalem

Above the Jerusalem vignette, the Christian pilgrimage site of Gethsemane (ΓΗΘϹ[ΙΜΑΝΗ] Gēths[imanē]) is depicted as a small church building.

To the left of the Jerusalem vignette, the blessing over the tribe of Benjamin in Deuteronomy 33:12 is written in the Septuagint version. The Septuagint translator had not realized that “shoulders” in the Hebrew text was a poetic term for mountain slopes; the Madaba Map corrected the Septuagint to read: “Benjamin, God protects him, and he dwells between his mountains.”

As the only overland road, the road leading from the Damascus Gate to Neapolis (Nablus) is marked by white tesserae. Another road is recognizable by its milestones: Below (that is, west of) Jerusalem, the “fourth milestone” (ΤΟ ΤΕΤΑΡΤΟΝ tó tétarton) and the “ninth milestone” (ΤΟ ΕΝΝΑ tó enná) are listed, two stations (mansiones, mutationes) on the road from Jerusalem to Nikopolis and Diospolis (Lydda). Further south, also on this road, is the location of Bethoron (ΒΕΘѠΡΟΝ) with the “Ascent of Bethoron” mentioned multiple times in the Bible; this is perhaps indicated by the black tesserae beneath the place name.

East of Bethoron is “Modeïm (ΜѠΔΕΕΙΜ), now Moditha (ΜѠΔΙΘΑ), from where the Maccabees originated.” The formulation almost completely matches that of Eusebius of Caesarea’s Onomasticon. Then follows “Thamna (ΘΑΜΝΑ), where Judah sheared his sheep” (Genesis 38:12-13), and Akeldama (ΑΚΕΛΔΑΜΑ), the cemetery land purchased with the thirty pieces of silver by Judas Iscariot (Matthew 27:6-8), which, according to the Onomasticon of Eusebius, is located near Mount Zion.

Neapolis (Nablus) and Surroundings (Panel VI)

Between Jerusalem and Neapolis, there is a text field with red letters on a brown background as a montage of two blessings over the tribe of Joseph in the wording of the Septuagint:

• Genesis 49:25 (Jacob’s blessing): “Joseph, God has blessed you with the blessing of the earth, with the choicest gifts of the ancient mountains.”
• Deuteronomy 33:13 (Moses’ blessing): “And of Joseph he said: Blessed of the Lord is his land, with the precious things of heaven.”

Neapolis (ΝΕΑΠΟΛΙϹ) was marked by a large city vignette. It is damaged and discolored black from a fire. A segment of the city wall with several towers is preserved. From the East Gate, a colonnaded street leads to the West Gate and crosses the north-south road. To the left of the intersection of these two main axes stands a small building with an entrance flanked by columns, possibly a thermal bath, located roughly where the an-Naṣr Mosque stands today. An conspicuous semi-circular structure at the southern edge of the city was perhaps a nymphaeum. This interpretation is supported by the findings of modern excavations at ʿAin Qaryun. A large basilica may be the main church of the city, which was damaged in 484 during an attack by Samaritans.

The mountains of Gerizim and Ebal are depicted twice on the Madaba Map due to conflicting Jewish and Samaritan traditions. Eusebius followed the Jewish tradition in his Onomasticon and localized the two mountains east of Nablus, in the mountainous region northwest of Jericho. In the Madaba Map, they are entered as “Garizeim” (ΓΑΡΙΖΕΙΜ) and “Gebal” (ΓΕΒΑΛ). The mosaicist also considered the Samaritan local tradition: To the right of the city vignette of Neapolis is the “Mount Gobel” (ΤΟΥΡ ΓѠΒΗΛ tour Gōbēl) with Jacob’s Well at its foot, and the “Mount Garizin” (ΤΟΥΡ ΓΑΡΙΖΙΝ tour Garizin) a bit further west.

Jericho and the Jordan Valley (Panels I, II, VI)

A particularly well-preserved segment of the Madaba Map shows the lower Jordan Valley with the large oasis of Jericho (ΙΕΡΙΧϹ Ierichō) and several Christian pilgrimage sites. The depiction is interspersed with depictions of animals and plants. For example, on the eastern bank, there is a Nubian ibex being chased by a (made unrecognizable by iconoclasts) big cat, probably a leopard. Fish are swimming in the Jordan, one of which is swimming against the current to avoid entering the Dead Sea, where no fish can live due to the salt content.

Around Jericho, and occasionally at other locations, several date palms are depicted. On both sides of the Jordan, the mosaicist has depicted shrubs that, due to their egg-shaped leaflets, are tentatively identified as balsam (Commiphora gileadensis). Since ancient times, the production of dates and balsam has been the source of wealth in this region; balsam cultivation ended due to the decline of plantation agriculture in early Islamic times.

Jericho is not distinguished by a city vignette but is stylized as a medium-sized city with walls, five towers, and two gates; the roofs of three churches in the city center cannot be assigned to specific church buildings.

North of Jericho is a sanctuary of the Old Testament prophet Elisha (ΤΟ ΤΟΥ ΑΓΙΟΥ ΕΛΙϹΑΙΟΥ to tou hagiou Elisaiou). The Elisha Memorial Church is depicted as a dome-shaped building flanked by two towers.

In the northeast of Jericho, a biblical site is listed, which Eusebius’ Onomasticon designates as a pilgrimage site: “Gilgal (ΓΑΛΓΑΛΑ Galgala), also called Twelve Stones.” As known from the Onomasticon and pilgrimage reports, the twelve stones shown there were the ones set up by the Israelites according to the biblical account (Joshua 4:20) after crossing the Jordan; they are also included on the Madaba Map “in the form of a two-layered wall” in front of the basilica.

For easier crossing of the Jordan, a ferry service was established in the 6th century. On the Madaba Map, posts are driven into both banks and the middle of the river, connected by a rope. The small oarless boat is pulled across the Jordan by the ferryman on the rope. On the west bank, a military post on a watchtower with a ladder controls the ferry traffic.

At the confluence of the Jordan into the Dead Sea, since the beginning of pilgrimages in the 4th century, the site of the baptism of Jesus was located. Here, a baptism site on the east bank competed with one more conveniently accessible from Jerusalem and Bethlehem on the west bank. The Madaba Map shows that by the 6th century, the west bank tradition had largely prevailed. There, a church with red lettering is highlighted: “Bethabara (ΒΕΘΑΒΑΡΑ Bethabara), the (church) of the baptism of Saint John”. On the east bank, the mosaic indicates a cave or spring and the place Ainon (ΑΙΝѠΝ Ainōn) with the explanation “now there is the sycamore tree (Ο ϹΑΠϹΑΦΑϹ ho sapsaphãs).” This is an allusion to the Sapsas Monastery in the Wadi el-Ḥarrar, which preserved the memory of John the Baptist and the prophet Elijah. Monastic complexes are not depicted on the mosaic map.

Dead Sea (Panels II, III, IV)

On the preserved fragment of the Madaba Map, the Dead Sea vies with Jerusalem for prominence due to its size and central location. Its significance arises from the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, which were localized here, and its proximity to the baptism site of Jesus. Its label is found on the eastern shore between the two “foot-like” gaps; it is entirely taken from Eusebius’ Onomasticon and reads: “Salt or Asphalt Sea, also Dead Sea.”

The Lisan Peninsula is not depicted on the Madaba Map, which is usually explained as an inaccuracy of the mosaicist. However, it is also possible that the shallow southern part of the Dead Sea dried up during a pronounced dry period in the 560s and the Lisan Peninsula became the southern shore of the inland sea.

The Madaba Map attests to shipping on the Dead Sea, which was also known from antiquity. Two boats equipped with oars and sails are depicted. The two crew members of each boat have been made unrecognizable by iconoclasts. Below the mast, the cargo being transported is visible; it is interpreted as salt or grain. However, in one of the boats, the sail is wrapped around the yardarm. This is an absurd depiction, as the sail would have become non-functional. The mosaicist’s ignorance is remarkable because boat depictions were part of the common visual repertoire. How the boat representation could have appeared without damage from the iconoclasts is shown by the mosaic from Haditha, which is approximately contemporary.

Charachmoba (al-Karak) and the Eastern Jordan Land (Panel III)

The Madaba Map (photo) shows on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea the “hot springs of Callirhoe (ΘΕΡΜΑ ΚΑΛΛΙΡΟΕϹ therma Kallirhoes),” a bathing resort known to Flavius Josephus. By the 6th century, there was certainly no longer any luxury from the Hellenistic and early Roman periods. The mosaicist depicted architecturally framed springs and streams under palm trees. Since archaeological findings do not confirm this facility, it is also possible that it is not an early Byzantine bathing resort but only a reminiscence of the once-famous hot springs.

At the southern end of the Dead Sea, the medium-sized city of Zoora (ΖΟΟΡΑ), a Byzantine administrative center and bishopric, is visible. In the mountainous region behind it, the Madaba Map records a memorial church of Saint Lot (ΤΟ ΤΟΥ ΑΓΙΟΥ ΛѠΤ to tou hagiou Lōt), which is not mentioned in other sources.

At the top of the preserved map fragment is the city vignette of Charachmoba ([ΧΑΡ]ΑΧΜѠΒ[Α] [Char]achmōb[a]), “Palisade of Moab.” This is the Byzantine name for al-Karak. The Madaba Map is the only source for the Byzantine city, which was also a bishopric. The mosaicist had local knowledge. He depicted Charachmoba as a heavily fortified city with walls and towers. In the south, there is a city gate flanked by two towers, and to the east of it, there is a church recognizable by its red roof. Two colonnaded main streets running north–south are visible. One of them leads to a large church, probably the cathedral.

Below, to the west of al-Karak, the Madaba Map shows a triple-dome structure with the inscription “Cult House, or also Maioumas (ΒΕΤΟΜΑΡϹΕΑ Η Κ(ΑΙ) ΜΑΙΟΥΜΑϹ Betomarsea hē k(aì) Maioumas).” The inclusion of such a pagan establishment, which could only have a niche existence in the Byzantine Empire, on the Madaba Map is subject to controversy.

Bethlehem and the Judean Highlands (Panels VII and VIII)

Next to Jerusalem, Bethlehem (ΒΗΘΛΕΕΜ Bēthleem) was the second most important Christian pilgrimage site, conveniently accessible from Jerusalem. Reflecting its importance, the place name appears in red. However, the depiction of the Nativity Church is not particularly prominent. After the Constantinian basilica possibly burned down following the earthquake of 510, the present-day representative church was built during the reign of Justinian. Perhaps the Madaba Map depicts the state before the completion of the Justinianic construction.

South of Bethlehem lies the place Socho (ϹѠΧѠ Sōchō), followed by Bethzachar (ΒΕΘΖΑΧΑΡ) with the striking memorial church of Saint Zacharias: “A red-covered narthex or portico is attached to a basilica with three windows or gates in the front, and to this, a semicircular courtyard surrounded by a colonnaded hall,” the actual memorial building. Various biblical traditions about Zacharias have merged in the saint venerated here: the author of the Book of Zechariah, the high priest Zechariah killed by King Joash (2 Chronicles 24:20-22), and Zacharias, the father of John the Baptist.

Above the Zacharias sanctuary, the large inscription ΙΟΥΔΑ marks the region as the territory of the tribe of Judah. A little further east, one of the few New Testament memorial sites is entered on the Madaba Map. Symbols for a basilica and a well are visible with the explanation: “the (place) of Saint Philip, where, as they say, the eunuch of Candace was baptized.” As in other Byzantine sources, the high court official of Queen Candace, whom Philip baptized (Acts 8:26-40), became a eunuch named Candaces. The mosaic map is the only source for this basilica. In 1918, Andreas Evaristus Mader described the ruin of a mosque built on Byzantine foundations at ʿēn eḏ-ḏirwe, which he identified with the Philippus Church of the Madaba Map.

South of the Philippus sanctuary, the Madaba Map records an Abraham’s Church and next to it the sacred grove of Mamre; this tree is referred to in the caption as both a terebinth and an oak. In Late Antiquity, Mamre (Ramet el-Chalil) was a holy site visited by Jews, Christians, and pagans. Emperor Constantine claimed Mamre exclusively for Christian worship with his (rather modest in size) church building, which can be seen on the map. Nevertheless, the multi-religious practice there continued unabated.

The building to the right of the Mamre sacred grove already belongs to the city of Hebron, whose name as well as other structures on the mosaic map have not been preserved.

Cities on the Mediterranean Coast (Panels VIII and IX)

The lower border of the mosaic map is the Mediterranean Sea; however, it is only recognizable in small fragments. From north to south, the following coastal cities are visible on the map: the port of Ashdod, Ashkelon, and Gaza.

The fragment of the port of Ashdod (“Ashdod by the Sea, ΑΖѠΤΟϹ ΠΑΡΑΛΟ[Ϲ] Azōtos paralo[s]”) on the Madaba Map does not reveal the significant harbor facility and only allows the observation that there were several churches here.

Ashkelon

The city vignette of Ashkelon (ΑϹΚΑΛѠ[Ν] Askalō[n]), on the other hand, stands out for its richness of detail. The city was walled; the eastern gate is two stories high and flanked by towers. In front of it is a city-side square from which two colonnaded streets extend as the east-west axes of the city. Where the left of these two main streets intersects with the similarly colonnaded north-south street, there is an arched structure laid with yellowish tesserae, which is more aptly referred to as a tetrapylon than a triumphal arch. The structures in the angle between the major east-west streets are not clearly identifiable; Donner suggests that they could be fountain installations for which Byzantine Ashkelon was famous. There is a continuity in the city layout of Ashkelon from Late Antiquity to the Crusader-period city, in which the prominent eastern gate bore the name Jerusalem Gate.

Gaza

Gaza ([Γ]ΑΖΑ [G]aza) was a bishopric and a significant urban center in Byzantine times. “The mosaicist has taken into account the city’s reputation on our map and accordingly indicated the architectural splendor of the city in its vignette.” Only the southern half of the city vignette is preserved; its interpretation is complicated by the fact that the Byzantine city of Gaza has been modernized and there are hardly any archaeological investigations. Like Jerusalem, Gaza is depicted as a walled oval. The colonnaded Cardo runs east-west and corresponds approximately to the modern as-Suq al-kabīr street. At the intersection of the Cardo and Decumanus is a large open square in the city center, which is presumed to be in the area of modern Ḫān az-Zēt.

In the southwestern part of Gaza, the mosaicist depicted two large churches. The rhetorician Chorikios of Gaza wrote detailed descriptions in the 6th century of the Church of St. Sergius and the Church of St. Stephen in his hometown. However, since the city vignette is only partially preserved, the identification of the two church buildings as the Sergius and Stephen churches remains uncertain.

In the southeastern area of the city, a theater stands out. Zeev Weiss suggests construction in the Roman imperial period, while it was later incorporated into the city wall. He interprets the yellowish semicircle in the middle as the orchestra, the white and pale red semicircles surrounding it as the divided cavea, and the dark red stripes dividing the outer cavea into segments as stairs (scalariae).

Surroundings of Gaza

Northwest of Gaza is the city’s port with the partially preserved inscription “Maioumas, also Neapolis (called)” ([ΜΑΙΟΥΜΑϹ Η] ΚΑΙ ΝΕΑ[ΠΟ]ΛΙϹ [Maioumas he] kaì Neápolis). Southwest of Gaza, the mosaicist depicted a Church of Saint Victor (<Τ>Ο ΤΟΥ ΑΓΙΟΥ ΒΙΚΤΟΡΟϹ ò toũ hagíou Viktoros) with a red-roofed portico. According to the Pilgrim of Piacenza, the tomb of Saint Victor was located within Maioumas and not, as on the Madaba Map, between Maioumas and Gaza. South of Gaza, a group of villages is recorded, some of whose names are only attested by the Madaba Map. Here, the mosaicist likely had personal knowledge of the locations.

All stations of the coastal road connecting Palestine with Egypt are recorded on the Madaba Map from Gaza: Thauatha, Raphia, Betylion, “the border between Egypt and Palestine,” Rhinokorura, Ostrakine, Kasin, Pentaschoinon, Aphnaion, and Pelusium. From Betylion onwards, one station follows another along the Mediterranean coast.

Lower Egypt (Panel X)

Pelusium (ΤΟ ΠΗΛΟΥϹΙΝ Tò Pēlousin) is designated with a city vignette according to its importance as the “Gateway of Egypt.” Within the city walls, three colonnaded streets running east-west and three churches are visible. Among the other buildings, one has a yellow (= gilded) gable. The depiction of Pelusium cannot be related to the sparse archaeological findings and “remains a mystery.”

The representation of Lower Egypt differs from the rest of the Madaba Map. The places in the Nile Delta do not receive biblical references, although these could easily have been added using the source commonly used elsewhere, Eusebius’ Onomastikon. While the mosaicist otherwise made only isolated geographical and topographical errors, they are found here in abundance. One major error stands out: While the real coastline south of Gaza turns westward, on the mosaic map, it turns eastward, and therefore, the Nile does not flow from south to north but from east to west. This may have practical reasons: The elongated rectangular shape of the map should not be departed from. A theological reason is also possible: The Nile is one of the four rivers of paradise; paradise was presumed to be in the east; therefore, the Nile had to have its source in the east as well. Herbert Donner suggests that the mosaicist did not use Eusebius’ Onomastikon for the representation of the Nile Delta nor did they use a late Roman-Byzantine road map. Instead, they apparently relied on Herodotus’ description of the Delta region and combined it with a contemporary itinerary similar to the Itinerarium Antonini. Without personal knowledge of the locations, they created a map of Lower Egypt based on this, which, despite numerous errors, exceeded the accuracy of later maps until the beginning of modern cartography.

According to Donner, the Madaba mosaic is an accurate rendition of the description that Herodotus (Histories 17.2.3–6) gives of the Nile Delta’s distributaries. According to him, the Nile divides into three main branches in the Delta region: the Pelusiac, the Canopic, and in between, the Sebennytic branch. From the latter, two secondary branches diverge: the Saitic and the Mendesian branches. Additionally, Herodotus mentions two canals: the Bolbitine and the Bucolic canal. The Mendesian branch is missing on the preserved fragment of the Madaba Map. The two canals were treated by the mosaicist as branches of the Nile, and instead of Bolbitine, they wrote Bulbytine. Like the Jordan, the Nile is teeming with fish. A ship sails on the middle Nile branch. During restoration work in 1965, a crocodile laid with dark green glass tesserae was uncovered in the Nile at the upper edge of the map fragment.

Creation of the Mosaic

The city vignette of Jerusalem shows the Nea Theotokos Church, consecrated on November 20, 542. This provides a terminus post quem for the mosaic map. The absence of certain structures known from pilgrim reports of the 7th century could have various reasons, such as a lack of space. Therefore, Herbert Donner does not commit to the latest possible date. Michael Avi-Yonah suggests a creation date between the consecration of the Nea Theotokos Church and the death of Justinian in 565.

The patron of the Madaba mosaic is unknown, probably a learned monk or bishop. Peter Thomsen speculated in 1929 that the mosaicist was a certain Salamanios, who was named on a mosaic of the Apostles’ Church of Madaba along with the three donors. The fact that he was able to mention his name here shows that he was a famous artist. However, this theory did not find agreement. Martin Noth deemed it pointless to attribute further mosaics to Salamanios. There were apparently other mosaicists in Madaba and its surroundings.

Herbert Donner estimates that three workers, under the direction of the mosaicist, would have taken about half a year to create the mosaic. Over a million tesserae made of stone and glass were laid in a bed of solid lime mortar. The tesserae, available in a wide range of colors, were not cubic but rod-shaped; with a maximum surface area of ​​two square centimeters, they were about 6 centimeters long. Smaller tesserae were used for humans, animals, plants, and intra-urban buildings. It is assumed that the lead mosaicist incised a preliminary drawing, and then structural lines were laid first, such as the Mediterranean coast, the shores of the Dead Sea, the Jordan River, the Nile with its branches, and the mountain ranges. Then the city vignettes and the longer inscriptions were laid, followed by the small towns with their inscriptions.

Sources of the Mosaicist

Among the written sources of the mosaicist, the Greek Bible takes first place. Old Testament quotations therefore follow the Septuagint. In addition, the Onomastikon of biblical place names by Eusebius of Caesarea was extensively used: of a total of 149 inscriptions on the preserved mosaic fragment, 61 inscriptions quote Eusebius more or less verbatim. Other literary sources, such as the works of Flavius Josephus or the Church Fathers, are not securely traceable. Contemporary maps and itineraries were certainly used. Finally, the mosaicist could draw on their own local knowledge to some extent. Yoram Tsafrir assumes that Byzantine pilgrimage literature was also equipped with parchment maps, which depicted the most important places in Palestine, the pilgrimage sites, and the connecting routes: “Such a map could well have been the primary source for the mosaicists and provided them with the majority of the information,” as some places were apparently only recorded because they were located on an important overland route.

Interpretations of the Mosaic

When the mosaic was completed, no pillars obstructed the viewer; it was visible from all sides. Herbert Donner assumes that there was a certain benefit for the residents of Madaba and its surroundings in that they could inform themselves in advance about pilgrimage destinations in the Holy Land that they might want to visit. However, the main purpose of the mosaic was to depict the Christian concept of salvation history in the form of a map. With Jerusalem as the center, numerous locations from the Old and New Testaments are represented. This corresponds to the liturgy, which is full of biblical references and also addresses salvation history in other ways. Worshipers could walk barefoot on the mosaic and thus move through the Holy Land.

Rainer Warland sees the Madaba mosaic map as a “testimony of a pilgrimage topography,” but one that is embedded in a broader overall concept. The centrally positioned blessing of Joseph points to the abundant fertility of the earth, a theme that can be found alongside river landscapes in other Byzantine churches (for example, in Tabgha). Because the flooding of the Nile was for antiquity the “embodiment of the life-giving principle.” Warland also ultimately sees liturgy as the frame of reference for such earthly images depicted on mosaic floors in churches.

Francesco Prontera, who treats the Madaba map in the context of ancient cartography, sees the captions to the place names, the numerous biblical quotations, and the special status of Jerusalem as indications of a “didactic objective of this chorography in the Ptolemaic sense of the word.”

It can be excluded that the Madaba map was intended to prepare long-distance pilgrims for visiting the Holy Land. Because if at all, they only came to the Transjordan at the end of their journey through Palestine. After the site of Jesus’ baptism had been moved from the east to the west bank of the Jordan, there was one less reason for them to cross the Jordan at all.

Damages and Conservation Measures

The preserved fragment of the mosaic map shows traces of damage and repair work. At an unknown time, the representations of people and animals as well as some inscriptions were made unrecognizable, but the areas were patched with the original tesserae. This may be related to the Iconoclasm during the reign of Yazid II (720–724), assuming that the church was used by the Christian community until the early Islamic period. Later, possibly in the context of the abandonment of Madaba in the mid-8th century, the church burned down, and the wooden roof collapsed. The tesserae of the mosaic map are therefore particularly discolored black in the area of Neapolis. Large gaps in the area of the Dead Sea and the loss of marginal areas may also be consequences of this church fire.

In the following centuries, the mosaic map suffered further losses. When graves, presumably children’s burials, were dug, the mosaic and its substrate were pierced. This created the “foot-like” gaps in the representation of the Dead Sea. Moles also caused damage. In an effort to secure the mosaic, the edges of the fragment were enclosed in dark cement during church construction work in the 1880s, and three larger gaps were filled with the same cement. In some cases, the cement covered several centimeters of the mosaic.

The fact that Madaba became a tourist destination led to additional damage to the mosaic map over the course of the 20th century. The floor mosaic had been covered with heavy wooden planks for protection, which rested on a wooden frame. For the tourists, these planks were then uncovered and re-laid each time. Over the years, the planks struck directly at the mosaic with their weight and destroyed many tesserae. For the sake of the tourists, the mosaic was sprinkled with water because it made the colors appear more vivid. Cooling and evaporation put the mosaic under tension, and because lateral expansion was not possible due to the enclosure with cement, the mosaic rippled, detached from the substrate, and threatened to crack.

In December 1964, the Volkswagen Foundation, at the initiative of the German Society for the Exploration of Palestine, finally provided 90,000 DM for the rescue of the mosaic. Under the direction of Heinz Cüppers, later director of the Rheinisches Landesmuseum Trier, and the Old Testament scholar Herbert Donner, urgently needed work to restore and conserve the remaining parts of the mosaic map was carried out from September 1965 to November 1965. The restorers removed the cement from the edges and gaps. It turned out that in the gap to the right above the city vignette of Jerusalem, the fine lime slurry in which the tesserae were embedded had been preserved; a negative impression of the lost tesserae could be taken with rubber.

Scientific Significance

The Madaba mosaic map is the oldest known geographical floor mosaic to date. It shows which Christian pilgrimage sites had been established in Palestine in the 6th century, thereby supplementing contemporary pilgrimage reports. Eusebius of Caesarea’s Onomasticon, which locates numerous biblical places, was known to the mosaicist; developments can be observed compared to this source from the 4th century. For example, the Madaba map shows that in the 6th century, the tradition of the site of Jesus’ baptism had shifted from the east to the west bank of the Jordan.

Time and again, the Madaba map proves useful in identifying late antique and early Byzantine buildings and roads. For example, in 1967, excavations in the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem uncovered the remains of a monumental basilica that could be identified as the Nea-Theotokos Church with the help of the Madaba map. However, the example of Kallirhoë on the east bank of the Dead Sea shows that the representation on the Madaba map does not always harmonize with the archaeological evidence.

Göttingen Copy of the Madaba Map

A true-to-life copy of the Madaba mosaic map has been on permanent loan from the Seminar for Christian Archaeology and Byzantine Art History since 1977 in the casting collection of the Archaeological Institute of the University of Göttingen. This cast made of colored polyester resin was made by the restorers of the Rheinisches Landesmuseum Trier during the restoration work in Madaba in 1965. “The Göttingen cast is the only copy of the mosaic worldwide. … Due to the vertical installation, the mosaic in Göttingen can be viewed more comfortably than in Madaba itself, where it still adorns the floor of the church.”

Popol Vuh (K’iche’: Popol Wu’uj) is a historical-mythological text of the K’iche’ (in the old spelling: Quiché), a Maya people from Guatemala, which was transcribed into European script shortly after the Spanish conquest (mid-16th century). The document was presumably composed by members of the K’iche’ nobility to legitimize their own position in the emerging colonial society.

The first part of the Popul Vuh recounts the creation of the earth and humans. The creation of humans did not succeed at first: the first attempt resulted in the creation of animals; the first human made of clay was too weak; the second made of wood lacked intelligence and walked on all fours; only the human made of corn was perfect. He was too perfect, and his sight had to be clouded so that his wisdom was limited. He was not meant to be like the gods. During his sleep, his wife was created. Four pairs of humans, created from corn, were the ancestors of the K’iche’ Maya.

Before their history is further recounted, the myths surrounding the divine twins Hunahpu and Ixbalanqué are discussed: their victory over the proud Seven Macaw and his sons, their birth from the spit of Hun Hunahpu (One Hunter) and the disobedient maiden Ixquic. She desired to taste the forbidden fruits of the calabash tree. This tree bloomed after Hun Hunahpu’s body was placed within it. He had been defeated by the Lords of the Underworld, Xibalba. Hun Hunahpu already had two sons, who were turned into monkeys by the divine twins and driven into the forests. The twins returned to Xibalba and defeated the Lords of Death. Afterward, the brothers ascended as the sun and moon.

The migrations of the Maya tribes, described in the second part, led eastward from Tula (Tollan) to Santa Cruz del Quiché, while the book repeatedly states that the Maya originally came from the east, migrated to Tula, and that even Tula lay in the east. A catastrophe must have occurred as the Maya left their homeland and traversed the darkness, dressed only in hides, in the cold, and without food. They had to wade through the sea and wait for dawn until the sun finally dried the earth’s surface.

Three sons of the maize ancestors traveled ‘to the other side of the sea’ in the direction ‘where the sun is made [the east]: from there came our fathers.’ They received from King Nacxit (Topiltzin Ce Acatl Quetzalcoatl), ‘the lord of the sunrise,’ the signs of kingship and ‘the writing from Tula,’ in which their history was recorded, and returned home with it.

Manuscripts and Editions

The original manuscript of the Popol Vuh has been lost: all editions are based on a copy from the early 18th century, the Chichicastenango manuscript (Chuilá in K’iche’). This 112-page copy was made by the parish priest of Chuilá, the Dominican Francisco Ximénez (1666-1729), and presents the Mayan text and the Spanish translation in two columns. The modern editorial history of the Popol Vuh begins in 1861 with the publication of the original and its French translation by Brasseur de Bourbourg; since then, numerous new, annotated translations have appeared as research into traditional Mayan culture has progressed (with Schultze Jena, Recinos, Edmonson, Tedlock, and Christenson being the most prominent).

Content

Popol Vuh literally means ‘Book (vuh) of the Mat (popol)’, to be understood as ‘Book of the Council Meeting’. It is essentially a history of the origin of the K’iche’ kingdom of Q’umarkaj that reaches back into the distant mythological past. The structure of the text somewhat resembles that of the Bible (from Genesis to Kings and Chronicles). However, although Christianization was already underway, its influence on the text itself is minimal.

First Part

Creation

The narrative begins with the creation of the earth and the first, yet unsuccessful attempts to create humans. Especially in this section are the oldest prayer texts known from the Maya.

‘Once there was the resting universe. Not a sigh. Not a sound. The world is motionless and silent. And the space of the heavens was empty.’ Thus begins the story of creation. ‘In the water, illuminated by light’ were ‘Tzakól, the creator; Bitól, the shaper; the victor Tepëu and the green-feathered snake Gucumátz; Alóm also; and Caholóm, the progenitors.’ And there was Huracán, ‘the Heart of the sky called Cabavil, he-who-sees-in-the-dark. (..) His first appearance is the lightning, Cakulhá. His second, the thunder, was Chipi Cakulhá. His third is the lightning bolt, Raxa Cakulhá. These three form the heart of the sky.’ Tepëu and Gucumátz came together and discussed the ‘creation of man.’ They created the earth. The earth was formed by ‘the heart of the sky’ and ‘the heart of the earth’, which ‘first impregnated her’. Then the animals were created, ‘our first works, our first beings,’ but the progenitors Tzakól and Bitól were dissatisfied because the animals could not speak, praise, or worship the gods. ‘Therefore, we shall create others who are willing.’

A new attempt was made to create man. ‘From clay they made the flesh of man, but ‘it was too soft, it was without motion and without strength (..) it had no understanding’. It could not walk or multiply and was destroyed. The progenitors decided: ‘Let us say to Ixpiyacóc [Grandfather Daykeeper], Ixmucané [Grandmother Duskkeeper], to Hunahpú-Vuch and Hunahpú-Utiú: Try it again.’

Ixpiyacóc ‘cast lots’ with tsité beans and ‘people of wood’ were created. ‘From tsité was the flesh of man made, but the flesh of the woman (..) from reeds. ‘The wooden people ‘had no soul, no understanding (..) they walked on all fours. (..) Those were the first people; numerous of them lived on the face of the earth. ‘They too were destroyed, beaten with sticks and stones, pots and pans, torn apart by dogs, drowned in a flood. ‘And it is said that their descendants are the monkeys that now live in the forests. In the monkeys, one can recognize those from whom the creator and shaper made the flesh of wood. That is why the monkey resembles man, as a reminder of a creation of humans, of humans who were nothing but wooden dolls.’

The Divine Twins

Next, the deeds of the sons of Ixquic, the Heroic Twins Hunahpu and Ixbalanqué, are described: their neutralizing of the proud Seven Macaw, a bird demon, and his two sons, Zipacná (the Strong) and Cabracán (the Shaker, Two-Legged). Zipacná had killed ‘400 youths,’ who had first attempted to bury Zipacná in a pit with an enormous log. Zipacná is slain by the heroic twins through trickery. They made a crab and placed it in the water at the foot of a mountain. When Zipacná dove for it, the mountain slid onto his chest. Cabracán was incapacitated by feeding him a bird covered in white lime, causing him to lose all his strength and be buried in chains.

Only after the deaths of Seven Macaw and his sons is it told how the heroic twins were born. The brothers Hun Hunahpu and Vucub Hunahpu (One Hunter and Seven Hunter) lost their lives in the Underworld in battle with One Death and Seven Death, and the body of Hun Hunahpu was hung in a calabash tree, which then began to bloom beautifully. Ixquic, the daughter of one of the Lords of Xibalba, the Underworld, desired to taste the calabashes, spoke with the head of Hun Hunahpu, and received his saliva on her hand. After that, she became pregnant and was driven away by the Lords of Xibalba. She went to the house of Ixmucané, the mother of Hun Hunahpu and Vucub Hunahpu. Ixmucané cared for the two sons of Hun Hunahpu’s previous wife. Ixquic must prove that she truly carries the sons of Hun Hunahpu. The heroic twins are born.

Then follows the banishment of One Monkey and One Artisan, two jealous older brothers, to the forests, and especially the avenging of the father through the subjugation of the underworld, an adventure in which the Mesoamerican ballgame plays a significant role. Hunahpu and Ixbalanqué transform into the sun and the moon, respectively.

Completion of Creation

Finally comes the ‘completion of creation’: ‘They must appear, those who sustain us and feed us, the radiant sons of light.’ The’stuff of life’ was found: ‘from Pan Paxil and Pan Cayalá [a wonderfully beautiful land full of pleasant things] came the yellow and white corn cobs.’ There were four animals that brought the yellow and white corn: the wildcat, the coyote, the parrot, and the raven. Ixmucané ground the corn cobs and made nine drinks, which gave ‘strength and abundance’, from which ‘the strength and the power of man’ were created. From corn dough, the four ancestors of the K’iché were created: the Forest Jaguar, the Night Jaguar, the Lord of the Night, and the Moon Jaguar. They were created and formed; they were not born of a woman. ‘Only by a miracle, by sorcery, were they created and formed by Tzakól, Bitól, Alóm, Caholóm, Tepëu, and Gucumátz. (..) A reason was given to them. They looked inward and also looked into the distance; they came so far that they saw everything, knew everything that exists in the world (..) Their wisdom was great. (..) And whatever is great or small in the sky or on the earth, we see it. (..) Soon they knew everything.’ But the creator and shaper were not satisfied and said, ‘Should they also be gods? (..) Should they eventually be like us, who created them and can see very far, know everything, and see everything?’ Then Huracán ‘cast a veil over their eyes. And they became clouded: they could only see what was nearby. Thus, the wisdom and all knowledge of the four people of the origin and the beginning were destroyed.’

Then the spouses were created; they appeared ‘during sleep’: Skywater was the wife of the Forest Jaguar, Springwater of the Night Jaguar, Hummingbirdwater of the Lord of the Night, and Parrotwater of the Moon Jaguar. ‘They begot the people, the small and the large tribes. And they were the origin of us, of the K’iché tribe. (..) There were more than four, but four were the progenitors of our K’iché tribe. Different were the names of all when they multiplied there in the east, and numerous were the names of the tribes: Tepëu [Tepëu-Yaqui], Olomán [Olmecs], Cohá, Quenéch, and Aháu. Thus the tribes called themselves when they multiplied there in the east. Also, the origin of the Tamúb tribe and of the Ilocáb tribe is known; they came together from the east. Balam-Quitzé, Forest Jaguar, was the grandfather and father of the nine great Cavéc families. The Night Jaguar, Balám-Acáb, was the grandfather and father of the nine great Nimhaib families. Mahucutáh [Lord of the Night] is the grandfather and father of the four great Ahau-Quiché families. There were three family groups, but they did not forget the names of their grandfather and father, not those who spread and multiplied in the east. Also, the Tamub and Ilocáb arrived [in Tula], and thirteen subtribes, the thirteen of Tecpán [Pocomanes and Pocomchis]. And the Rabinals, the Cakchiquels, those of Tzikinahá, and those of Zacahá and Lamák, Cumatz, Tulhalhá, Uchabahá, those of Chumilahá, those of Quibahá, those of Batenabá, Acul-Uinák, Balamihá, the Canchahéles, and the Balám-Colób. (..) They multiplied there [in the darkness] in the east as well. (..) They all lived together and roamed in the east. (..) There were many dark and light-skinned people. (..) They had a single language.’ They observed the morning star Venus and awaited the (new) sun.

Second part

With the ‘creation of man from corn,’ the mythological primordial time transitions into a more legendary account of the deeds of the first ancestors, their wanderings, and wars, leading to the foundation and further fortunes of the K’iché kingdom.

Tula

The four patriarchs, Balam-Quitzé, Seawater was his wife, Balam-Acab, Springwater was his wife, Mahucutáh, Hummingbirdwater was his wife, and Ixqui-Balám, Parrotwater was his wife, of the ‘Ahau Quiché’s’ had heard about a city, Tula(n), Seven Caves (the Aztec Chicomoztoc, ‘seven caves’), Seven Gorge, where they journeyed through the ‘darkness of the night’ on a long wander. They desired the great star, the ‘sun bearer’, ‘sun bringer’, (Venus the Morning Star), the ‘birth of the sun’, to see. The Tamub and Ilocáb also went there. There they received their gods: Tohil (Quetzalcoatl), Avalix, Hacavitz, and Nicahtacáh. The three K’iché tribes united under their common god Tohil. Different tribes gathered in Tula: the Rabinal, Cakchiquels, those of Tzikinahá, and Yaqui. In Tula, their languages changed, so they could no longer understand each other because, in Tula, the tribes separated. The people were poor, wore only animal skins, had little food, and had no fire. Tohil gave them fire. Due to heavy rain and a hailstorm, the fire went out again, and the tribes asked the K’iché’s, who alone received fire for the second time from Tohil, for fire. ‘Are we not from one root, were we not created and formed on the same mountains?’ Tohil stipulated that the other tribes also united with him. The tribes were sacrificed, humiliated, and subjected to the K’iché’s. Then the K’iché’s ‘left the east behind,’ they ‘set out [from] the east.’

Hacavitz

The Quiché or Kʼicheʼ people gathered on the mountain ‘Place of the council’ and went through ‘the parting sea’. They called the place ‘Quicksand’. They sought out forests to hide the god statues of Tohil, Avilix, and Hacavitz, which they had been carrying in ‘nets of lianas’ since they had departed from the Tulan cave, there in the east. Hacavitz disappeared ‘into a naked mountain,’ and there they awaited the sunrise. Then ‘they brought out the incense that they had brought from the east for this moment.’ The sun appeared. ‘And immediately the sun dried the face of the earth. (..) immediately the earth’s surface dried.’ The god statues turned into stone. On Mount Hacavitz, ‘they thought with sorrow of the east, from where they had come. They had been their hills, from where they had departed (..) There were also fishermen there in the east, the victorious Olmecs, we did not stay with them.’

The gods appeared as ‘youths’ when incense was offered to them, ‘as nagual they emerged from the rock.’ The four patriarchs, the offering priests, disappeared into the forest, terrorized the tribes, tore people apart, and wanted to sacrifice tribes to the gods. They received from the gods Patzilib, a blood-soaked skin, a sign from Tula. The human hunt began, and tribes were slaughtered. The gods bathed as youths in the ‘Bathing place of Tohil,’ and the tribes wanted to seduce them with three girls: Ixtáh, Ixpúch, and Quibatzunáh. But the gods gave the girls gifts, supposedly as proof that they had given themselves to the gods: three mantles, with the jaguar, the eagle, and bees and wasps painted on them. The prince of the tribes put on the mantles, ‘paraded with his naked genitals before all eyes,’ and was then stung by bees and wasps from the third mantle. Thus, Tohil triumphed over the tribes. The tribes (‘more than 20,000 warriors’) rebelled and wanted to destroy the patriarchs, who had entrenched themselves with their families on the top of Mount Hacavitz. They wanted to worship Tohil but first ‘seize him.’ The attackers were first put to sleep, their weapons and jewelry were stolen from them, their eyebrows and beards were cut off. Then they marched to the top of the mountain. The patriarchs placed ‘insect hives’ in four large gourds at the corners of the palisade around their settlement, behind which wooden armed dolls were arranged. The warriors were defeated by the insects when the lids of the gourds were lifted, and slaughtered. All the tribes submitted. Hacavitz was the first settlement.

Balam-Quitzé had two sons: Co Caib and Co Cavib. Balam-Acab had two sons: Co Acul and Co Acuték. Mahucutáh had a son: Co Ahau and Iqui-Balám had no sons, ‘he was a true offering priest.’ The patriarchs left and left behind a ‘sign of the covenant,’ Pisom K’ak’al, a seamless scroll consisting of many cloths. ‘So the people descended from these lords. (..) the first people who came across the sea from the sunrise.’ Now, it was decided by Co Caib (of the Cavéc house), Co Acuték (of the Nihaib house), and Co Ahau (of the Ahau Quiché house) to journey to the east, ‘to the other side of the sea’. The three sons went to Nacxit (Topiltzin Ce Acatl Quetzalcoatl), the ‘lord of the sunrise.’ They received from him the signs of royal power and ‘they brought across the sea the scripture from Tula. They called it the Scripture, in which their history was recorded.’ The three sons returned, and after the four wives of the patriarchs had died, other mountains were sought to settle.

Santa Cruz

Chiquix became the new city, and on four hills, cities with the same name appeared. Then came the cities of Chiquix, Chicác, Humetahá, Kulbá, and Cavinál. The sons of the patriarchs died. The ‘elders and the fathers’ united in the hilly city of Chi Izmachi. There were three great families, from the Cavéc, Nihaib, and Ahau Quiché houses. The Ilocáb rebelled but were captured by King Co Tuhá. During that time, the custom of sacrificing people for the god statues began. Three generations ruled over the city of Izmachi. Then came the city of Cumarcaáh (the Aztec Utatlan, Santa Cruz del Quiché) under the kings Co Tuhá and Gucumátz, where the three houses were divided into nine families and the empire was divided into twenty-four subdivisions (and twenty-four ruling houses). Then Chichicastenango emerged. Driehert and Negenhond, the twelfth royal lineage of the Cavéc house, ruled when the Spanish conqueror Pedro de Alvarado arrived. They were hanged by the Spaniards. Don Christóbal was the ruler of the Nihaib house at the time of the Spaniards.

The end of the Popol Vuh reads: ‘There is nothing more to see. The old wisdom of the kings has been lost. Thus everything comes to an end in Quiché, which is called Santa Cruz.’

Background

The mythological part of the Popol Vuh has a great depth of time. Main characters such as the Heroic Twins, Howler Monkey gods, and underworld gods were already significant in the Classic Maya civilization (up to 900 AD) and were frequently depicted on painted pottery. One of the heroic twins, Hunahpu, had a direct connection with the then-kingship (see Ahau). The extent to which the adventures of the classic heroic twins coincided with those of the Quichean is a contentious issue.

Impact in the present

Charles Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg already labeled the Popol Vuh as ‘the holy book’ in 1861. This implicit comparison with the holy books of Jews and Christians is not entirely accurate. First of all, the Popol Vuh as a whole does not have a universal edifying purpose, and secondly, the mythological part of the Popol Vuh, as far as is known, was not an inviolable, essentially unchangeable text like the Bible. However, in the struggle for their own cultural identity, the text has indeed become a kind of holy book for many modern Maya and a new, pan-Mayan life has begun. Translations into other Mayan languages than just K’iche’ have contributed to this. Although the Popol Vuh is considered national heritage by all Guatemalans, for these Maya and their organizations, it represents their quintessentially own.

History

The Popol Vuh, also known as the Book of the Council, is a book that treasures much of the wisdom and many of the traditions of Mayan culture, primarily established in what is now Guatemala. It is a comprehensive compendium of aspects of great importance such as religion, astrology, mythology, customs, history, and legends that recount the origin of the world and civilization, as well as the many phenomena that occur in nature.

The text of the Popol Vuh is preserved in a bilingual manuscript written by Friar Francisco Ximénez, who identifies himself as the transcriber (of the version in Quiché Maya) and translator of an ancient “book.” Based on this, the existence of a work written around the year 1550 by an indigenous person who, after learning to write with Latin characters, captured and wrote down the oral recitation of an elder, has been postulated. However, this hypothetical author “never reveals the source of his written work and instead invites the reader to believe whatever they want from the first recto folio,” where he affirms that the original book “is no longer seen” and uses the expression “painted” to describe it. If such a document existed, it would have remained hidden until the period 1701-1703, when Ximénez became the doctrinal curate of Santo Tomás Chichicastenango (Chuilá).

Friar Francisco Ximénez transcribed and translated the text into parallel columns of K’iche’ and Spanish. Later, he elaborated a prose version that occupies the first forty chapters of the first volume of his History of the Province of Santo Vicente de Chiapa and Guatemala, which he began writing in 1715.

Ximénez’s works remained archived in the Convent of Santo Domingo until 1830 when they were transferred to the Academy of Sciences of Guatemala. In 1854, they were found by the Austrian Karl Scherzer, who in 1857 published Ximénez’s first carving in Vienna under the original title The Stories of the Origin of the Indians of this Province of Guatemala.

Abbot Charles Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg stole the original manuscript from the university, took it to Europe, and translated it into French. In 1861, he published a volume under the title Popol Vuh, le livre sacré et les mythes de l’antiquité américaine. It was he, therefore, who coined the name Popol Vuh.

Brasseur died in 1874 and left his collection to Alphonse Pinar. He showed little interest in the Central American area and sold the collection in 1883 to raise funds for other studies. The original manuscript by Ximénez was purchased by collector and businessman Edward E. Ayer, who resided in Chicago, United States. As a member of the board of directors of a private library in Chicago, he decided to donate his collection of seventeen thousand pieces to the Newberry Library, a process that lasted from 1897 to 1911. Three decades later, Guatemalan ambassador Adrián Recinos located the manuscript in the library and published the first modern edition in 1947. Today, a facsimile of the manuscript is available online thanks to a collaboration between the Newberry and the Library of Ohio State University, under the direction of Professor Carlos M. López.

The town of Santa Cruz del Quiché was founded by the Spanish to replace Q’umar Ka’aj, the ancient capital of the K’iche’ kingdom. Juan de Rojas and Juan Cortés are cited in the book as the last members of the generation of K’iche’ kings.

Origin of the Narratives

The first researchers assumed that the Popol Vuh had been written in the Mayan language with Latin characters, thus collecting the existing oral tradition in the 16th and 17th centuries. The mention in the genealogies of characters from the post-conquest period undoubtedly indicates that the work as it exists today is also posterior to the Hispanic presence in the area.

René Acuña, like other scholars, doubted that the content reflected in the Popol Vuh was truly Mayan because he points out that “the Popol Vuh is a book designed and executed with Western concepts. Its compositional unity is such that it allows us to postulate a single collector of the narratives, it does not seem that this was a spontaneous native autodidact who wrote down the memories of his nation.” This theory is based on certain transcription errors that Ximénez commits when translating the text, revealing his unfamiliarity with the K’iche’ language. For example, the analogies with the biblical book of Genesis, although mixed with purely Mesoamerican concepts, have raised suspicions both of clerical intervention in its composition and of the result of a process of acculturation.

Regarding this, Acuña points out: “If the fidelity with which Ximénez copied and translated the K’iche’ text were the criterion for establishing the authenticity of the Popol Vuh, it would immediately have to be declared false […] Enumerating in detail all the inaccuracies that Ximénez introduced could justify a work of pages whose number cannot be quantified […] Faced with the impossibility of carrying out here a detailed examination of the translations that Ximénez made of the Popol Vuh, I will have to limit myself to saying that they are unequal and very unfaithful and that the friar omitted translating a high percentage of the text. My assessment is based on the meticulous comparative analysis I have carried out of the first 1,180 lines of the Popol Vuh with Fray Francisco’s two Spanish versions. But my intention is not aimed at discrediting the linguistic competence of this religious, but rather at highlighting that, with the scarce knowledge of the K’iche’ language that he possessed, it is natural that he would have disfigured the work when copying it.”

By questioning Ximénez’s ability to handle the Mayan language, a logical doubt arises as to whether the Popol Vuh is an original Mayan text, since only the version of said religious text is currently available. In this same line of thought, John Woodruff, another critic, has come to the conclusion that “the extent of the interaction that Ximénez has with the text is not sufficiently established […] and without discussing what could constitute an authentic indigenous discourse, at least some of the ideas contained in the first recto folio can be identified as not entirely indigenous.” On his part, Canto López comments that it is possible to question the existence of an original book of pre-Hispanic origin, which would lead to the logical conclusion that it was written with the support of oral tradition.

However, some archaeologists have endeavored to find evidence of the narratives of the Popol Vuh in the Mayan hieroglyphs of the pre-Hispanic period.

Popol Vuh is a bilingual compilation of mythical, legendary, and historical narratives of the Maya K’iche’ or Quiché people, the indigenous people of present-day Guatemala with the largest population. This book, of great historical and spiritual value, has been called the Sacred Book of the Maya. In contemporary K’iche’ orthography, the book is called Popol Wuj, following the norms of the Academy of Mayan Languages of Guatemala.

Discovery of Popol Vuh Mural in El Mirador

During investigations carried out in the city of El Mirador, a team of archaeologists led by Richard D. Hansen from Idaho State University discovered a panel with one of the oldest representations of the creation beliefs according to the Mayans: the Popol Vuh. The sculpture dates back to approximately 200 BCE and depicts the mythical twin heroes Hunahpú and Ixbalanqué, swimming in the underworld to retrieve the decapitated head of their father. The sculpture dates from the same period as some of the oldest works related to the Popol Vuh: the murals in San Bartolo and the Nakbe stela, two nearby cities. Archaeologists installed a climate-controlled shed over the newly discovered area to prevent the structure from being damaged.

The sculpture adorns the wall of a canal intended to channel rainwater through the administrative area of the city; moreover, every roof and plaza in the city were designed to direct rainwater towards collection centers. This water collection system would have been one of the reasons why El Mirador became the first powerful Mayan kingdom and would represent one of the oldest examples of the myths described in the Popol Vuh.

Synopsis

The Popol Vuh encompasses a variety of themes including creation, ancestry, history, and cosmology. There are no content divisions in the Newberry Library’s holograph, but generally popular editions have adopted the organization introduced by Brasseur de Bourbourg in 1861 in order to facilitate comparative studies. Guatemalan writer Adrián Recinos explains that: “The original manuscript is not divided into parts or chapters, the text runs without interruption from beginning to end. In this translation, I have followed Brasseur de Bourbourg’s division into four parts and each part into chapters, because the arrangement seems logical and in accordance with the subject matter and meaning of the work. Since the version by the French abbot is the most well-known, this will facilitate the work of those readers who wish to make a comparative study of the different translations of the Popol Vuh.”

Creation

• The gods create the world.
• The gods create the animals, but since they do not praise them, they condemn them to eat each other.
• The gods create beings from clay, which are fragile and unstable and fail to praise them.
• The gods created the first humans from wood, these are imperfect and lacking in feelings.
• The first humans, who become monkeys, are destroyed.
• The twin heroes Hunahpú and Ixbalanqué try to kill the arrogant god Vucub Caquix, but fail.
• Hunahpú and Ixbalanqué kill Vucub Caquix.

Stories of Hunahpú and Ixbalanqué

• Ixpiyacoc and Ixmukané engender two dwarfs.
• Hun Hunahpú and Ixbakiyalo engender the twins Hunbatz and Hunchouén.
• The Lords of Xibalbá kill the brothers Hun Hunahpú and Vucub Hunahpú, hanging the head of the former (Hun Hunahpú) on a tree.
• Hun Hunahpú and Ixquic engender the twin heroes Hunahpú and Ixbalanqué.
• The twin heroes are born and live with their mother and paternal grandmother Ixmukané, competing with their half-brothers Hunbatz and Hunchouén.
• Hunbatz and Hunchouen turn into monkeys.
• Hunahpú and Ixbalanqué use magic to cut down trees.
• A rat speaks to Hunahpú and Ixbalanqué and tells them the story of their ancestors.
• The Lords of Xibalbá call Hunahpú and Ixbalanqué to the underworld.
• Hunahpú and Ixbalanqué survive the tests of the underworld.
• Hunahpú is killed by bats, but his brother resurrects him.
• The twin heroes commit suicide in the flames and their bones are left abandoned in a river.
• Hunahpú and Ixbalanqué come back to life and murder the Lords of the Underworld.
• Hun Hunahpú returns to life through his son.

Creation of the Corn Men

• The first four real men are created: Balam Quitzé, the second Balam Akab, the third Mahucutah, and the fourth Iqui Balam. They are made of corn.
• The first four women are created.
• They began to have children and raise their generation.

Waiting for Dawn and Stay in Hacauitz

• Venus rises, followed by the birth of the sun, causing great joy.
• The deities turn to stone (only the elf Zaquicoxol escapes).
• The four K’iche’ men remain hidden in the mountain.
• By order of Tohil, the patron god of the K’iche’, the kidnappings of other tribes begin to carry out human sacrifices to this deity.
• The other tribes, desperate due to the kidnappings, send four beautiful girls to seduce the men and achieve their defeat, but they are deceived by four magic mantles.
• The other tribes send an army to defeat the K’iche’ men hiding in the mountain, but before reaching it, they fall asleep induced by Tohil, and the four K’iche’ men steal their war instruments.
• Death and advice of Balam Quitze, Balam Akab, Mahucutah, Iqui Balam.
• Balam Quitze leaves his descendants, the K’iche’, the “Pizom Kakal,” or “Sacred Wrapper,” which will serve as a symbol of their power.

Migration Stories

• The children of the first K’iche’ parents return to Tula, where they receive the symbols of power from Nacxit. Upon their return to Mount Hacauitz, they are received with signs of joy.
• They embark on a migration in search of the mountain where they will finally settle and find a city. In Chi Quix, some groups split. They pass through Chi Chak, Humeta Ya, Qulba, Cauinal, and Chi Ixmachi.
• In Chi Ixmachi, the first war erupts, motivated by the deception of the Ilocab group to Istayul. Finally, the Ilocab are reduced to slavery.
• The power of the K’iche’ grows, causing fear among other peoples.
• The three main tinamit of the K’iche’ Confederation are formed: Cauiquib, Nihaib, and Ahau Quiché.

Foundation of Gumarcah and List of Generations

• They found the city of Gumarcah, near present-day Santa Cruz del Quiché, in the Quiché department.
• The 24 “Great Houses” are founded, becoming important units of sociopolitical organization.
• The conquests made by Quikab and Gukumatz, of prodigious nature, are narrated.
• The K’iche’ caueques expand their territory, conquering neighboring and distant peoples, who become tributaries.
• The different chinamit and “Great Houses,” as well as their main rulers until Juan de Rojas, who lived under Spanish rule, are named.

Main Characters

Tepeu-Gucumatz

Also called Tz’aqol-B’itol; Alom-K’ajolooom; Junajpu Wuch’-Junajpu Utiw; Saqinim Aq-Sis; Uk’ux Cho-Uk’ux Palo; Ajraxa Laq-Ajraxa Tzel. He is buried under quetzal feathers when Uk’ux Kaj comes to speak to him. He is what is before anything, amidst the darkness, pulsating. From him emerges the creative force, the first deity that then becomes increasingly distant. Seeks advice from other deities: Uk’ux Kaj and Xmukane, when it comes to creation, as he does not know how to do it. The creative impulse arises from this deity, which later in the narrative falls into oblivion.

Uk’ux Kaj-Uk’ux Ulew

Also represented as Jun Raqan; Kaqulja Jun Raqan; Ch’ipi Kaqulja; Raxa Kaqulja (and Nik’aj Taq’aj). In this sense, it is a triad, as the text says “It was of three essences, that of Uk’ux Kaj”. This deity is not present from the beginning, but “comes” to talk with Tepeu-Gucumatz, so it can be considered that it is posterior to Tepeu. Creation arises from the dialogue between the two. It remains active for a longer time than Tepeu, as later in the narrative it assists Junajpu and Ixb’alamke.

Xpiyakok, Xmukane

Also called Grandmother of the Day, Grandmother of Clarity, Rati’t q’ij, rati’t saq. According to Sam Colop, they were ajq’ijab’ (Mayan spiritual guides). They give advice on the creation of the stick men (the second failed creation). Later in the narrative, they are the grandparents of Jun Junajpu and Wuqub’ Junajpu. Although not mentioned directly, Xpiyakok contributes with Xmukane to the deception of Wuqub’ Kak’ix, saying they are doctors. They are wise but also naive. Their grandchildren deceive them to obtain the ball implements or when they turn their brothers into monkeys, for example. They do not show signs of being prodigious; rather, they are religious specialists who divine and burn incense when appropriate.

Wuqub’ Kak’ix-Chimalmat

Literally “Seven Macaw”. He became grand before creation. He claimed to be the sun and the moon, but it was not true; only his wealth shone: his silver eyes, his precious stones, the green gems of his feathers. It is not clear if he was a macaw or a man; he may have had characteristics of both, as he has a jaw, but at the same time, it is indicated that he “perches” (taqalik in the K’iche’ language) to eat the nances in the tree when he is shot down (like a bird) by the blowpipe of the boys. He behaved like a great lord, but only his riches gave him power, since when he is deceived, and these are taken from him, he dies. He could be a metaphor for those who are grand solely because of their material possessions, but he can also be (like his children) a representative of the error of pride alone.

Zipaqna

First son of Buqub’ Kak’ix, Zipaqna created mountains and volcanoes in one night. The text says that he literally played ball with the hills. He was a diviner, for he knew that the 400 boys wanted to kill him, whom he later murdered. He is defeated by Junajpu and Ixb’alamke, who bury him under what was his pride: a mountain.

Kabraqan

Literally “two feet” or “earthquake”, Kab’raqan knocked down mountains; with his feet, he made the earth tremble. He is deceived by the brothers Junajpu and Ixb’alamke with the promise of a mountain taller than all, which continues to grow. They give him a bird smeared with tizate (white earth), which weakens him, and so he is buried under the earth, under that which gave him pride.

Jun Junajpu, Wuqub’ Junajpu

The sons of Xmukane and Xpiyakok were apparently twins, although this is not explicitly mentioned in the text. Perhaps they were prodigious, but this is not clear since they do not perform any prodigy (except for the flowering of the morro tree in Xib’alb’a) and are easily deceived by those of Xib’alb’a. Jun Junajpu fathered two sons with Ixb’aqiyalo. Apparently, their only occupation was to play dice and ball. They held the title of rajpop achij. They were defeated in Xib’alb’a, in the House of Darkness, and their bodies were sacrificed and buried under the ballgame, except for Jun Junajpu’s head, which was placed on a tree that later sprouted and turned into a morro.

Jun B’atz, Jun Chowen

Sons of Jun Junajpu and Ixb’aqiyalo. They were flutists, artists, scribes, wise men, connoisseurs, blowgunners, sculptors, and goldsmiths. They were envious and mistreated their brothers Junajpu and Ixb’alamke, so they were deceived by them and turned into monkeys. In the narrative, it is mentioned that they were invoked by artists later as patron or protective deities.

Ixkik’

Daughter of Kuchuma Kik’, a lord of Xib’alb’a, she is a curious and impulsive maiden who approaches the forbidden tree by the lords of Xib’alb’a and speaks with the fruit-head of Jun Junajpu. She is also ingenious and brave when she finds a way to cheat her own death and ascends to the earth in search of her mother-in-law. There, she proves to be a good daughter-in-law, as she performs the impossible tasks her mother-in-law requests. Xkik’ and the prodigious pregnancy Xkik’ heard the tale of the tree fruit when it was told by her father Kuchumalkik’, the fruit of which was actually tasty, the one she heard about, so she walked alone and arrived at the foot of the tree planted in the ball court, Ixki’k wondered about the fruit, whether it was sweet, she thought she was not going to die or get lost, then she thought about cutting one. And then suddenly a skull among the branches of the tree spoke to her, it was the head of Jun Junajpu speaking to Xkik’, and asked her, don’t you want it? The head inquired, but the girl said she wanted it, the head asked her to extend her right hand so I can see it, said the head. Xkik’, convinced, extended her hand in front of the skull, so it squeezed and a bone saliva came out and went directly into the girl’s hand, and when she opened her hand there was no

bone saliva. The saliva carries her descent from Junajpu as a thinker, speaker, artist, ballplayer. When Xkik’ returned home, she carried Junajpu and Xb’alanke in her womb.

Junajpu, Xb’alamke

Sons of Jun Junajpu and Wuqub’ Junajpu, they are the main characters in the mythological section of the Popol Wuj. Their main characteristic is cunning and humility, for although they perform great feats, they never boast of them; on the contrary, they often perform them under the guise of simple blowgunners, poor people, or beggars. They carry out the wishes of Uk’ux Kaj, with whom they have constant communication. They are vengeful, as seen when they ceaselessly strive to defeat those from Xib’alb’a until they dismember them. They are prodigies by nature.

Jun Kame, Wuqub’ Kame

The two main lords of Xib’alb’a are wicked and deceitful. They and their kingdom are full of deception for anyone who descends into it, even if invited. They seek the destruction of Junajpu and Ixb’alamke, as they disturbed their rest with their ballgame. Apparently, they ruled over a large number of people, who were not necessarily dead, just as they themselves seemed to be alive, despite their macabre titles. This is proven when they are killed by the twins. They are proud and arrogant, which ultimately causes their downfall.

B’alam Ki’tze’, B’alam Aq’ab’, Majuk’utaj, Ik’i B’alam

The first created men set out for the mythical city of Tula, where they were given their respective deities. Except for Ik’i B’alam, they are the grandparents of the three great divisions, or amaq’, of the K’iche’: Kaweq, Nija’ib’, and Nima K’iche’. They are humble and obedient to the mandates of their respective deity, although often it is Tojil, the deity of the Kaweq, who speaks for all. They ensure the submission of other people by offering fire in exchange for their hearts. For this reason, they later kidnap the inhabitants of other villages to sacrifice them to their deities. Finally, they die leaving behind the Sacred Bundle to their descendants. They are faithful in fulfilling the wishes of their deities and ultimately die peacefully.

Tojil, Awilix, Jaqawitz, Nik’aj Taq’aj

Tojil is the tutelary deity who was given to B’alam Ki’tze’, the Ilokab’, Tamub’, and Rab’inaleb’ (under the name Jun Toj) in Tula. Awilix is the deity of B’alam Aq’ab’; Jaqawitz of Majuk’utaj; and Nik’aj Taq’aj of Ik’i B’alam. Nik’aj Taq’aj, like Ik’i B’alam, lacks protagonism and disappears in the later narrative. As for Awilix and Jaqawitz, although they are present throughout the story, they are often not mentioned, their names being replaced only by Tojil. They are vengeful deities, demanding the blood of people as tribute, and with it, they become more powerful and youthful. They guide the pilgrimage of the K’iche’ and direct them in their wars against other peoples.

As for their nature, perhaps they were animate beings before dawn, as with the rays of the sun, they became stone statues. If compared with Saqik’oxol, a similar deity who escaped petrification, it becomes clear that they were supernatural beings similar to those known as elves, with a physical presence but also immaterial, like the so-called owners of the current hills. In their stone state, however, these deities also manifested themselves as human beings. This is evident because it is mentioned that they went to bathe in the river, where they were seen by the villages, who tried to lose them through fornication, implying that they also had a physical nature.

K’oka’ib’, K’o’akutek, K’o’ajaw

Sons of the three first fathers, they set out eastward where Nacxit gives them the emblems of power and authority. They are the ones who move to and reign justly in Chi K’ik.

Q’ukumatz-K’otuja

Q’ukumatz was a character who reigned alongside K’otuja. According to the text, he belonged to the fourth generation of another character also known as Q’ukumatz. He is a portentous being, taking the form of a serpent, eagle, jaguar, and resting blood. He initiated a period of greatness for the K’iche’.

K’ikab’, Kawisamaj

They extended K’iche’s dominance by conquering the Kaqchikel and the Rab’inaleb’. They extended their domains to Mam territory as well, in Xe’laju and Saqulew. They made tributaries of the conquered peoples, brutally repressing those who refused their expansion. They razed cities and wiped out entire lineages. They also secured the villages they were conquering so that they could not be taken back. They were great warriors and consolidated the expansion and image of the K’iche’.

Fragments

Creation of the World and the First Attempts to Create Men

The Popol Vuh recounts the nonexistence of the world until the creator and former decided to generate life. The intention was for his own creations to be able to speak to him and thank him for life. First, the Earth was created, then the animals, and finally, men. These were initially made of clay, but as the attempt failed, the great creator and former decided to fashion them from wood. Once several families were established, the creator and former, fearing that his creatures might be tempted to supplant him in wisdom, diminished the sight and intelligence of the eight gods

The Creation

This is the account of how all was in suspense, all calm, silent; all still, silent, and the expanse of the sky empty.

This is the first relation, the first speech. There was not yet a man, bird, fish, crab, tree, stone, cave, cliff, herb, or forest: only the sky existed.

The face of the earth was not yet manifest. Only the sea was calm and the sky in all its extent. Nothing was together, making noise, or moving, or stirring in the sky. Nothing stood upright; only the water at rest, the calm sea, alone and tranquil. Nothing was endowed with existence.

There was only stillness and silence in the darkness, in the night. Only the Creator, the Former, Tepeu, Gucumatz, and the Progenitors were in the water surrounded by brightness. They were hidden under green and blue feathers.

Here then came the word, Tepeu and Gugumatz came together, in the darkness, in the night, and spoke to each other Tepeu and Gugumatz. They spoke, therefore, consulting with each other and meditating; they agreed, they joined their words and thoughts. Then it was clearly manifested, while they meditated, that when dawn came, man should appear. Then the creation and growth of the trees and vines and the birth of life and the clarity in action of man were arranged. Thus it was arranged in the darkness and in the night by the Heart of

the Sky, which is called Hurricane.

The first is called Caculhá Hurricane. The second is Chipi-Caculhá. The third is Raxa-Caculhá. And these three are the Heart of the Sky.

Then Tepeu and Gugumatz came together; then they conferred about life and clarity, how it will be done so that it clears and dawns, who will be the one who produces food and sustenance.

“Let it be so! Let the void be filled! Let this water retreat and clear the space, let the earth emerge and firm up! So they said. Let it clear, let it dawn in the sky and on earth! There will be no glory or greatness in our creation and formation until there exists the human creature, the formed man.” So they said.

Then the earth was created by them. Thus it truly was how the creation of the earth was done:

“Earth!” they said, and instantly it was made.

Like the mist, like the cloud, and like a dust cloud was the creation, when the mountains emerged from the water; and instantly the mountains grew.

Only by a miracle, only by magical art was the formation of the mountains and valleys accomplished; and instantly the cypress and pine forests sprang up on the surface.

And thus Gugumatz was filled with joy, saying:

“Good has been your coming, Heart of the Sky; you, Hurricane, and you, Chípi-Caculhá, Raxa-Caculhá!”

“Our work, our creation shall be completed,” they replied.

First, the earth, the mountains, and the valleys were formed; the waterways were divided, the streams flowed freely among the hills, and the waters were separated when the high mountains appeared.

Such was the creation of the earth, when it was formed by the Heart of the Sky, the Heart of the Earth, which are thus called those who first made it fertile, when the sky was in suspense and the earth was submerged within the water.

Thus the work was perfected when they executed it after thinking and meditating on its happy completion.

Then they made the small animals of the forest, the guardians of all the woods, the mountain geniuses, the deer, the birds, lions, tigers, snakes, serpents, and rattlesnakes (vipers), guardians of the vines.

And the Progenitors said:

“Shall there be only silence and stillness under the trees and vines? Henceforth, there should be those who guard them.”

Thus they spoke when they meditated and immediately spoke. At once, the deer and birds were created. Then the deer and birds were assigned their abodes:

“You, deer, will sleep in the meadows by the rivers and in the ravines. Here you will be among the underbrush, among the grasses; in the forest, you will multiply, on four legs you will walk and have yourselves. And as it was said, so it was done.”

Then they also designated their abode to the small birds and the larger birds:

“You, birds, will dwell on the trees and vines, there you will make your nests, there you will multiply, there you will shake yourselves on the branches of the trees and vines.” Thus it was told to the deer and birds so that they would do what they were supposed to do, and all took their dwellings and nests.

Thus the Progenitors gave their dwellings to the animals of the earth.

And when the creation of all the quadrupeds and birds was completed, they were told by the Creator and Former and the Progenitors:

“Speak, cry out, chirp, call, speak each one according to your species, according to the variety of each one.” Thus it was told to the deer, the birds, lions, tigers, and serpents.

“Say, then, our names, praise us, your mother, your father. Invoke, therefore, Hurricane, Chípi-Caculhá, Raxa-Caculhá, the Heart of the Sky, the Heart of the Earth, the Creator, the Former, the Progenitors; speak, invoke us, worship us!” they said to them.

But they could not be made to speak like men; they only squealed, clucked, and squawked; the form of their language was not manifested, and each one shouted differently.

When the Creator and the Former saw that it was not possible for them to speak, they said to each other:

“It has not been possible for them to say our name, the name of us, their creators and formers. This is not right,” the Progenitors said to each other. Then they said to them:

“You will be changed because it has not been achieved that you speak. We have changed our minds: your food, your pasture, your dwelling, and your nests you will have, they will be the ravines and the forests, because it has not been possible to achieve that you worship us or invoke us. There are still those who worship us, we will make other beings that are obedient. You, accept your fate: your flesh will be ground up. So it will be. This will be your fate.” Thus they said when they made known their will to the small and large animals that are on the face of the earth.

Thus, a new attempt had to be made to create and form man by the Creator, the Former, and the Progenitors.

“Let’s try again! Dawn and the dawn are approaching; let’s make the one who will sustain and feed us! How will we be invoked to be remembered on earth? We have already tried with our first works, our first creatures; but it was not possible to achieve that we were praised and venerated by them. Let’s try now to make beings obedient, respectful, who will sustain and feed us.” Thus they made the human beings who exist on earth.

The Twin Gods: Hunahpú and Ixbalanqué

The Popol Vuh also recounts the exploits of the twin gods: Hunahpú and Ixbalanqué, who descended to Xib’alb’a (underworld) and defeated the Ajawab, and became the Sun and the Moon. Here is a fragment of the story of their birth:

When the day of their birth arrived, the young woman named Ixquic gave birth; but the grandmother did not see them when they were born. In an instant, the two boys named Hunahpú and Ixbalanqué were born. There, on the mountain, they were born.

Then they arrived at the house, but they could not fall asleep.

“Go throw them out!” said the old woman, because truly they cry a lot. And immediately they were placed on an anthill. There they slept peacefully. Then they were removed from that place and placed on thorns.

Now, what Hunbatz and Hunchouén wanted was for them to die right there on the anthill, or to die on the thorns. They desired this because of the hatred and envy they felt for Hunbatz and Hunchouén.

At first, they refused to receive their younger brothers into the house; they did not know them and so they were raised in the field. Hunbatz and Hunchouén were great musicians and singers; they had grown up amidst much toil and need and had gone through many hardships, but they became very wise. They were at once flute players, singers, painters, and carvers; they knew how to do everything.

They knew about their birth and also knew that they were the successors of their parents, those who went to Xibalbá and died there. Great sages they were, for Hunbatz and Hunchouén knew everything about the birth of their younger brothers. However, they did not demonstrate their wisdom, because of the envy they felt for them, for their hearts were filled with ill will towards them, although Hunahpú and Ixbalanqué had not offended them in anything.

The latter only occupied themselves with blowing darts every day; they were not loved by the grandmother or by Hun

batz or Hunchouén. They were not given food; only when the meal was finished and Hunbatz and Hunchouén had eaten, then they arrived. But they did not get angry or enraged, and suffered silently, because they knew their condition and understood everything clearly. They brought their birds when they came every day, and Hunbatz and Hunchouén ate them, without giving anything to either of the two, Hunahpú and Ixbalanqué.

The only occupation of Hunbatz and Hunchouén was to play the flute and sing.

The Hávamál, the High Song or the Sayings of the High One, is a collection of a total of 164 eddic verses that are counted among the Poetic Edda. “High” in “The High Song” or “The Sayings of the High One” refers to the Norse god Odin, who in the poem gives mortal humans advice on how to lead a successful and honorable life. Hávamál, as part of the Edda, belongs to the wisdom literature and is compared to the Indian Vedas or the Homeric poems of Greece. The poem is exclusively preserved in the Codex Regius from the 13th century, which has been kept in the Arnamagnæan Collection in Reykjavík since 1971. In the Codex Regius, Hávamál is included as the second text directly after the Völuspá under the title hava mal, which indicates the high importance attributed to the poem by the compiler of the Codex Regius.

The fact that Snorri Sturluson places the first verse of Hávamál at the beginning of his mythological textbook Gylfaginning and that Eyvindr Skáldaspillir quotes verses of Hávamál at the end of his poem Hákonarmál is taken as evidence that Hávamál was already known in the 10th century. Klaus von See sees a series of dependencies on Latin poetry, especially the Disticha Catonis, whether directly or through the mediation of other Old Norse poems like the Hugvinnsmál, and also quotes other works that point to Seneca and other literature known in the Middle Ages.

Theodoricus Monachus, who wrote the Historia de antiquitate regum Norwagiensium in the 12th century, knew Plato, Chrysippus, Pliny, Lucan, Horace, Ovid, Virgil, the Church Fathers such as Origen, Eusebius, Jerome, and Augustine, and the late antique or medieval authors Boethius, Paulus Diaconus, Isidore of Seville, Bede, Remigius of Auxerre, Hugh of St. Victor, and Sigebert of Gembloux. This means that the Archbishop’s library in Nidaros was well stocked as early as the 12th century.

The earliest editions

In 1665, a very unreliable edition was published by Peder Hansen Resen, followed by editions in 1818 by Rasmus Christian Rask and Arvid August Afzelius, in 1828 by Finnur Magnússon, in 1843 by Franz Dietrich, and in 1847 by Peter Andreas Munch. The subsequent editions were based on Munch’s edition.

Content

Already in the 19th century, it was noted that the work was composed of several parts, with the number of parts and their boundaries being disputed. Hazelius assumed five parts, Müllenhoff apparently assumed six parts in 1883, and Finnur Jónsson in his monograph Hávamál (Copenhagen 1924) even assumed seven parts. The subheadings Ládfafnismál (“Loddfafnir’s Song”, verses 111–138), Rúnatal þáttr Óðinn (“Odin’s Rune Song”, verses 139–142), and Ljóðatal (“Magic Songs”, verses 147–165) are not found in the manuscript. Today, some scholars assume a division into three parts: Part I (verses 1–76), Part II (verses 78–110), and Part III (verses 111–165). According to this classification, the first part ends with the famous verse:

“Deyr fę,
deyia frǫndr,
deyr sialfr it sama;
ec veit einn
at aldri deýr:
domr vm dꜹþan hvern.”

Cattle die,
kinsmen die,
all men are mortal;
but words of praise will never perish
nor a noble name.

Here, some have wanted to see Christian echoes, as a similar train of thought can be found in Ecclesiastes 3:19. However, not everything that is similar must depend on each other.

In terms of content, the first two (of three assumed) parts deal with wisdom for life and rules of conduct. The parts differ in that in the first part, all possible topics are addressed and consistently described in the verse form Ljóðaháttr, while the teachings of the second part focus on wealth and gender relations. Klaus von See identifies the first-person narrator, who reports on his own views and experiences in some verses, quite naturally with Odin for the entire poem. Ottar Grønvik, on the other hand, sees him as an authorial narrative poet who reports on his development and also serves as a representation of people in relation to the divine. However, at one point in the first part, it is clearly Odin. The poet critically distances himself from Odin when he reduces Snorri’s Skáldskaparmál’s celebrated acquisition of poetic mead to a simple drinking spree.

The second part differs from the first part formally in that between the verses in the verse form of Ljóðaháttr, there are also simple list verses, e.g., verses 84–86. Practical advice, such as in verses 80–82, is also missing in the first part. They could be of a later date, but verse 80 must be very old, as it advises to praise a woman only after she has been cremated. The verse probably dates from the time of cremation. The same applies to verse 70. In the second part too, there are references to Odin that portray the god in an unfavorable light. In the first, Odin recounts the embarrassing failure of a forbidden love affair (verses 95–101). This passage is probably old because in verse 96, the word “Jarl” is used as the highest social position, indicating the pre-monarchical era. The second Odin story (verses 104–110) depicts Odin as a ruthless and immoral god. The ice giants inquire about “Bölverkr” in verse 109, which means evildoer. Here, too, Odin is not portrayed as a positive hero. In the past, Odin’s denigration was seen as having Christian influence. Today, it is assumed that there were not only tensions between paganism and Christianity but also within paganism between different cults. However, the poet was not irreligious, as verse 79 shows, in which he attributes the holy runes to the gods. Due to his moral standards, which he applies to Odin’s behavior, the poet can, with some probability, be assigned to the peasant religion of Thor and Freya.

The much-discussed verse 111 introduces the teachings of Loddfafnir:

Mál er at þylja
þular stóli á
Urðarbrunni at,
sá ek ok þagðak,
sá ek ok hugðak,
hlýdda ek á manna mál;
of rúnar heyrða ek dæma,
né of ráðum þögðu
Háva höllu at,
Háva höllu í,
heyrða ek segja svá:

It’s time to speak
from the seat of the speaker. (Þulr).
At the Well of Urd
I sat and was silent,
sat and pondered,
listened to the speech of men;
about runes I heard them speak,
and they did not withhold counsel
in the hall of the High One;
in the hall of the High One
I heard such things said:

The last verse of the Hávamál picks up this formulation, so it can be assumed that originally only this part between these framing stanzas bore the name Hávamál and was an independent poem.

The discussion revolves around the person of the “Þulr” (speaker) in the second line, which is often identified with Odin. Karl Müllenhoff, however, demonstrated through usage examples also in Old English that Þulr is a human speaker in the king’s hall, a powerful man. Therefore, he changed “manna mál” in line 6 to “Háva mál”. According to his view, the first-person narrator is a human speaker on the speaker’s chair who reports to the people what he heard at Urd’s Well, where Odin himself instructed him and addressed him as “Loddfafnir.” He refers to him as a rogue because in verse 113, he pretends Odin advised him not to get up at night unless he needed to urinate or was assigned as a guard. Müllenhoff dismisses verse 112 as a later addition. He was essentially followed by Finnur Jónsson. Sophus Bugge kept the text and interpreted verses 111ff. so that Loddfafnir sits on the speaker’s chair and announces to those present the religious revelation he received from Odin and initiated men about Odin’s self-sacrifice (verse 139). According to him, Loddfafnir is not a real person but a mythical-poetic figure. Axel Olrik saw a connection between the magical framework of the sorcerers (Seiðhiall) and the chair of the Þulr and considers the chair to be a magical prop. W. H. Vogt then emphasized the relationship between Völva and Þulr. He sees the high seat of the Völva and the poet’s chair of the Þulr on the same level.

A particular difficulty is that the Þulr is said to have received his revelation both at Urd’s Well and in the hall of the High One, which is commonly equated with Valhalla. However, both places were thought of as far apart in Norse mythology: Valhalla with the gods and Urd’s Well under the world tree Yggdrasil. A newer interpretation resolves this contradiction by suggesting that the hall of the High One is not Valhalla but a cult house dedicated to Odin and Urd’s Well is one of the sacred springs in close proximity. This assumes that there was originally no internal connection between the first two parts and the concluding third part, so that the designation “the High One’s Hall” in the last Odin adventure of the second part (verse 109), which clearly refers to Valhalla, cannot be transferred to the third part. The runes that the men speak of may be certain mystical-religious chants, as they are also referred to as runes in Vafþrúðnismál verse 42.

The name “Loddfáfnir” is composed of the two word stems “Lodd” and “favne” and a suffix -nir (e.g., Vafþrúðnir, Fjósnir in verse 12 of the Rígsþula and more), which was common at the time. “Lodd” poetically stands for “woman” and “fáfnir” is traced back to “faðmr”, “to embrace”. *Faðmnir is the Embracer and Loddfáfnir “he who embraces the woman”. From the immediately following stanzas, which deal with marital fidelity, one can imagine an honest man who passes on the firm moral norms of the peasant society, which he heard in the hall. This leads to verse 139:

Veit ek, at ek hekk
vindga meiði á
nætr allar níu,
geiri undaðr
ok gefinn Óðni,
sjalfr sjalfum mér,
á þeim meiði,
er manngi veit
hvers af rótum renn.

I know that I hung on a windy tree
nine long nights,
wounded with a spear, dedicated to Odin,
myself to myself,
on that tree of which no man knows from where its roots run.

The last two lines are considered a later addition because they adopt the description of Yggdrasil under the name “Mímameiðr”, from which no one knows which root it grows from. Here, however, it is a sacred sacrificial tree on earth, to which the remark does not apply because no one knows where it is located.

The spear was Odin’s weapon and it played a special role in the sacrifice. With it, the sacrifice was wounded as a sign that it was dedicated to Odin. Adam of Bremen writes in his Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum about the sacrificial ceremonies in Uppsala, stating that they lasted for nine days and that each day a man was hanged on the sacrificial tree. The ritual sacrifice described in verse 139 would have taken place at the beginning of such sacrificial ceremonies, and the first sacrifice hung on the tree for as long as the celebration lasted. However, the first two lines of the following verse indicate that the Hávamál was not an ordinary fertility sacrifice:

Við hleifi mik sældu
né við hornigi;
nýsta ek niðr,
nam ek upp rúnar,
æpandi nam,
fell ek aftr þaðan.

No bread did they give me nor a drink from a horn,
downwards I peered;
I took up the runes,
screaming I took them,
then I fell back from there.

The one sacrificed was not hung by the neck to die, but by the body, so that he could peer downward, and thus he acquired the runes. Learning by loudly speaking the material was the customary method of instruction at that time. By “runes” are meant the religious secrets and magical knowledge in fixed mnemonic verses, and they contrast with the bread and livestock of the fertility sacrifice. The image of the hanged sacrifice may also be described in verse 135:

oft ór skörpum belg
skilin orð koma
þeim er hangir með hám
ok skollir með skrám
ok váfir með vílmögum.

From shriveled skin
often comes wise word,
(of) the one who hangs with hides
and dangles among animal skins
and floats alongside sons of misfortune.

In Vestfold, remnants of a tapestry were found depicting nine men hanging from a tree. It is believed that Odin is speaking here. Sophus Bugge saw Christian influence in this, assuming a parallel to the crucifixion of Christ. This view was also recently supported by Britt-Mari Näsström. However, it contradicts the fact that the Bible does not speak of a sacrifice of God to himself but of the redemptive suffering of Jesus, who is a person of God distinct from the Father. Grønvik therefore assumes that it is not Odin but the Þulr from verses 111 and 112, who is the first-person narrator, experiencing a mystical union with Odin in ecstasy, as described for mystics in many religions. This mystical union with Odin simultaneously constitutes an initiation rite for a Þulr, as has been suggested earlier. It follows the notion that Odin hung in the World Ash Yggdrasil in mythical times. Yggr is one of Odin’s many names.

Grønvik believes to have found hints on the runestones of individuals referred to as Þulr. On the Snoldelev Stone from Zealand, it says, “Gunvald’s stone, son of Roald, tul in Salhauku(m)” (= Salløv).

Ethics

The philosophy of the poem is rooted in the belief in the worth of the individual, who nonetheless is not alone in this world but connected through an inseparable bond with nature and society. The cycle of life is complete and indivisible. The animate world, in all its manifestations, forms a harmonious whole. Violations against nature have immediate repercussions on the individual themselves. Each individual is responsible for their own life, happiness or unhappiness, and creates their own life from their own resources.

Pyramidion is the term used in archaeology to refer to the pyramid-shaped top, last, or final stone of a pyramid—called benbenet in Ancient Egyptian, associated with the so-called Benben—as well as the pyramid-shaped tip of an obelisk. Pyramidia from pyramid structures have nearly the same proportions as these structures and represent them in a reduced or condensed form. In the Old Kingdom, this form was carved out of a block of diorite, granite, or limestone. Often, the sides are inscribed and coated with electrum.

Discoveries

Not many pyramid tops from Egyptian pyramids have been found so far. For some of the findings, also due to the state of preservation, it is not certain whether they actually sat atop a pyramid and, if so, which one. Some may have also belonged to an obelisk.

From the Old Kingdom come the earliest ones. The limestone fragments of the pyramidion, now restored and standing in front of the Red Pyramid of Sneferu in Dahshur, which are about 5 feet high (see top illustration), are dated as the oldest to the time before 2620 BCE. Also belonging to the 4th Dynasty is the pyramidion of the cult pyramid (G I-d) of Khufu at the southeast corner of the Great Pyramid of Giza, and also the square base of a pyramidion of a subsidiary pyramid (G III-a) of Menkaure south of the Pyramid of Mykerinos, both in Giza and made of limestone.

From the Middle Kingdom and attributed to the 12th Dynasty are fragments of pyramidia made of red granite near two queen’s tombs of the pyramid complex of Senusret I in el-Lisht, inscribed fragments of the pyramidion of the pyramid of Senusret II in el-Lahun, as well as the inscribed one made of black granite from the pyramid of Amenemhat III in Dahshur (see illustration below).

Two uninscribed pyramidia made of black granite from the Second Intermediate Period, both at the entrance of a begun tomb construction (the South Pyramid), also in South Saqqara, and several fragments of the inscribed pyramidion from the pyramid of Khendjer, as well as, according to its inscription, that of the (so far unlocated) tomb of Aya I, all from the 13th Dynasty, also from the 17th Dynasty, that of the mudbrick pyramid of Nubkheperre Intef in Dra’ Abu el-Naga.

From the New Kingdom, numerous pyramidia are decorated according to a fixed image schema, from officials’ tombs, whose superstructure could be built as a brick pyramid at that time. This includes the 1.65 feet high pyramidion of Mose or Mes, a scribe of the 19th Dynasty during the time of Ramesses II, which was made of limestone in the 13th century BCE and is now housed in the Hildesheim Roemer and Pelizaeus Museum.

Geometric Proportions

The found pyramidia correspond in their shape to the idealized geometric body of a straight pyramid based on a square. Some have a rectangular base, most have a square base; differences exist in the dimensions of the base and the height, or in the size of the base and the slope of the sides. For a regular straight pyramid on a square base, the angle of inclination α of the four sides of the lateral surface results from the respective ratio of height h to base b (tan α = 2•h / b). For example, for a pyramidion on a square base with four exactly equilateral triangles as lateral surfaces, where all 8 edges are of equal length, an inclination angle of 54° 44′ (rounded height to base length ratio) results here.

Approximately that inclination angle was realized around 2650 BCE in the Old Kingdom during Pharaoh Sneferu’s first attempt to build a large unstepped pyramid in the 2nd construction phase of the Bent Pyramid on a square base of about 620 feet (190 m) in base length; however, due to the technical difficulty of stabilizing the enormous load of the structure, its upper part was then executed in the final 3rd construction phase with a shallower slope at an angle of about 44°. With this inclination angle, subsequently, 1.2 miles north on a larger base (base measurement about 720 feet), the first unstepped and un-bent large pyramid was erected, the roughly equally high Red Pyramid of Sneferu on the plateau of Dahshur.

Details of the Pyramidion of Amenemhet III.

The pyramidion of the structure also known as the Black Pyramid, which Pharaoh Amenemhet III of the 12th Dynasty in the Middle Kingdom had erected in Dahshur at the beginning of his reign, still before 1800 BCE, was found there in the rubble at the east base in the year 1900 CE. The pyramid-shaped capstone measures about 6 feet as the base length of the square base and about 4.6 feet in height; it is made of black granite and inscribed all around. Possibly, the stone, like the tips of some obelisks, was previously covered with electrum, a metallic alloy of gold and silver. The slightly worn smooth surface, however, also suggests that this pyramidion was never placed atop a pyramid.

During the construction of the Black Pyramid in Dahshur, subsidence and cracks in the structure, which was too heavy for its foundation, became apparent.

Each physician in ancient Egypt had a specialty. The Greek historian Herodotus reported from a trip to Egypt:

“Each physician treats one disease, not several; some are physicians for the eyes, others for the head, for teeth, for the abdominal region, for gynecology, or for diseases of uncertain localization.”

Origin of Obstetrics

Min is the god of fertility. Tauret, a goddess with a hybrid body—part hippopotamus, part crocodile—with lion’s paws, protects the mother and child during childbirth. She is supposed to scare away spirits that could harm the child. She is often accompanied by the dwarf god Bes, who has the same function.

The goddess Hathor, the goddess of maternity and fertility, was called upon to assist the child and the mother, through incantations:

“Place barley and wheat in two linen bags with sand and dates; urinate on them every day; if the barley and wheat germinate, she will give birth; if the barley germinates first, it will be a boy; if the wheat germinates first, it will be a girl; if they do not germinate, she will not give birth.

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“

In a way, an ancient pregnancy test.

But for medical reasoning to be developed, physicians had to get rid of the idea that pregnancy is due to the intervention of supernatural powers, gods, or demons.

• one of the Kahun papyri, dating back to the XII dynasty, is a gynecology manual and mentions a disease that devours tissues (cancer);
• Egyptian physicians had noticed the beneficial action of honey in gynecology;
• in the 14th century, condoms were made with animal bladders as a means of birth control.

To give birth, women squat on four ritual bricks, the Meskhenet, and let midwives proceed with childbirth. The placenta is preserved to make medicinal remedies. Women are then secluded for fourteen days to purify themselves, as they are contaminated with their blood and therefore impure. They will then return to see their child.

The Ebers Papyrus is one of the oldest known medical treatises; it dates back to the 16th century BCE, during the reign of Amenhotep I. It’s the most important text for understanding ancient Egyptian medicine. It appears as a list of remedy recipes with a brief indication of the ailment to be treated. It’s difficult to interpret because some medical terms remain mysterious and most substances have not been identified. It’s often regarded as the emergence of medical and pharmacological thought in a religious or magical universe.

Discovery, Translations, and Preservation

The Ebers Papyrus was part of a clandestine find under poorly known circumstances. It was likely a chest or a small library from the Ramesseum, also containing the Edwin Smith Papyrus and the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus.

In 1862, in Luxor, the lot came into the possession of Edwin Smith, who kept the Smith papyrus for himself and sold the other two. The Ebers Papyrus was purchased by the German Egyptologist Georg Moritz Ebers on behalf of the University of Leipzig library.

It was Ebers who named and published the papyrus in 1875. It’s a facsimile reproduction. Ebers didn’t attempt a translation, but provided an introduction with comments and an Egyptian-Latin glossary.

Early Translations

In 1890, Heinrich Joachim, a physician from Berlin, provided a rather controversial German translation: Papyros Ebers. Das älteste Buch über Heilkunde.

In 1937, Bendix Ebbell published a new translation, aiming to give precise identifications to the names of diseases, plants, and minerals used.

From 1954 to 1963, under the direction of Hermann Grapow, the Ebers Papyrus was part of the large German edition of Egyptian medical texts in eight volumes, the Grundrisse der Medizin der alten Ägypter (often abbreviated in French as Grundriss).

The first French translation (partial translation) was by Gustave Lefebvre, who provided excerpts in his Essay on Egyptian Medicine in the Pharaonic Period (1956).

In 1987, Paul Ghalioungui published a new English translation.

Preservation

In Leipzig, in the 19th century, the Ebers manuscript was cut into twenty-nine pieces to be placed under glass. A transcription from hieratic to hieroglyphs was published in 1913 by Walter Wreszinski, which divided the one hundred and ten pages of the original manuscript into 877 numbered sections.

The original manuscript is complete, in perfect condition, written in exceptional hieratic quality, and easily readable from beginning to end.

During World War II, the manuscript was protected in the Deutsche Bank vault in Leipzig, then moved and safely housed at Rochlitz Castle (Rochlitz, sixty kilometers southeast of Leipzig). According to an anonymous testimony published in 1951, when the manuscript was found in 1945, it was not inside the castle but hidden in the kennel under a pile of rubbish. Seventeen pages out of one hundred and ten were lost and four were damaged (due to the broken glass protection).

The Ebers Papyrus is still preserved in the University Library of Leipzig. Like all papyri, the greatest threats are excessive light and humidity.

It’s one of the longest written documents found in ancient Egypt. The scroll consists of one hundred and ten pages (columns); it’s about twenty meters long by thirty centimeters wide, in forty-eight sheets of about forty centimeters long, glued in such a way that the right edge of one sheet covers the left edge of the other, with the text read from right to left.

Titles and quantities are written in red ink, the rest in black. The author is unknown, but the text appears to have been written by a single highly skilled scribe. There are no spaces between words (usual practice), a few mistakes, and some missing words (omitted) have been added in the margin; their placement in the text is indicated by a red X.

It’s the most important medical work from ancient Egypt because it’s a guide presenting the entirety of pathology for a physician in their daily practice, with corresponding prescriptions. “Nowhere else will you find as much information to define the medical thought of the time.”

Dating

The Ebers Papyrus gathers texts from different dates and origins, which can be divided into groups bringing together several successive paragraphs. It appears as a compilation of older texts to which “new recipes” are added. This represents a long tradition of empirical knowledge and observations.

It was mainly written in the 16th century, around 1550 BC, or during the reign of Amenhotep I. Some Egyptologists give more recent dates and cite instead the reign of Amenhotep III in the 14th or 15th century (variable date according to Egyptologists).

Furthermore, the Ebers Papyrus contains information on the date of Ramses II’s succession to the throne of Egypt. Ramses II succeeded his father around 1304 or 1279 – 1278. The date varies depending on how the Sothic date of this papyrus is interpreted.

The most recent dating is based on the style of writing, comparison with other similar manuscripts, and the presence of a calendar on the back mentioning the ninth year of the reign of Amenhotep I (late 16th century BCE). A carbon-14 dating, conducted in 2014, confirms these data (around 1500 BCE).

Contents

The Ebers Papyrus contains exactly 877 formulas (recipes organized into paragraphs from Eb.1 to Eb. 877). It doesn’t present itself as a modern treaty but rather as a formulary (a list of prescriptions) where diseases are most often named or described concisely rather than diagnosed.

It includes a prologue (Eb.1 to Eb.3) of magical protection formulas aimed at protecting the physician from the demons that cause diseases.

From Eb.4, the actual medical compendium begins, which can be divided into thirty-three groups, each consisting of a list of recipes for the same ailment or type of ailment. In the following presentation, the term “large group” can mean both the length of the text and its importance for understanding Egyptian medicine.

Large Group 1 (Eb.4 to 187) deals with diseases inside the body, naming the main causes and corresponding recipes. It includes diarrhea, intestinal worms, and pains and burns during defecation.

Large Group 2 (Eb. 188 to Eb. 220) is devoted to diseases of the “entrance/opening of the inside-ib,” meaning the exits of all the body’s ducts connecting the organs (such as the aerodigestive entrances).

Group 3 (Eb. 221 to Eb. 241) deals with diseases associated with the heart-haty; Group 4 (Eb.242 to Eb. 260) with protective ointments and diseases of the head; Group 5 (Eb. 261 to Eb. 283) with urinary conditions; Group 6 (Eb. 284 to Eb. 293) concerns nutrition.

Group 7 (Eb. 294 to Eb. 304) is intended to combat setet (pathogenic beings circulating in the body’s ducts); Group 8 (Eb. 305 to Eb. 325) against the secretion-seryt causing cough; and Group 9 (Eb. 326 to Eb. 335) against parasites-gehou responsible for wheezing.

Large Group 10 (Eb. 336 to Eb. 431) deals with eye diseases.

Group 11 (Eb. 432 to Eb. 436) deals with bites; Group 12 (Eb. 437 to Eb. 476) with hair care; Group 13 (Eb. 477 to Eb. 481) with liver diseases; Group 14 (Eb. 482 to Eb. 514) with burns, blows, and scars; and Group 15 (Eb. 515 to Eb. 542) with wounds and hemorrhages.

Group 16 (Eb. 543 to Eb. 550) deals with pathological formations and secretions; Group 17 (Eb.551 to Eb. 555) with abscesses-benout; Group 18 (Eb.556 to Eb. 591) with swellings-chefout; and Group 19 (Eb. 592 to Eb. 602) with blood that eats and substances that corrode.

Group 20 (Eb. 603 to Eb. 615) is dedicated to leg conditions; Group 21 (Eb. 616 to Eb. 626) to fingers and toes.

Large Group 22 (Eb. 627 to Eb. 696) concerns the ducts-met.

Group 23 (Eb. 697 to Eb. 704) deals with tongue conditions; Group 24 (Eb. 705 to Eb. 738) with skin and body surface; Group 25 (Eb. 739 to Eb. 749) with teeth.

Group 26 (Eb. 750 to Eb. 756) deals with pestilential diseases and demons; Group 27 (Eb. 757 to Eb. 760) with the impact of the right side by the substance-rouyt; Group 28 (Eb. 761 to Eb. 763) impacts by the exudate-rech.

Group 29 (Eb. 764 to Eb. 782) deals with ear conditions.

Group 30 (Eb. 783 to Eb. 839) is devoted to remedies for women.

Group 31 (Eb. 840 to Eb. 853) concerns remedies for the household (protecting against undesirable animals).

Large Group 32 (Eb. 854 to Eb. 856) consists of the “Treatise on the Heart” and the treatise on oukhedou (circulating pathogenic substances).

Large Group 33 (Eb. 857 to Eb. 877) represents the “Treatise on Tumors.”

Magical Protections

The prologue of the Ebers Papyrus includes several protection rituals. These are invocations or prayers to be recited before touching the patient, applying medication, a bandage, or removing such a bandage.

These texts are written in the first person; they have been interpreted as being spoken by the patient or by the physician on behalf of the patient. However, according to Bardinet, they were pronounced by the physician for his own protection.

The physician invokes protective gods, mainly Ra, Isis, and Horus, against malevolent (demonic) or opposing forces (the god Seth). According to Bardinet, the physician seeks to magically identify with Horus in his mythical struggle against Seth by directly addressing Isis, Horus’s protective mother. “Daily medical activity will ultimately reproduce the constantly renewed conflict between Horus and Seth, between the organized world and the disorganized and wild world.”

The patient is also assimilated to Horus, but to Horus as a child incapable of defending himself, while the physician is the adult and active Horus. Thus, the physician and his patient are close and fight together. According to the Grundriss, the physician is the magical substitute for the patient; Bardinet disagrees with this interpretation, as “the physician never takes on the patient’s illness himself.”

Magical rituals are found in other parts of the papyrus, particularly in difficult or dangerous situations. These prayers refer to mythical battles, repeated daily, such as those of the crew of the solar barge. The physician can also be aggressive, casting curses against demons and malevolent beings to disrupt their harmful world.

Medical Knowledge

Diverse Approaches

The various translations of the Ebers Papyrus imply diverse interpretations, particularly regarding anatomical and pathological denominations, names of animals, plants, and minerals. Not all Egyptian terms have corresponding modern terms. Early versions, like Ebbell’s 1937 version, which claim to provide precise identifications for each Egyptian term, are considered outdated by modern Egyptologists. These older versions are still quite often referenced.

Conversely, and for the same reason, authors like Gustave Lefebvre considered Egyptian knowledge to be imprecise or undeveloped. According to Bardinet, this knowledge is simply different and must be studied differently depending on its context. Bardinet gives an example, concerning anatomy, of the current technical vocabulary of butchery (such as beef cutting), which indeed represents precise knowledge adapted to practical use.

Another approach is to seek analogies between Egyptian and Greek medicine, with the idea of an influence of the former on the latter, which remains hypothetical. Greek concepts (such as phlegm, miasma, etc.) are then used to approach Egyptian terms. According to Bardinet, the flaws are the same as those of modern identifications: Egyptian medical thought is diluted in a context that is not its own, appearing as approximate or even childish.

The medical interpretations of the Ebers Papyrus are made for two different purposes: “understanding from the outside,” approaching the pathological reality of ancient Egypt (by comparing the text with other historical data and current knowledge), and “understanding from the inside,” approaching Egyptian medical thought (in this case, exact modern diagnosis is less important).

According to Bardinet, one must not confuse the fact that a situation may, more or less plausibly, correspond to a modern diagnosis (such as leprosy, cancer, myocardial infarction, etc.) with the false idea that Egyptian physicians already had modern ideas. Here, the search for and statement of a precise retrospective diagnosis introduce foreign ideas into Egyptian medicine.

Anatomical and Physiological Representations

The constituent elements of the body are not considered to have intrinsic properties; they are subject to higher forces of divine origin. The elements of the body (substances, liquids, breath, etc.) come from a primordial liquid universe, the Noun. All gods and beings of creation originate from it, through processes of generation, life, and death. These are processes of binding, nurturing, and generating (nourishing blood, milk, semen, etc.), opposed to processes of dilution, blocking, or destruction (blood that eats, corrosive substances, etc.). These processes themselves are considered to be living beings.

In the Ebers Papyrus, the main concepts concerning the structure and functioning of the body are the heart-haty (the heart organ and its major vessels, which are central and anterior) and the interior-ib (which fills the shet, the body cavity corresponding to the thoracic and abdominal cavities, and extends into the limbs). The heart-haty is the seat of consciousness, of the will that carries out desires, closely related to the interior-ib, the seat of sensations and emotions.

The entrance/opening of the ib, or ro-ib, represents the stomach, the upper digestive tract. At is called any part of the body that has a name. According to Grapow and Lefebvre, embalmers and physicians had about a hundred words to designate the different parts of the body.

The body is traversed by ducts-met with their own walls through which bodily fluids, nourishing substances, and vital breath circulate. In ancient Egypt, the human body “is an animated body and not an incarnated soul.”

Main Pathogenic Entities

Disease is linked to direct divine interventions. It most often comes from the outside, in the form of a demon, a dead person (deceased), a harmful breath, or “animated substance-beings” that enter the body, particularly through its orifices.

Disease manifests as displacements and false paths, various obstacles to the natural circulation of bodily fluids and secretions. Disease is a struggle between the animating breaths of binding and formation and the disruptive breaths of dissolution and disorganization. This struggle often takes place in the ducts-met, which can be too rigid, blocked, worn, or distended.

According to Bardinet, this divine or magical context did not prevent the emergence of medical reflection, based on daily observation of repetitive phenomena, in search of a “logic” that combines facts (pathological reality) with medical speculation, to build a practice. “We have here writings composed by physicians, for the use of other physicians.”

The Ebers Papyrus mentions four major circulating pathogenic factors:

• The âaâ is a bodily fluid that seems to refer to the water of the Nile; like it, it is a fertilizing liquid, a seed. In pathological cases, âaâ is a fluid emitted by the bodies of demons, capable of transforming into other “parasitic” substances (living pathogenic substances).
• Setet are living decomposition substances that are evacuated through the lower abdomen but can cause pain, vomiting, and discharge from the orifices of the head by their death or blockage.
• The oukhedou would be the pathogenic emanation of the vital force of excrement. It is a bodily substance that opposes nourishing blood and can associate with it, to reverse it into eating blood or blood that eats. Oukhedou are the origin of pus formation and putrid phenomena.

The ouhaou are believed to originate from the oukhedou, coming from the inside they manifest on the outside of the body, notably through skin inflammation.

The Treatise of the Heart

The papyrus contains a “treatise of the heart” represented by the passage Eb. 854 to Eb. 856. It begins with three successive titles: “The Physician’s Secret. Knowing the Movements of the Heart-haty. Knowing the Heart-haty.”

Interpretations differ among authors. For some ancient authors, it would be a treatise dealing with anatomy (knowing the heart) and physiology (knowing the movements and functioning of the heart). These authors note that the heart is the center of blood irrigation, with vessels attached to all parts of the body, and that the Egyptian physician palpates the body parts and ducts-met to examine the beats, take the pulse, or even count them.

For other authors (modern ones), it is not only about the heart organ in the modern sense, but about an Egyptian heart-haty capable of moving (changing position). It would then be a treatise on medical diagnosis aimed at establishing the position and involvement of the heart-haty. Pulse-taking is also recognized, but it is not about counting it but about “taking a measure” (evaluating) a diseased state. Palpation is part of a qualitative overall assessment aimed at assessing the nature and extent of the ailment throughout the body.

The heart is described in its relationships with the interior-ib. In its normal state, it is in a perfect and stable position on its fixed support (the meket); in its diseased state, it can start dancing, fluttering its wings, banging against the walls, or falling by sinking into the depth. The heart-haty “speaks in front of each conduit-met of every part of the body.”

This treatise lists ducts-met that start from the head orifices to reach the heart-haty. From there, they go towards the inside (interior-ib) and the four limbs, to gather at the anus. The “treatise of the heart” would not really be a “cardiology book” but rather a “book of paths” of pathogenic entities.

The Treatise of Tumors

This treatise is represented by the passages Eb. 857 to Eb. 877. “It is one of the greatest texts of Egyptian medicine and also one of the most difficult texts to interpret.” It establishes a kind of differential diagnosis between different types of abscesses and tumors based on their content: those filled with pus and those filled with something else. Tumors are distinguished by their color, firmness (hard, soft…), mobility or fluctuation (literally “rolling under the fingers”), heat, and presence of pain.

Depending on the cases, the treatment consists of ointment, surgery (“treatment with a knife”), or therapeutic abstention (“prepare nothing against it”).

Swellings and tumors filled with pus are called henhenet swellings. Pus is produced internally by a corrosive substance called oukhedou that gathers externally in a “pouch” (âat). The pus derives from an upward secretion from digestion (what was intended for the formation of flesh has been transformed into pus).

Other tumors are said to be filled with “fat,” “superficial flesh,” “like something swollen with air,” liquid, or various substances. For example, tumors filled with oukhedou manifest at the extremities of the body, those of substance-sefet refer to a tar of vegetable origin, evoking necrosis or gangrene.

The most feared tumors are “those formed by the god Khonsou.” The text indicates “it is something bewitched that is before your face,” presenting itself in multiple pouches and producing secretions—shepaou—against which nothing can be done. The papyrus ends on the size-ânout “formed by the massacres of the god Khonsou.” When it is multiple and hot, nothing can be done; otherwise, it can be cured.

Pathological Interpretations

The Ebers Papyrus mainly consists of a list of formulas, and most of the time, the conciseness of the text mentioning ailments hardly allows for retrospective diagnoses. Most interpretations are based on those of Ebbell in 1937, but several are no longer accepted or considered barely plausible. As a general rule, hypotheses are accepted when they are compatible with other historical data, such as the paleopathology of Egyptian mummies.

Digestive and Thoracic Ailments

The medical compilation of the Ebers papyrus begins with what appears to be digestive pathology: diarrhea, including bloody diarrhea, constipation, and various obstructions… A large place is given to ano-rectal diseases. The mention of what could be stomach cancer is doubtful, while the pictures of cholecystitis, intestinal obstructions, and digestive hemorrhages appear plausible. Several recipes “to treat the liver” are listed, but without any corresponding clinical description.

This digestive pathology can be associated with a thoracic pathology represented by “forgetfulness, fleeing, or stabbing of the heart,” which would represent palpitations and precordial pain. A passage (Eb. 191) has been interpreted as angina pectoris, a manifestation of myocardial infarction.

“If you proceed to examine a man afflicted at the entrance of the interior-ib; and he is affected in the arm, chest, and (on) one side of the entrance of the interior-ib; and people say about it; ‘it’s the (disease) green!’ (= popular diagnosis) You shall say about it: ‘It is (something) that has entered the mouth, it is a dead person who travels through it.’”

According to Bardinet, the description may correspond, but the Egyptian author has no idea of a heart disease: it is a problem of a conduit traversed by a dead person. The recipe given aims to strengthen the patient and evacuate this pain through the anus.

Urinary and Parasitic Afflictions

Urinary pathology is represented by the substance-chepen which causes pus in the urine. Other disorders appear to be urinary retention, enuresis, and cystitis. Passages concerning “an overflow of urine that escapes” have raised the possibility of polyuria due to diabetes mellitus.

The disease by âaâ with red urine would be bilharzia. The importance of the condition is indicated by the number of recipes (about twenty). The presence of the disease in ancient Egypt is certain and extremely widespread; it was detected in nearly half of the tested mummies, but it is difficult to know what the Egyptians knew about it. According to Bardinet, the frequency of parasitic hematuria indicated less of a disease than a particular human type, those inhabited by or in relation to a god, here the god Seth, a reference to the color red.

Several intestinal worms are mentioned, including the ver-hefat, the ver-pened… Their exact identification remains debated, but given other historical data, they could represent the hookworm, the roundworm, or the Taenia saginata.

Furthermore, the mention of dracunculiasis is possible, by combining two passages (Eb.617 and Eb. 876), but more by its demonstrated existence in ancient Egypt than by the clarity of the text. According to Bardinet, Eb. 617 would be a myiasis problem, and the “7 knots” of Eb. 876 a magical conjuration, rather than an allusion to traditional treatment (see section examples of recipes).

Ocular and ENT Afflictions

An important passage is dedicated to eye diseases: about a hundred recipes are presented as intended to combat the agents of these diseases. According to Bardinet, it is always difficult to match Egyptian words with ophthalmological reality (modern terms), but the Egyptians took note of what they could observe in the eyes (water, pus, blood, harmful substances, harmful beings…). Commentators have recognized conjunctivitis, blepharitis, styes, ectropion, chalazion, corneal opacity, etc.

Cataracts would be referred to as “water rising in the eyes”, on the grounds that the Latins used the term suffusio to designate it, but cataract surgery is not mentioned (it was introduced in Egypt in the Hellenistic period).

A passage indicating “uterine secretions in the eyes” has been interpreted as a gonococcal infection (gonococcal iritis), which has been contested by others, with historians disagreeing on the presence of this condition in antiquity.

On the other hand, manifestations indicating trachoma appear plausible, as its historical character and widespread occurrence in pharaonic Egypt are widely accepted, notably as a leading cause of blindness. There are many Egyptian representations of blind musicians, especially harpists, whose eye is depicted by a line or whose eyeball lacks an iris.

The fact that recipes may contain beef liver (vitamin A) would indicate a treatment for night blindness.

Afflictions by exudate-rech would represent ENT conditions, as it makes the “seven holes of the head” (mouth, nostrils, eyes, and ears) painful, which suggests sinusitis, rhinitis, otitis, etc. Deafness is attributed to a cutting demon or heseq, that interrupts the hearing conduits.

Passages dedicated to mouth and dental conditions do not propose an ordered classification of lesions, but they are varied enough to see a set of periodontal diseases (dental caries and wear, abscesses and oral infections, gingivitis…) sometimes related to a “corrosive substance”.

In such a context, the Ebers Papyrus has the reputation of being one of the first texts in history to describe scurvy. However, this diagnosis remains improbable, as it is not confirmed by paleopathology data. Periodontal diseases found (Egyptian mummies) are common but attributed to an alteration of oral flora or to the poor quality of antiquity flours that contained mineral particles from millstones or stone mortars (sometimes the addition was deliberate to obtain a finer flour). Consumers of these flours were exposed to premature tooth wear.

Gynaecological Conditions

The Ebers Papyrus gives considerable attention to menstrual disorders: amenorrhea and dysmenorrhea. Uterine prolapse is mentioned. Recipes are provided for inflammatory conditions of the vulva, vaginitis, and endometritis. Burning sensations or odor perception have been subjected to microbiological interpretations. Commentators have noted the possibility of uterine cancer, which is likely but difficult to confirm. The same applies to breast cancer, for which there is no clear mention.

A contraceptive recipe in the form of a pessary is given “to not have a child for one, two, or three years” (Eb. 783).

Around twenty other preparations (vaginal preparations, suppositories, fumigations, etc.) are intended to facilitate childbirth and placental expulsion. Egyptian women gave birth on a “birthing brick.” Recipe Eb. 789 specifies that the medication should impregnate “the brick lined with fabric.” According to Bardinet, “this little text teaches us in passing that they had thought to stuff it.”

Other recipes address breast conditions and breastfeeding problems. A magical formula, called the “conjuration of the breast,” is provided (Eb. 811): “This is the breast where Isis was affected in the marsh of Chemmis when she gave birth to Shou and Tefnout. What she did was conjure the breasts with the iar plant, with a pod of the seneb plant, with the bekat part of the reed—all this to drive away the action of a dead man, a dead woman, and so on. This will be prepared in the form of a band turned to the left, which will be placed where the action of the dead man or woman is (with the following words): Do not cause evacuation! Do not produce substances that corrode! Do not produce blood! Be careful that darkness does not develop against humans! Words are to be said about [each of the ingredients already mentioned] and about the band turned to the left, to which seven knots are made.”

Children are rarely mentioned. There are predictions about the fate of the newborn such as “If one hears its plaintive voice, it means that it will die. If it places its face toward the ground, it also means that it will die” (Eb. 839). A recipe is given against incessant crying and screaming (Eb. 782).

There is also a recipe for bleeding after circumcision (see the recipe example section). The mummy of Prince Sipaari or Ahmose-Pairy (New Kingdom) at the age of five or six, bore traces of circumcision.

Tumors and Swellings

The treatise on tumors has been widely interpreted. Tumors related to the conduits-met would be aneurysms. The authors propose diagnoses for each paragraph: scrofula, inguinal hernia, varicose veins, cystic tumor, polypoid tumor, etc. The presence of cancer or neoplastic tumors can be indirectly deduced, but there is no clear indication of malignancy, except for the tumors of the god Khonsou.

States of liquid swelling, more or less generalized, have been interpreted as equivalents to the historical diagnosis of dropsy (obsolete medical term) corresponding to edemas or effusions (for example, ascites) related to states of heart, liver, or kidney failure, or parasitic or malnutrition-related conditions.

The swelling-ânout by “massacre of the god Khonsou” would be a mention of leprosy; this diagnosis, proposed by Ebbell in 1937, is no longer accepted by more modern authors by comparison with other historical data, particularly paleopathology.

Pestilential and Other Afflictions

The pestilences occurring at certain times are attributed to demons-nesyt or “a morbid breath that passes.” The Ebers Papyrus offers protection recipes, such as this one (Eb. 756): “Other (remedy): testicles of a newborn donkey. It will be finely ground, put in wine, and drunk by the man. Then he (the demon-nesyt) must immediately flee.” Here, the donkey would be a Sethian animal, whose testicles represent the formidable seed of the god who drives away demons.

Several inflammatory skin conditions are mentioned under the term, among others, kakaout. This term has persisted in Coptic to mean “pustule, blister.”  Some authors relate it to the Arabic kalkal, “to swell, to fill with air.”

These conditions have been interpreted as erysipelas (streptococcal infection) and anthrax (staphylococcal infection). Others have also seen herpes, shingles, smallpox, etc. All of these diagnoses are considered “provisional suggestions.”

Furthermore, protective ointments to cure headaches and prevent relapses suggest the existence of migraines. Tremors are attributed to substances-setet or substances-daout that block the conduits-met. A recipe for finger tremor aims to “drive away (the substances that cause) the tremor found in the fingers”.

Mental Afflictions

Mental disorders are mentioned in the “Book of Hearts,” such as deafness and pathological anger due to “sagging of the conduits-met,” or wear of these conduits with age, which has been interpreted as depression, dementia, or Ménière’s disease. These mentions suggest that the Egyptians did not make a fundamental distinction between mental and physical illnesses.

Pharmacopoeia

Difficulties

The Ebers Papyrus mentions several hundred substances, but for modern Egyptologists, 70 to 80% of these ingredients have not been identified. Therefore, reproducing the prescriptions is very difficult. Similarly, this lack of exact determination hardly allows for deducing the presumed mode of action (pharmacological reality in the modern sense).

The Egyptian pharmacopoeia of the time used mineral, plant, and animal substances, whose denominations do not necessarily correspond to a modern equivalent. For example, for plant substances, the Egyptians did not have the modern notion of species. A plant recognized by the Egyptians is a plant integrated into a “phytosociological unit” corresponding to a particular use, or to a different knowledge (plant categories, or elements of plants, specific to the Egyptians). In the case of gum and resin names, modern Egyptologists have abandoned the idea that an Egyptian name designates a single substance and its producer. The Egyptians were not seeking a “botanical origin” but “qualities” corresponding to their “phytoreligious” beliefs.

Substances more or less identified

Among the identified substances, the most frequently mentioned minerals are clay, copper, galena, malachite, natron, ochers, and salt (terrestrial and marine).

The most commonly identified plants are: acacia, wheat, spelt, barley, fava bean, juniper berries, frankincense, barley, pyrethrum, castor oil plant, reed, willow, sycamore, valerian… There are also vegetables (garlic, celery, peas, edible tuber, lotus…), fruits (date, fig, jujube, grape…), and spices (coriander, cumin…). The Ebers Papyrus mentions many derivative products (beers, wine, lees, oils, flours and breads, gums and resins, mucilages…).

Expressions such as “snake wood,” “image of Horus,” “image of Seth,” “baboon hair,” “mouse tail”… are names of unidentified plants (the text mentioning leaf or root).

Animal substances are represented by products such as bone marrow or teeth; fat, liver, or testicle; blood, urine, semen, or milk; bile and excrement, etc. They come from mammals, the most frequently mentioned being the donkey, cat, goat, deer, gazelle, hippopotamus, pig, mouse, and bull; for birds, it is the ostrich, swallow, and vulture; snakes, lizards, crocodiles, and turtles are mentioned, as well as fish and frogs. The Egyptians also used flies, beetles, and scorpions. Honey occupies a very important place.

Logic of use

The first commentators distinguished in the Egyptian pharmacopoeia what was “demonic” or “excremental,” belonging to a “barbaric imagination” of magicians, and active plant substances belonging to medical knowledge. Their association would be explained thus: “Respect for tradition, customer habits are partially the cause.” According to Gustave Lefebvre, “The doctors, moreover, must have given preference to the remedies of their own composition, which had at least the merit of not being repugnant or ludicrous.”

According to Bardinet, Egyptian recipes must be approached as a whole. Far from being absurd or contradictory, they present internal coherence—a logic based on presumed causes. It becomes possible to speak of medical reasoning based on “physiological considerations” (the traditional conception of the body and the world in ancient Egypt).

For example, the Egyptians believed that human generation (formation of the fetus and development of the infant) was the result of divine forces acting through paternal bone-seed, and maternal blood-milk. The same divine forces act for each particular animal (animal related to a god, see List of Egyptian deities by animal). This idea helps to understand the presence of semen, bone marrow, blood, or milk… of human or animal origin, in Egyptian recipes.

These recipes aim to capture divine forces for the benefit of the patient, such as the “blood of the horn of a black bull” (Eb. 454) used to treat scalp diseases. This blood, taken near the horn, is supposed to be of superior virtue, since it produces a black coat by nourishing the horn. Another recipe combines “boiled donkey hoof” and “bitch vulva blood” (Eb. 460), aiming to bring together the two forces of generation, bone-seed, and blood-flesh according to the invoked gods.

Excremental ingredients (sometimes called “coprotherapy”) are also considered to have autonomous vital force. They are intended to directly oppose demons or other harmful entities. It is then a repulsive action, to evacuate, chase away, or kill them as the case may be. This type of recipe “aims both to heal the patient and to protect the physician.”

Other products and means act by “mechanical” virtues: it is a matter of cooling what is too hot, softening or toning, emptying or filling, unblocking and circulating, etc.

Examples of Recipes

Examples from the Ebers Papyrus (translated by Thierry Bardinet):

• To cleanse the inside of the body: 1 cow’s milk, 1 incised fruit of the sycamore, 1 honey. It will be finely ground, cooked, and ingested for four consecutive days (Eb. 18).
• To expel the alterations found in a man’s body: castor seeds. It will be chewed and swallowed with beer until everything inside his body comes out. (Eb. 25).
• To drive away all the ailments found in one side of the inside of the body: 1 sweet clover, 1 date wine. It will be cooked in fat/oil. Dress with it (Eb. 40).
• To expel the burning substances found at the anus: 1 broad bean flour, 1 plant-djaret powder, 1 frankincense, 1 resin-ihemet, 1 galena. It will be shaped into a suppository and inserted into the anus (Eb. 155).
• The ointment with catfish skull against migraine (Eb. 250), here interpreted as the bandage on the head of a crocodile in clay with medicinal plants in its mouth.
  For migraine (literally: the pains that are on one side of the head): catfish skull, fried in fat/oil. Rub the head with it, for four consecutive days (Eb. 250).
• To drive away the seryt secretion that causes coughing: 1 realgar, 1 men resin, plant-ââam. It will be finely ground. (to be told to the patient) You must take seven stones and heat them in the fire. One stone will be coated with the medicine and placed in a new pot with the bottom pierced. You must insert a reed stem into the hole, and place your mouth to inhale the vapor. Do the same with each stone (Eb. 325).
• Another makeup, to open the view: 2 galena, 2 goose fat, 4 water. It will be placed in the eyes (Eb 401).
• For a burned spot on the first day: 1 peret-cheny fruit, 1 edible tuber rhizome, 1 cat’s dung. It will be mixed into a homogeneous mass with gum water and applied to it (Eb 498).
• To drive away the benout abscesses found in the teeth and make (re)grow the superficial flesh (=gum): 1 besbes plant, 1 incised fruit of the sycamore, 1 ineset plant, 1 honey, 1 terebinth resin, 1 water. It will be left at rest overnight in the dew and chewed (Eb 554).
• To extract a thorn when it is in the superficial flesh: donkey dung. It will be mixed with mucilage and placed on the orifice (entry point of the thorn) (Eb. 728).
• Remedy for an abnormal ear that concentrates pus: 1 moringa oil, 1 terebinth resin, 1 sekhepet liquid. It will be poured into the ear (Eb. 768).
• Home remedies, to prevent mosquitoes from biting (against stings): fresh moringa oil, smear with that (Eb. 846), to prevent mice from reaching something: cat fat, it will be placed on all things (Eb. 847).
• To make a woman cease to be pregnant for one year, two years, or three years: acacia part-qaa, plant-djaret, date. It will be finely ground with a vase-hénou of honey. Impregnate a plant tampon with it which will be placed in her vagina (Eb 783).
• For a painful breast: 1 calamine, 1 bull bile, 1 fly dung, 1 ochre. It will be prepared into a homogeneous mass. Rub the breast for four consecutive days (Eb. 810).

Some old translations or interpretations considered questionable:

• Dracunculiasis (Guinea worm): “wrap the emerging end of the worm around a stick and slowly extract it” (3,500 years later, this remains the standard treatment). This is a passage from recipe Eb. 876, whose translation by Bardinet is: “If you find that the affected area is red, round, like (after) a stick blow, (this) being caused by the ‘blow’ struck at all things that are in any part of the body, and for which seven knots are made (magical conjuration). You must say it is the sefet substance of a conduit-met, it is a ‘blow’ struck to a conduit-met that causes this.”
• A circumcision? : “Remedy for a foreskin (?) that is cut (circumcised) and from which blood comes out: drst, honey, cuttlefish bone, sycamore, dsjs fruit, it will be mixed and applied to it” (Eb. 732). Bardinet’s translation is “Remedy for an acacia thorn where when extracted, blood comes out: 1 plant-djaret, 1 honey, 1 nes-che, 1 sycamore, seeds of the djas plant. It will be prepared into a homogeneous mass and applied to it.”
• The recipe for continuous crying of the child (Eb. 782): “poppy capsules, wasp droppings found on walls. Mix into a mass, filter and take (by the patient) for four days. (The cries) cease immediately” (translation Lefebvre). Bardinet’s translation is: “parts-chepennou of the chepen plant, fly droppings on the wall. It will be prepared into a homogeneous mass, filtered, then absorbed for four consecutive days. (This) will stop perfectly.”

Modern translations are more cautious and do not attempt to guess precise identifications based on presumed contexts.

Birth of Pharmacognosy

The Ebers Papyrus would indicate the emergence of medical thought (observation, diagnosis, and prognosis) in a religious or magical context, but also the appearance of pharmacognosy which seeks to organize knowledge about therapeutic substances.

The structure of the recipes is a prototype of modern prescription comprising: the indication of an ailment, the naming of substances, their quantity or proportion, the type of preparation (grinding, filtering, cooking…), the vehicle or excipient (beer, water, honey, lees…), the dosage form (decoction, powder, pill, suppository, ovule…), the route of administration (oral, topical, rectal, vaginal, inhalation, fumigation…). Most recipes mention an evolutionary stage of the ailment, the time of prescription during the day, as well as the duration of treatment. Some mention the season or the age of the patient.

In 1876, after the publication of the Ebers Papyrus, Gaston Maspero formulated the following judgment: “With the little that the Egyptians knew, there may have been some merit in finding it nearly thirty centuries before our era.” Many mineral and plant substances mentioned in the papyrus retained medicinal use until the 20th century.

Several authors have sought a pharmacological interpretation supporting the presumed real effectiveness of certain ingredients. The most often cited is that of vitamin A contained in the fat and liver of animals. According to Gustave Lefebvre (with J.F. Porge), “Every bile contains cholic acid, and it is from this acid that our chemists synthetically prepare cortisone.”

Some authors believe that the infectious risk of excrements would be offset by a high immune resistance. Similarly, for the contraceptive recipe in the Ebers Papyrus, fermenting acacia gum produces lactic acid with proven spermicidal power, dates contain phytoestrogens, and honey has antiseptic properties.

Hippias of Elis (circa 470 BCE, Elis in the Peloponnese — after 399 BCE) was an ancient Greek philosopher-sophist and mathematician, a contemporary of Socrates. He was distinguished by the encyclopedic nature of his knowledge and the breadth of his interests. In addition to philosophical treatises, he wrote literary works in epic, lyrical, and tragic genres. He is the author of the world’s first history of philosophy. In his homeland, the philosopher was often entrusted with diplomatic missions.

Hippias’s philosophical ideas laid the foundation for the emergence and further development of egalitarianism and cosmopolitanism. Hippias is classified among the “older sophists,” whose names are associated with the emergence of the philosophical direction of sophistry. Hippias is also known for his achievements in mathematics. His name is linked to the description of the quadratrix and the solution to the angle trisection problem.

Hippias is a character in several Socratic dialogues by Plato and Xenophon. These dialogues depict philosophical disputes between Hippias and Socrates. Considering that the works were written by Socrates’s students, Hippias may be portrayed in a somewhat distorted manner.

Biography

Hippias was born in Elis, a region in northwest Peloponnese, around 470 BCE. In the 10th-century encyclopedia “Suda,” Hippias’s father is named Diopithes.

Biographical information about Hippias is scarce. He gained fame due to his extensive knowledge in many fields of study. In antiquity, he was nicknamed “the polymath” (Greek: Πολυΐστωρ, Polyistor). Even among other sophists who possessed encyclopedic knowledge, Hippias stood out for the breadth of his interests. In addition to philosophical treatises, he created literary works in various genres (epic, lyrical, and tragic). He is credited with compiling a list of Olympic victors, which was of great significance for dating various events in Greek history. Hippias authored the book “Collection” (Greek: Συναγωγή), which, according to one version, was the first history of philosophy. His approach to its creation was revolutionary. While Hippias’s predecessors may have referred to various philosophers only to criticize their assertions, he aimed to show that the teachings of predecessors and contemporaries depended on the “opinions of the ancients.” According to a more widespread version, the “Collection” was a compendium of information on natural philosophy and genealogy. In this book, Hippias attempted to find the origins of philosophy in mythology. For example, in the teaching of Thales of Miletus that “water is the principle of all things,” Hippias saw a connection with the myth of the primordial god Oceanus.

In Elis, Hippias was entrusted with diplomatic missions, most often to Sparta. Hippias also visited Athens, where he had the opportunity to debate with Socrates and other famous philosophers of the time.

Hippias possessed numerous practical skills. At Olympia, he demonstrated the ability to be self-sufficient, using only items he had handmade — shoes, a cloak, a chiton, a belt, a ring, and items necessary for ablutions.

As a teacher of wisdom, Hippias charged his students large sums of money. In addition to philosophy, he taught astronomy, music, geometry, phonetics, mnemonics, and meteorology. Hippias was distinguished by excellent oratory skills and an extraordinary memory. He became famous for his ability to deliver a speech on any topic without prior preparation.

The late antique author Tertullian claimed that Hippias was “killed because he was plotting against his city.” According to historian S. Dushanich, this event could have occurred around 385 BCE. Possibly, Tertullian identifies Hippias the philosopher with his namesake — the tyrant of Athens, who, after being exiled, began to serve the Persians and participated on their side in the Battle of Marathon. Historians usually date Hippias’s death as “after 399 BCE.” It is associated with Socrates’s mention of Hippias in his defense speech at the trial in 399 BCE.

Philosophical Teaching

Hippias is classified among the elder group of sophists, whose names are associated with the emergence of this direction in philosophy. He believed that in life, one should be guided primarily by the laws of nature, rather than human decrees. Nature unites people, while law separates them. If the law is opposed to nature, it will bring suffering. Hippias laid the foundation for the desacralization of human laws, subjecting their very existence to criticism. However, his conclusions were not destructive in nature. Based on natural law, there should be no division among citizens of different city-states, nor should they be discriminated against based on their origins. Moreover, in this concept, slavery is considered unnatural, as it arose not “from nature” but “from transient social relations.” Hippias’s ideas laid the groundwork for the emergence and further development of egalitarianism and cosmopolitanism.

Hippias is credited with authorship of one of the earliest contractual theories of the origin of the state and law. The philosopher’s line of reasoning can, with certain allowances, be reproduced as follows. There are “written” and “unwritten” laws. Unwritten laws are observed in all countries. They could not have been created by people, as they are physically incapable of gathering together and determining what can and cannot be done. Thus, unwritten laws are natural. Written laws are created by the citizens of each specific city-state and country. Accordingly, written laws differ. Hippias did not deny their necessity, but he noted that law does not always bring good. Moreover, a bad law, which does not ensure the “natural” rights inherent to all people, is harmful. The need for periodic changes in legislation indicates its imperfection. Thus, Hippias explained the existence of numerous independent state entities. Perhaps he also advocated for the existence of some kind of analogue of international law common to all states.

It is not impossible to exclude the authenticity of Hippias’s statement in “Protagoras” that intellectuals are kin and citizens “by nature,” although not so by law. It can be considered an attempt to find justification for the solidarity of the scholarly community against the backdrop of external conflicts between their native city-states.

The assertion that Hippias considered self-sufficiency or autarky as the goal of life is an anachronism. It is based on a fragment in which Hippias is depicted as a “jack of all trades,” capable of making everything necessary by himself. Information from ancient texts may only indicate that Hippias, based on his own example, considered autarky achievable.

Mathematical Achievements

Hippias is associated with the discovery of the quadratrix, which he used to solve the angle trisection problem. In scientific literature, there is an opinion that the quadratrix was described by a certain Hippias the mathematician, namesake of the philosopher. Hippias’s discoveries in the field of curves prompted the famous politician, philosopher, and mathematician Archytas of Tarentum to conduct research. Proclus Diadochus, in one of his comments on Euclid’s works, wrote: “Thus, Apollonius derived the main characteristic for each of the conic sections, Nicomedes for the conchoid, Hippias for the quadratrix, and Perseus for the spirals.” The transcendent curve of Hippias received the name quadratrix later, when Dinostratus was able to solve the problem of squaring the circle with its help. Therefore, it may also be called “Dinostratus’s quadratrix.”

Hippias’s merit in this case lies in the continuous correlation of two uniform motions — circular and rectilinear. Another ancient mathematician, Sporus, opposed such an approach: “Indeed, how can one make two points move from B in uniform motion so that one point comes to A along a straight line and the other point comes along the arc to D, if we do not know from the very beginning how the lengths of this straight line and arc relate to each other? After all, it is precisely in this respect that the speeds of both movements should be.” However, despite the fact that solving the problem using the quadratrix cannot be considered truly geometric, the quadratrix itself is used to solve various mathematical problems.

Hippias in Plato’s and Xenophon’s Socratic Dialogues

Hippias is portrayed as an active participant in three Socratic dialogues by Plato — “Protagoras,” “Hippias Major,” and “Hippias Minor,” and also mentioned in “Apology” and “Phaedrus.” The dialogue between Hippias and Socrates is the subject of Chapter IV of Book IV of Xenophon’s “Memorabilia of Socrates.” These works describe philosophical disputes between Hippias and Socrates. Plato and Xenophon were disciples of the latter. Hippias represented the opposite direction to the “Socratic” philosophy — sophistry. These sources are very important in describing the details of Hippias’s biography but may present the philosopher in a somewhat distorted light. Diogenes Laërtius (2nd–3rd century) also emphasized that “Even speaking in the voice of Socrates and Timaeus, Plato presents his own doctrines. And he refutes false opinions by introducing such characters as … Hippias … and others like them.”

Plato ridicules Hippias’s numerous knowledge, considering them superficial. At the same time, he portrays the philosopher as a foolish and boastful person with a lack of self-criticism. Hippias’s main motive is presented as a passion for gain. Greed is alien to Hippias. Money is not an end in itself for him but a measure of success. The opinions he expresses with great confidence turn out to be incorrect. In dialogues with Socrates, he suffers a complete defeat.

In “Hippias Major,” despite his knowledge, the character is portrayed as a foolish person. He cannot understand the difference between the particular and the general, between essence and appearance. When asked “What is beauty?” — Hippias answers: “A beautiful girl.” Socrates is interested in “beauty in itself, thanks to which everything else is adorned and appears beautiful — as soon as this idea attaches itself to something, it becomes a beautiful girl, mare, or lyre?” The dialogue formulates the idea that the definition of a concept is the definition of its essence, which should be understood as the unity in the diversity of its manifestations. Towards the end of the conversation, even Hippias, despite his foolishness, begins to guess what Socrates wants from him.

In the works of Plato and Xenophon, Hippias becomes the object of Socrates’s irony, which causes his indignation. So, to the question: “Your discovery is a great boon to humanity: … I, of course, will not leave you until I hear your account of the discovery of such a great blessing” — Hippias, to avoid getting into a comical situation, avoids answering: “you will not hear this, … enough of you mocking others — asking everyone questions and refuting them, while not wanting to give an account yourself and not wanting to express your opinion on anything.”