Category: History

Revealing the profound ideological and political divisions of pre-1914 France, the Dreyfus Affair triggered a severe political crisis that, from 1896 to 1899, caused a deep split in public opinion. It all began on October 15, 1894, when Captain Alfred Dreyfus, of Alsatian and Jewish origin, was arrested at the Ministry of War. Military authorities accused him of transmitting military secrets to the German embassy.

They relied on writings (the infamous bordereau), the graphological analysis of which supposedly concluded that they were penned by Dreyfus. Let’s delve into a judicial error that shook the fledgling Third Republic.

The Dreyfus Affair

On the eve of the Dreyfus Affair, France, still reeling from the humiliating defeat of 1870 and the loss of Alsace-Lorraine, which led to the downfall of the Second French Empire, sought solace in the sanctification of the army—a staunch defender against the German enemy and protector of institutions. Espionage was rampant. In late September 1894, a cleaning lady discovered pieces of a memorandum in the waste bin of Maximilian von Schwartzkoppen, a military attaché at the German embassy. The memorandum had been written by a French officer who was about to depart for maneuvers.

Swiftly, suspicions fell upon Captain Alfred Dreyfus, an Alsatian of Jewish origin.

Deported off the coast of Guyane and held in secret, Dreyfus endured the horrors of the penal colony, his health deteriorating rapidly. His case returned to the spotlight with revelations by the new Chief of Intelligence, Lieutenant Colonel Picquart. In early 1896, Picquart intercepted a document authored by Commander Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy, associated with the German embassy, featuring handwriting identical to that of the memorandum.

Dismissed by the military high command to whom he reported his findings, Picquart, despite being instructed to remain silent, eventually reveals the truth to Auguste Scheurer-Kestner, an Alsatian politician, and a close associate of Clémenceau. Initially reluctant, Scheurer-Kestner becomes an advocate for Dreyfus with the authorities.

After Mathieu Dreyfus, the elder brother of Dreyfus, filed a complaint, Esterhazy faced trial by the end of 1897. Despite mounting evidence against him, Commander Esterhazy was acquitted in January 1898—an outcome celebrated by nationalist circles but vehemently contested by the emerging “Dreyfusards.”

Public Opinion Fractured Between Two Camps

The opinions were divided into two camps: the Dreyfusards, who called for a revision of the trial, and the Anti-Dreyfusards, or Anti-revisionists. Intellectuals were involved. Senator Ludovic Trarieux established the League of Human Rights. Jules Lemaître and François Coppée responded by creating the French Homeland League. Two value systems clashed.

The anti-Dreyfusards were unwilling to question the legal decision or doubt the military. This was seen as essential for the integrity of the nation and the maintenance of social order. According to them, the revisionists embodied anti-France. They even absolved Colonel Henry of being the author of a “forgery” to support the official thesis (Henry eventually committed suicide). This denial of the facts stemmed from a new, antipositivist mindset.

In contrast, the Dreyfusards, by condemning the actions of some officers, claim not to harm the army and present themselves as true patriots and guardians of the traditions of the French Revolution. They advocate for the defense of the individual, fight for justice, with France having the mission of “being the teacher of law for Europe,” and criticize the alliance of the “sword and the crosier,” as the Church, for the most part, sided against Dreyfus.

Émile Zola’s Open Letter

The “Dreyfusards” were led by the writer and journalist Émile Zola. In his article “J’Accuse…!” published in the newspaper L’Aurore on January 13, 1898, Zola appealed to President Faure, denouncing the injustice done to Dreyfus. The captivatingly titled article achieved significant success, selling 300,000 copies within hours. As Charles Péguy noted, the impact was so extraordinary that Paris almost turned on itself. The Dreyfus Affair sparked a nationwide public debate in France, giving rise to fratricidal passions. Anti-Semitic riots, particularly in Algiers, disturbed the country, and the Third Republic momentarily appeared to waver.

In response to this turmoil, authorities overturn Dreyfus’s initial verdict, and the captain returns to the mainland for his second trial. Once again, justice exhibits rare partiality by condemning the accused, this time to ten years in prison, allegedly with mitigating circumstances. On September 19, 1899, ten days after the verdict, President Loubet pardoned Dreyfus, a way of finally delivering justice without losing face.

The Annulment of the Judgment and the Rehabilitation of Dreyfus

The legal resolution of the Dreyfus Affair occurred only in 1906, when the Court of Cassation overturned the verdict of the military tribunal in Rennes, acknowledging that Dreyfus’s conviction was “wrongly” pronounced. The true culprits, including Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy, who was in exile in the United Kingdom, were never condemned. Dreyfus, reinstated in the military, served his country during World War I and rose to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel.

Alfred Dreyfus passed away in 1935, and there was a time when the idea of transferring his ashes to the Panthéon alongside the illustrious advocate of his cause, Émile Zola, was considered.

Chronology of the Dreyfus Affair

October 15, 1894: Arrest of Captain Dreyfus

General Mercier, Minister of War, orders the arrest of French Captain Alfred Dreyfus. The officer is accused of providing confidential military information to Germany. He will be charged based on a mere resemblance of handwriting on a document found at the German Embassy in Paris. Behind this accusation lies another reality, a religious one, as Captain Dreyfus came from an Alsatian Jewish family.

This seemingly ordinary espionage story will lead to one of the most serious political crises of the Third Republic, becoming known as the “Dreyfus Affair” and dividing France between Dreyfusards and Anti-dreyfusards.

December 22, 1894: Dreyfus Pronounced Guilty

Alfred Dreyfus is sentenced to life imprisonment for espionage in favor of Germany. He was sent to Devil’s Island in Guyane on January 21, 1895. His conviction triggered an ideological battle in France between “Dreyfusards” and “Anti-dreyfusards” when intelligence chief Commander Picquart requested a retrial in 1898. Captain Dreyfus’s condemnation becomes the infamous “Dreyfus Affair.”

January 5, 1895: Dreyfus’s Degradation

Condemned to life imprisonment, Dreyfus undergoes a humiliating procedure: he is degraded in the grand courtyard of the Saint-Cyr military school in Paris during a parade. An engraving immortalizes this procedure and is circulated in French newspapers. Military justice believes it will put an end to the Dreyfus affair by showing firmness against those who betray the Fatherland.

However, a victim of an unfair trial where he and his lawyer couldn’t even see all the evidence against him, Alfred Dreyfus, proclaims his innocence. People who want to know the truth will bring up the affair again in 1896.

June 4, 1898: Foundation of the League of Human Rights

Against the accusations of Dreyfus and Zola in the same affair, a new social concept emerges for intellectuals. They gathered in January 1898 to defend the Dreyfusard cause and establish the “League for the Defence of Human Rights.” Banned under Vichy France, the LDH was later reformed and still exists.

June 3, 1899: Opening of the Second Dreyfus Trial

The Court of Cassation having finally overturned the 1894 judgment, the military court must again judge Alfred Dreyfus, this time in Rennes. Dreyfusards are optimistic about the trial’s outcome, believing that the truth is already known: according to them, Dreyfus will be acquitted and recognized as not guilty of treason. Moreover, the climate in France is dire, and anti-Semitic leagues, now very virulent, are prohibited.

To avoid a nationalist coup, Waldeck-Rousseau had indeed ordered arrests, including the challenging arrest of Jules Guérin. But to everyone’s surprise, the trial will continue and once again incriminate Dreyfus.

September 9, 1899: Dreyfus Again Convicted

The verdict of Dreyfus’s second trial shatters the hopes of the Dreyfusards: the military officer is declared guilty and sentenced to ten years in prison. It was a perplexing sentence for many observers, but the judges granted him mitigating circumstances to reduce his sentence.

Antidreyfusards rejoice while condemning this leniency. In a climate close to nationalist insurrection, the judgment seems political: a compromise to save the honor of the state and the army. Ten days later, under the advice of Waldeck-Rousseau, President Émile Loubet pardons Dreyfus.

September 19, 1899: Dreyfus Pardoned

Following the advice of his Prime Minister, Waldeck-Rousseau, President Émile Loubet pardons Alfred Dreyfus, who had been sentenced to 10 years of imprisonment just days before during the revision of his trial. The French officer, wrongly accused of divulging military information to the German army during the 1870 war, had been sentenced to life deportation on Devil’s Island in Guyane in December 1894.

The mobilization of Dreyfusards, notably Émile Zola, had led to his retrial. The day after the presidential pardon, Alfred Dreyfus is released. The five-year-long “affair” that divided France comes to an end.

March 5, 1904: The Court of Cassation Accepts the Request for the Revision of the Dreyfus Trial

Alfred Dreyfus’s efforts for his rehabilitation achieved an initial victory in French justice. The Court of Cassation, known for its independence, agrees to review the Dreyfus case to potentially overturn the Rennes judgment of 1899 and request a retrial. A year and a half later, the judgment will indeed be overturned without a retrial being requested; Dreyfus will be officially rehabilitated.

July 12, 1906: Rehabilitation of Captain Dreyfus

Stripped of his position as captain in the French army in 1894 on suspicion of disclosing military secrets to Germany, Alfred Dreyfus is rehabilitated by the Court of Cassation in Rennes. After serving five years of penal labor in Guyane, he was declared guilty of high treason in 1899 and sentenced to 10 years in prison.

However, all evidence attests to his innocence and the guilt of another officer, Commander Esterházy. Pardoned by President Émile Loubet in September 1899, Alfred Dreyfus is reinstated in the army with the rank of battalion chief and decorated with the Legion of Honor.

October 26, 1906: Georges Clemenceau Assumes the Presidency of the Council

The Minister of the Interior forms a cabinet that includes René Viviani as Minister of Labor and General Picquart, who distinguished himself in the Dreyfus affair, as Minister of War. Georges Clemenceau retains the Ministry of the Interior. Internationally, he stands out, among other things, by maintaining peace with Germany while reforming the army to be prepared for any conflict.

June 4, 1908: Émile Zola Enters the Pantheon

Six years after Émile Zola’s death, his ashes were transferred to the Pantheon. This decision, desired and voted for by socialist deputies, triggered violent reactions from the nationalist right. They still reproach Zola for his involvement in the Dreyfus affair, especially through his letter “J’accuse,” and unleash a torrent of hateful insults against the writer and journalist, the left, and Dreyfus. Moreover, the latter is the victim of an assassination attempt by a journalist from “Le Gaulois,” while anti-Semitic demonstrations punctuate

Paris wakes up under the rain on Tuesday, December 2, 1851. Early risers gather in front of white posters plastered on the walls: a decree and two proclamations. The first announces the dissolution of the National Assembly and the forthcoming convocation of the electors. The first proclamation addresses the army, the “elite of the nation,” invited to defend “national sovereignty.”

In the second, the head of state, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, speaks in the first person: “My duty […] is to maintain the Republic and save the country by invoking the solemn judgment of the only sovereign I recognize in France, the people […].” The impact is total. The very first president elected by universal male suffrage in 1848 had just perpetrated the first coup d’état of the democratic era.

• Also: Second French Empire: Napoleonic Era, Louis-Napoleon, Bonapartism

How Did France Get to This Situation?

Four years earlier, like all the Bonapartes, the one demanding full power was still banished from French territory. Returning from exile in the wake of the February 1848 Revolution, following the fall of the July Monarchy, this eternal conspirator was brought to power on December 20, 1848, by the Party of Order. More of an informal coalition than a structured party, it brought together mainly monarchist nostalgics.

At the end of his four-year presidential term, this “fool who will be led,” in the words of Adolphe Thiers, should have stepped aside in favor of a monarchist candidate. Shunned by both conservatives and Republicans, the presumptive heir to the imperial throne was constantly at odds with the Assembly over his extravagant lifestyle.

However, in the face of this supposed puppet, the political void was abyssal. “The Reds were strong but a minority. The rest consisted of political cliques without massive popular support,” notes historian Louis Girard (in his Napoleon III, ed. Fayard, 1986). Yet, no one reached the popularity of Napoleon’s nephew, renamed the “prince-president.” The problem: according to the 1848 Constitution, the head of state, elected for a four-year term, could not serve a second term. Legally, only a constitutional revision would allow him to retain power.

The Coup d’état of 2 December 1851

The president, like any candidate in a campaign, meticulously curated his image. He conducted numerous tours among the “common people” and the military, showering them with attention. With the support of the people and the army, the head of state was confident in his ability to bend the Assembly to his will. He almost succeeded. On July 19, 1851, the deputies narrowly rejected the constitutional revision.

Consequently, he was legally unable to extend his mandate. From that moment, in homage to his admired figure, Caesar, Louis-Napoleon resolved to take the irrevocable step by initiating a coup d’état.

An inexorable mechanism was set in motion. After leading the Republic for three years, Louis Napoleon had control over all the levers of power: the government, the army, the administration, and the police. Initially, he assigned roles: his half-brother, Count de Morny, the mastermind behind the coup, would take on the Interior portfolio; the prefect of Haute-Garonne, Emile de Maupas, his protege, was promoted to the police prefect of Paris; and the ambitious General Saint-Arnaud was entrusted with the Ministry of War.

On November 1, 1851, the latter issued a circular to the military reminding them of their duty of “passive obedience.” Subsequently, he set a date. The conspirators initially considered surprising the deputies during the Assembly’s vacation, between August and October. The D-day was postponed four times before settling on December 2, a doubly symbolic anniversary marking the imperial coronation of Napoleon Bonaparte (1804) and the victory at Austerlitz (1805, Battle of Austerlitz).

The Murder of Jean-Baptiste Baudin, MP for Montagnard

The day before, as is customary every Monday, a ball had been held at the Elysée. While crinolines swept the floor, Maupas, the police prefect, individually met with the 48 commissioners of the capital. Pretending an imminent threat of a plot, he ordered them to arrest representatives of the opposition. Before dawn, 78 personalities were apprehended, most of them in their sleep. Among them was Adolphe Thiers, the former critic of Louis Napoleon.

Earlier, the famous white posters had been taken to the National Printing Office. As a useful precaution to prevent workers who were quick to revolt from hesitating, the text had been composed in fragments. At 6 in the morning, the Rubicon was indeed crossed: the posters were plastered, the Palais-Bourbon was occupied, and 54,000 soldiers were deployed.

“When the opposition manifests itself, the coup d’état is already consummated and successful,” comments political scientist Emmanuel Cherrier in “December 2, 1851, the archetype of the coup d’état” (Napoleonica Review, vol. 1, 2008). During the morning of December 2, the Parisians indeed remained calm.

“In June 1848,” specifies Louis Girard, “the blacksmiths and ironworkers of the North had almost all risen; on December 2, 1851, the workers were at work, and the shops were open.” The Assembly’s monarchist majority had long eroded public support. So, what was the point of defending it?

Around 11 o’clock, the coup president decided to go out. On the Champs-Elysées, he received a burst of cheers from the troops. At the same time, about 300 deputies—mainly monarchists—voted for the deposition of the head of state and demanded the support of the army. The military immediately responded to the call to lead the protesters to prison. “After one or two days of symbolic captivity,” writes Louis Girard, “the deputies will be released.”

The proponents of the Party of Order were now neutralized. Meanwhile, the Republicans entered the fray. Hunted by the police, a few dozen representatives of the people appealed for insurrection. Among them was Victor Hugo.

On the evening of December 2, Paris still did not flinch. The conspirators were on easy ground. On the morning of December 3, a few barricades began to be erected under the exhortations of about twenty socialist-democrat deputies, adorned with their tricolor sashes, including Alphonse Baudin. Interpellated by a worker who asked, “Do you believe that we are going to get killed to preserve your 25 francs a day?” (the daily allowance for parliamentarians), the deputy retorted, “You will see how one dies for 25 francs!”

A cruel chance: a bullet shot from the barricade just after, injuring a soldier. His comrades immediately retaliated, and Baudin fell, fatally wounded. His disappearance immediately made him an icon of the Republic. Eventually, agitation won over the republican strongholds of central and eastern Paris. As historian Eric Anceau observes, “The people became an actor when Louis Napoleon wanted it to be a simple judge of the accomplished fact” (“The Coup d’État of December 2, 1851,” in Parlement[s], political history review, 2009). The Minister of War, General Saint-Arnaud, hardened his stance: “Any individual caught building or defending a barricade or with weapons in hand will be shot.”

It is Impossible to Prevent People From Protesting

On the following day, December 4th, 1,200 insurgents roamed the old Paris. This was twenty times fewer than in June 1848. However, the tension was palpable: 30,000 soldiers marched on the city. At 3 p.m., in the Boulevards district, a group of “yellow gloves”—a nickname for the patrons of chic cafes—challenged the troops with cries of “Long live the National Assembly.” Had a provocative shot been fired? No one knew. In a panic, the soldiers opened fire without order or warning. On Boulevard Montmartre, even the cannon spoke! 380 people—1,200, according to Victor Hugo—collapsed under the bullets. The City of Light, paralyzed, would move no more.

The Province Goes Up in Flames

As Paris dimmed, the provinces ignited. In Provence and Languedoc, regions aligned with the Republicans, the heart of the uprising was particularly strong. In Manosque, the “red city” of Basses-Alpes, the democratic-socialist mayor led bands of poorly armed peasants to confront the Bonapartists.

Republican columns seized control of the prefecture of Digne and occupied it for several days. In the neighboring Var department, thousands of protesters were arrested, and about a hundred were killed. From December to January, 32 departments in Hexagone (out of a total of 86) were placed under martial law, resulting in nearly 27,000 people being charged. A third would be released, a second deported to Algeria or Guyana, and the rest would be incarcerated or placed under police surveillance.

According to the American historian Ted W. Margadant, this extensive sweep constituted ‘the most significant police repression outside Paris between the White Terror of the 1790s and the Resistance during World War II.”

Bloodbath

In January 1852, the Bonapartist order prevailed throughout France. However, it came at a significant cost. The regime swiftly legitimized bloodshed. Narratives of rapes, looting, and hostage-taking perpetrated by the insurgents circulated in the official press. In Paris, the orchestrators of the coup claimed to have thwarted a monarchist plot; in the provinces, they asserted to have quelled the beginnings of a “jacquerie.”

Moreover, they claimed to have suppressed the latent social revolution. The December 1851 putsch had indeed circumvented a dual deadline: the election of the new president and that of a new assembly. The latter, dominated by the conservative right, could have shifted towards the “reds” in May 1852. This, at least, was the fear of a portion of the population.

It is undeniable that the Republicans, crushed in the legislative elections of May 1849 under the label “democratic-socialists,” hoped for a comeback. To the bitterness of defeat was added a new humiliation by conservative deputies: on May 31, 1850, they repealed universal male suffrage in favor of limited suffrage, subject to residency conditions. A significant portion of the left-leaning electorate, including peddlers and seasonal workers, had been struck off the voter rolls.

The Republicans then withdrew into covert societies or neighborhood organizations run by town leaders. This “enlistment” of rural areas, aimed at regaining control of the Assembly, paved the way for the December uprising. “On the left,” writes Eric Anceau, “the year 1852 had become the object of messianic anticipation.” The Bonapartist coup would prove them wrong.

The rest is known. On December 20 and 21, 1851, less than three weeks after the coup, while a third of the territory was still under martial law, a plebiscite asked the French whether they wished to maintain their trust in the president. The answer: Yes. The consultation was even a triumph, especially in regions swept by repression: 7,439,216 “yes” votes against only 640,737 “no” votes.

The era of the “dictatorship of public safety” begins, where the head of state, the sole master on board, consolidates all powers. On December 2, 1852, exactly one year after his victorious coup d’état, Louis-Napoleon officially became “Napoleon III, Emperor of the French.” The guardian of institutions thus began by violating the Constitution.

“France understood that I had departed from legality only to return to what is right,” he declared after the victorious plebiscite of December 20, 1851. He then made this involuntary admission: “More than 7 million votes have absolved me.” Did he feel guilty? George Sand, the republican muse, wanted to believe it: received in 1853 by the emperor, she saw “a real tear in that cold eye.” Much later, Empress Eugénie would claim that remorse had tormented him throughout his existence.

As early as the spring of 1852, Louis Napoleon sought to soften the condemnations suffered by the insurgents of December. “As soon as he could,” quips Ted Magadant, “he pardoned the victims who agreed to submit. ” The president may have regretted the spilled blood, but he never disavowed the coup d’état. And for good reason: the majority of the French had approved it. Out of fear of the “reds,” disdain for the Assembly, or simple indifference.

Posterity, however, will be decidedly more resentful. “Since 1852, anyone claiming to be a republican in France cannot lend a hand to a coup d’état or become its apologist,” emphasizes historian Eric Anceau.

Louis Napoleon will embody the excesses of executive power for generations. Proof of this is that in 1964, when François Mitterrand, then a deputy from Nièvre, wanted to denounce the Bonapartist excesses of the Fifth Republic and its president, Charles de Gaulle, he used the term “permanent coup d’état.” Only to eventually accommodate the institutions and the presidential prestige once he came to power in 1981.

The Jacquerie, which took place in May and June 1358, was a revolt of peasants from the rural areas of Île-de-France, Picardy, Champagne, Artois, and Normandy during the Hundred Years’ War. It occurred in the context of a crisis in the Kingdom of France: King John II of France (John the Good) was in captivity in England and the dauphin Charles faced opposition from two powerful figures: King Charles II of Navarre (Charles the Bad), a claimant to the French throne, and the provost of the merchants of Paris, Étienne Marcel.

The reasons were numerous, including the unpopularity of the nobility following the defeat at Poitiers (Battle of Poitiers), Étienne Marcel’s revolt in Paris in February 1358, and unrest in the cities of the County of Flanders.

This revolt was short-lived, erupting at the end of May 1358, possibly on the 23rd or 28th, on the border between Île-de-France and Clermontois, particularly in a small village called Saint-Leu-d’Esserent. The main group of rebels was crushed on the 9th and 10th in Picardy, near Mello (the current department of Oise), by an army of nobles assembled by Charles II of Navarre.

What Does Jacquerie Mean?

This revolt derives its name from Jacques Bonhomme, the archetype of the “peasant” or “commoner,” and later a nickname for French peasants in general, likely because they wore short jackets referred to as “jacques.” It was led by an individual named Guillaume Carle, also known as Jacques Bonhomme.

This revolt is the origin of the term “jacquerie,” later used to refer to various popular uprisings by the chronicler Nicole Gilles (died in 1503) in “Les chroniques et annales de la France,” published as early as 1492.

Background of Jacquerie

This rebellion occurred during a challenging period marked by the Hundred Years’ War, which commenced in 1337, and the Black Death epidemic in 1348.

France experienced several defeats, notably at Crécy in 1346, during the reign of Philippe VI, and at Poitiers in September 1356, under the rule of Jean le Bon, who became a captive of the English first in Bordeaux (the capital of the Duchy of Guyenne, a French fief held by the King of England), and later in London (April 1357).

These defeats brought discredit to the French nobility, steeped in chivalry but incapable of overcoming a less chivalrous yet more efficient English army.

The authority wielded in the absence of the king by Dauphin Charles (1338–1388) was contested. Charles II, King of Navarre (1332-1387) and grandson of Louis X of France through his mother, Jeanne de Navarre, considered himself deprived of the French crown due to the decision in 1328 to exclude royal princesses from the succession. In Paris, Étienne Marcel, the provost of the merchants, aimed to establish a certain level of control over the monarchy within the framework of the Estates-General.

In March 1357, a one-year truce was agreed upon. However, this resulted in demobilized mercenary companies, known as the “great companies,” plundering villages and extorting cities without pay.

Charles II of Navarre, incarcerated by John II of France in April 1356, was released by the dauphin in 1357, allowing him to resume his intrigues successfully.

This situation compelled John II of France to negotiate a rather unfavorable treaty with Edward III in January 1358, leading to the open rebellion of Étienne Marcel in February 1358. Paris fell under the control of the provost of merchants, and the dauphin placed the city under siege.

Economic and Social Problems in Town and Country

There are numerous opinions on the causes of this uprising, and although it was triggered by specific circumstances, it can be linked to a series of French medieval peasant revolts and disturbances. This rebellion can also be compared to the English Peasants’ Revolt of Wat Tyler in 1381, the Tuchins’ revolt in Normandy and southern provinces (1356–1384), the Maillotins’ uprising in Paris in 1382, and the Taborite movement (Hussite movement) in Bohemia. To some extent, the 1358 uprising served as a connecting link between medieval peasant revolts and the religious movements of the early modern period.

Historians debate the class character of the Jacquerie, and while acknowledging the presence of nobles among the rebels, they cast doubt on the homogeneity of the movement. In addition to the refusal to pay taxes, the Jacquerie was motivated by the peasants’ desire to defend their dignity. The Jacquerie significantly influenced public consciousness, and henceforth, peasant disturbances were referred to as “Jacquerie” as a generic term.

The reasons for the uprisings may include:

• The Hundred Years’ War, led to increased taxes.
• Famine and diseases in Europe, worsened the already difficult situation of peasants.
• Intensified exploitation of peasants, changes in the economy (trade), and feudal lords, desiring to buy expensive goods from other countries, began demanding monetary dues.

According to the renowned French historian of the Annales School, Georges Duby, the motivating factor for the rebels was military violence: “The Jacquerie was neither a revolt of the poor nor a rebellion against the king. This uprising was an explosion of rage from prosperous peasants of Beauvais, who could no longer bear the exactions of military service. One fine day, gathering in Saint-Leu-d’Esserent, they unleashed their anger, descending on these people as villagers everywhere descended on bandits.”

Guillaume Cale

Guillaume Cale, one of the peasant leaders of the uprising, sought a strong ally in the form of urban dwellers for the scattered and poorly armed peasants. He attempted to establish connections with Étienne Marcel and sent a delegation to Paris, seeking assistance for the peasants in their struggle against the feudal lords. Simultaneously, he headed to Compiègne. However, wealthy urban dwellers prevented the rebellious peasants from entering.

The same occurred in Senlis and Amiens. Étienne Marcel established communication with peasant forces and sent a Parisian unit to help them dismantle fortifications erected by the feudal lords between the Seine and the Oise rivers, hindering the supply of provisions to Paris. However, this unit was later recalled.

By that time, the lords had recovered from their fear and began to act. Against the rebels, both Charles the Bad and the Dauphin Charles mobilized simultaneously.

On June 9, 1358, with a well-trained army of a thousand men, Charles the Bad approached the village of Mello, where the main forces of the rebels were located. Despite significant numerical superiority, the untrained peasants had virtually no chance of winning in open combat. Guillaume Cale suggested retreating to Paris, recognizing the odds. However, the peasants refused to heed their leader’s counsel, insisting that they were strong enough to fight. Cale strategically positioned his forces on a hill, divided them into two parts, and constructed a barricade with carts and debris in front, placing archers and crossbowmen. He formed a separate cavalry unit.

The rebels’ positions appeared so formidable that Charles of Navarre hesitated for a week before deciding to attack. Eventually, he resorted to cunning and invited Cale for negotiations. Trusting his chivalrous words, Guillaume did not secure his safety with hostages.

Repression of the Revolt

A massive crackdown on the rebels ensued. Guillaume Cale was executed after brutal torture (the executioner “crowned” him with a red-hot iron tripod on his head). By June 24, 1358, at least 20,000 people had been killed; the massacre only subsided after the amnesty declared on August 10 by the Dauphin Charles, although many feudal lords chose to overlook it.

Peasant unrest persisted until September 1358. Fearing popular revolt, the royal government hastily negotiated peace with the English.

The Capetian dynasty began with the reign of Hugh Capet in 987. This line of new sovereigns, succeeding from father to son, departs from the old feudal system to establish a monarchical system. In order to assert their power, the monarchs have the support of the Catholic Church. They reconsidered the organization of the kingdom through the involvement of advisers, improved administrative management, and the creation of the Estates-General. The direct Capetian line reigned for 300 years.

In 1328, the death of Charles IV marked a succession crisis. This marks the beginning of the reign of the indirect Capetian line. The House of Valois ascends to the throne with Philip VI. A significant conflict ensues with England: the Hundred Years’ War. The Valois, powerful and reform-minded monarchs, led the Kingdom of France for nearly 250 years.

Upon the extinction of the line, the House of Bourbon, starting with Henry IV in 1589, succeeded them. With an interruption during the French Revolution and the reign of Napoleon Bonaparte, the Capetians ruled until 1848, spanning over 800 years.

Who Was Hugh Capet Who Gave His Name to the Capetians?

Hugh Capet, born around 939–941, is the son of Hugh the Great and Hedwig of Saxony. He has Ottonian descent through his mother and Robertian descent through his father. Upon his father’s death in 956, he inherits significant heritage and power. In 987, the young king of the Franks, Louis V, died without an heir after a horseback fall. The last of the Carolingians, his uncle Charles of Lorraine, is excluded from the succession, and the kingdom’s nobles elect Hugh Capet as the first king of the Capetian dynasty.

On July 3, 987, with the support of the Church, Hugh Capet became king. The coronation takes place in Reims under Archbishop Adalberon. Hugh Capet’s reign marks a major shift in governance, adopting a monarchical system over the previous feudal structure.

The accession to the throne becomes a hereditary right for male heirs. Elections involving the nobility become mere formalities. In contrast to the periods of the Merovingians and Carolingians, there is now a single, unique king from the Capetian dynasty onward.

Who Was Charles IV of France, the Last Direct Capetian?

The son of Philip the Fair and Joan of Navarre, Charles IV (or Charles the Fair), ascended to the throne of France in 1322. His reign lasted only six years before he succumbed to illness. He is the last king in the direct line of the Capetians. His death triggered a severe succession crisis, as he had no male heir. About thirty years later, French jurists invoked the Salic Law to justify the succession of the Capetian kings.

According to the will of Charles the Fair, Philip of Valois was to become the king of France. This nephew of Philip the Fair had already been chosen as the regent. However, there were other claimants, including Philip of Evreux, the King of Navarre, and Edward III, the King of England. Due to an affiliation or kinship through a female line, their candidacy was rejected under the Salic Law.

Edward III contested the decision, leading to a conflict that would evolve into the Hundred Years’ War, lasting over 116 years, between the kingdoms of France and England.

How Did The Capetian Kings Impose Their Royal Power?

The early kings of the Capetian dynasty were regarded as weak rulers. This can be attributed, in part, to a limited royal domain that extended from Paris to Orléans. Furthermore, the lords held considerable power, considering themselves masters of their fiefs without being accountable to any higher authority. This trend persisted from the 10th to the 12th centuries.

To assert their authority over defiant lords, the Capetian kings associated their power with that of God through coronation. The lords were obligated to attend the ceremony, and their mere presence signified their recognition of the king’s authority and power. In other words, the legitimacy of the Capetian dynasty was established through the support of the Catholic Church.

As for the royal domain, it expanded. Any lord refusing to pledge allegiance to the king faced confiscation of their lands. The Capetians did not hesitate to confront rebellious lords militarily, redeem lands from vassals, or form lordly alliances to reclaim coveted lands through inheritance rights.

The power of the Capetians also stemmed from the adoption of a monarchical rather than a feudal system. The presence of advisors around the king significantly improved the administration of the kingdom. They were also responsible for the establishment of the Estates-General.

Numerous Capetian monarchs embodied this newfound power. Philip Augustus, for instance, asserted his authority over the feudal hierarchy and expanded territorial conquests. The reign of Philip the Fair marked unprecedented prosperity and economic power.

Louis IX (or Saint Louis) was a reformer who introduced the presumption of innocence and royal justice while prohibiting acts of revenge and ordeal. He also initiated the 7th and 8th crusades. Charles VII mastered the revolt of feudal lords and restored a faltering economy by implementing a permanent tax.

What’s the Difference Between Direct and Indirect Lineage?

The direct line of the Capetians refers to the kings who reigned from father to son. This period spans from 987, the reign of Hugh Capet, until 1328, the death of Charles the Fair. Indeed, all male descendants of Philip the Fair became extinct from 1314 to 1328. Following this succession crisis, the indirect line of the Capetians ascends to the throne of France, known as the Valois. This house also descends from Hugh Capet. However, Philip VI (or Philip of Valois) is the son of Charles of Valois, who was not a sovereign but the brother and son of a king.

Philip VI of Valois’ accession to the throne is subject to numerous controversies. The most significant dispute comes from Edward III of England, who rejected the appointment of a Valois to the French crown. The British sovereign uses this pretext to satisfy his territorial ambitions. A decade later, the Hundred Years’ War erupted. Among the notable kings of the Valois line, we can mention Francis I, Louis XI, and Henry II.

The indirect line of the Capetians also includes the house of Bourbon, whose lineage traces back to Robert of France, the last son of Louis IX. Among the notable kings of this line, attention can be given to Henry IV, who ended the French Wars of Religion, destabilizing the Kingdom of France.

The Bourbons are credited with consolidating absolute monarchy, particularly through the policies of Louis XIII. The reign of Louis XIV was also pivotal in French history. Louis-Philippe was the last Bourbon to ascend the throne during the July Monarchy.

List of Capetian Kings

Here is a list of the direct line of Capetian kings, along with their dates of birth and death:

• Hugh Capet (939-941 – 996);
• Robert II the Pious (972 – 1031);
• Henry I (1008 – 1060);
• Philip I (1052 – 1108);
• Louis VI the Fat (1081 – 1137);
• Louis VII the Young (1120 – 1180);
• Philip II Augustus (1165 – 1223);
• Louis VIII the Lion (1187 – 1226);
• Louis IX (Saint Louis) (1214 — 1270);
• Philip III the Bold (1245 – 1285);
• Philip IV the Fair or Philip IV of France (1268 – 1314);
• Louis X the Headstrong (1289 – 1316);
• John I the Posthumous (1316 – 1316);
• Philip V the Tall (1293 – 1322);
• Charles IV the Fair (1294 – 1328).

The list of Capetian kings from the indirect line of the Valois:

• Philip VI of Valois (1293 – 1350);
• John II the Good (1319 – 1364);
• Charles V the Wise (1338 – 1380);
• Charles VI the Mad (1368 – 1422);
• Charles VII the Victorious (1403 – 1461);
• Louis XI of France (1423 – 1483);
• Charles VIII the Affable (1470 – 1498);
• Louis XII (1462 – 1515);
• Francis I (1494 – 1547);
• Henry II (1519 – 1559);
• Francis II (1544 – 1560);
• Charles IX (1550 – 1574);
• Henry III (1551 – 1589).

The list of Capetian kings from the indirect line of the Bourbons:

• Henry IV the Great (1553 – 1610);
• Louis XIII the Just (1601 – 1643);
• Louis XIV, the Sun King (1638 – 1715);
• Louis XV (1710 – 1774);
• Louis XVI (1754 – 1793);
• Louis XVIII (1755 – 1824);
• Charles X (1757 – 1836);
• Louis-Philippe I (1773 – 1850).

Chronology of the Capetian Dynasty

July 3, 987 — Coronation of Hugh Capet

After his coronation in Reims by Archbishop Adalberon, Hugh Capet became the king of France. He is the first sovereign of a new royal dynasty: the Capetians. The direct lineage reigned over the Kingdom of France for 300 years.

October 24, 996 — Death of Hugh Capet

Near the Abbey of Saint-Martin de Tours, Hugh Capet died in 996 at the age of 55. He ruled over the Kingdom of France for just over nine years. Thanks to primogeniture, his son Robert the Pious inherits the throne.

July 20, 1031 — Death of Robert II the Pious

King of France Robert II the Pious died in Melun at the age of 61. Son of Hugh Capet, he is the second Capetian king of France. His 35-year reign was marked by the annexation of Burgundy. Robert II is buried next to his father in front of the altar of the Trinity in the Basilica of Saint-Denis. His son, Henry I, succeeds him.

November 1, 1179 — Coronation of Philip Augustus

Supervised by the Archbishop of Reims, William of Champagne, the coronation of Philip II Augustus (Philip II of France) takes place at Reims Cathedral. He is the first sovereign in history to bear the title of King of France.

July 1223 — Death of Philip II Augustus (Philip II of France)

After a reign of 43 years, Philip II Augustus died at the age of 58 from a prolonged fever. He is transported to Saint-Denis, where a new royal ceremony is adopted for his funeral. Then Louis VIII, his son, ascends to the throne.

November 29, 1226 — Coronation of Louis IX

Louis IX ascended to the throne of France after the death of his father, Louis VIII. His early reign was under the regency of his mother, Blanche of Castile. His reign was marked by two crusades and numerous reforms.

August 25, 1270 — Saint Louis Dies in Tunis

During the 8th Crusade, Louis IX died of dysentery. In his 44 years of reign, he established the image of a reformist, just, and pious sovereign, leading to his canonization by the Catholic Church in 1297.

• Also: Crusades: Expeditions to the Holy Land in 1095 and 1291

January 6, 1286 — Coronation of Philip IV the Fair

The new king of France received the anointing at Reims at the age of 18. He will reign for 29 years. Through his marriage to Joan of Navarre in 1305, he became King of France and Navarre.

November 29, 1314 — Death of Philip the Fair

Philip the Fair dies after a horse falls. It is unclear whether it was an accident or an illness. He dies in Fontainebleau after a nearly thirty-year reign. Louis X, his son, ascended the throne but died prematurely at the age of 27.

January 3, 1322 — Death of Philip V

After five and a half years of reign, King Philip V the Long died at 28. He has no male heir. Married to Joan of Burgundy, he has only four daughters. Therefore, his brother Charles IV the Fair succeeded him as King of France and Navarre.

February 1, 1328 — Death of Charles IV the Fair

Charles IV died without a male heir to the throne. The direct line of the Capetians was extinguished, leading to a succession crisis that triggered the Hundred Years’ War.

April 8, 1364 — Death of John II the Good

John II the Good died while in England, negotiating a peace agreement with Edward III. He was 45 years old. His son, Charles V, known as “the Wise,” became the King of France.

September 12, 1494 — Birth of Francis I

The son of Charles de Valois, Francis I, was born in Cognac. He ascends to the throne at the age of 19. Nicknamed the “Father and Restorer of Letters,” he initiated numerous cultural and architectural projects, such as the construction of Chambord Castle.

January 8, 1499 — Marriage of Louis XII and Anne of Brittany

King Louis XII of France married Anne of Brittany, the widow of Charles VIII. Despite this, his wife’s duchy remains independent. Brittany was eventually annexed to France in 1532.

January 1, 1515 — Death of Louis XII

At the age of 53, Louis XII died due to medical complications. With no male heir, after being buried alongside Anne of Brittany, Francis I succeeded him to the throne of France.

January 25, 1515 — Coronation of Francis I

Following the death of his cousin Louis XII, Francis I became the King of France. The coronation ceremony takes place in Reims. In the Capetian dynasty, he belonged to the Valois—Angoulême line.

March 31, 1519 — Birth of Henry II

Henry II, son of Queen Claude of France and King Francis I, was born in Saint-Germain-en-Laye. From his childhood, he held the title of Duke of Orleans. He ascended to the throne in 1547.

March 31, 1547 — Death of Francis I

At Rambouillet Castle, Francis I died of septicemia at the age of 52. His funeral lasted for two months. He is then buried at the Royal Abbey of Saint-Denis. His son, Henry II, succeeds him.

September 19, 1551 — Birth of Henry III

Born Alexandre Edouard, Henry III is the son of Catherine de’ Medici and Henry II. Although he became the King of Poland in 1573, he assumed the responsibilities of the throne of France after the death of his brother, Charles IX.

July 10, 1559 — Death of Henry II

During a knightly tournament, Henry II is seriously wounded in the eye. He receives care from the surgeon, Ambroise Paré. However, the King of France died at the age of 40. He was buried on August 13, 1559, in Saint-Denis.

February 13, 1575 — Coronation of Henry III

As King of Poland, Henry III learned of the death of his brother Charles IX on May 30, 1574. During his return journey, Catherine de’ Medici ensures the regency. Henry III was then crowned King of France in Reims.

August 1, 1589 — Assassination of Henry III

Fanatical monk Jacques Clément assassinates Henry III. Before dying, he designated Henry of Navarre as his successor to the throne of France. The latter became Henry IV, marking the beginning of the Bourbon dynasty’s rule.

August 18, 1572 — Marriage of Henry of Navarre and Queen Margot

The marriage between Henry IV and Marguerite de Valois (Queen Margot) is arranged to reconcile Catholics and Protestants. However, the Wars of Religion continued, notably with the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre.

July 25, 1593 — Henry IV Converts

Henry IV converted to Catholicism, abandoning his Protestant faith. On February 27, 1594, he was crowned King of France in a ceremony in Chartres. He is the first sovereign of the indirect Bourbon lineage.

February 27, 1594 — Coronation of Henry IV

Chartres Cathedral is the site of the coronation of Henry of Navarre as King of France. He cannot go to Reims, as the city is under the authority of the Guise. In 1595, Henry IV received absolution from the pope.

September 27, 1601 — Birth of Louis XIII

Son of Henry IV and Marie de’ Medici, Louis XIII is born in Fontainebleau. He was only 9 years old when his father was assassinated in 1610. Marie de’ Medici became the regent of the Kingdom of France.

May 14, 1610 — Assassination of Henry IV by Ravaillac

François Ravaillac assassinated Henry IV while the latter was traveling through the streets of Paris. Subsequently, Ravaillac was sentenced to be torn apart, and the execution took place at the Place de Grève in Paris.

November 28, 1615 — Marriage of Louis XIII and Anne of Austria

Following the agreements of Fontainebleau on August 22, 1612, Louis XIII married Anne of Austria. The ceremony takes place in Bordeaux when the young spouses are 14 years old. This union gave birth to Louis XIV.

November 11, 1630 — Day of the Dupes

Following a disagreement between Cardinal Richelieu and Marie de’ Medici, Louis XIII removed his mother from power. The King of France retains the services of the cardinal, while the queen mother goes to the Château de Compiègne.

September 5, 1638 — Birth of Louis XIV

Louis XIV was born in 1638 in Saint-Germain-en-Laye. The future sovereign of France was only 5 years old when his father died in 1643. Anne of Austria becomes the regent of the kingdom, while Cardinal Mazarin oversees the education of Louis XIV.

June 9, 1660 — Louis XIV Marries Marie Theresa

Louis XIV marries Marie Theresa of Austria. The ceremony takes place in Saint-Jean-de-Luz, in Aquitaine. This marriage helped establish a temporary peace between the Bourbon and Habsburg dynasties.

October 9, 1683 — Louis XIV Marries Madame de Maintenon

After the death of his wife, Louis XIV married Françoise d’Aubigné. She is responsible for the creation of a school for noble and unfortunate girls at Saint-Cyr.

February 15, 1710 — Birth of Louis XV

Louis XV was born in 1710 in Versailles. At the age of 15, he became the King of France. Philippe d’Orléans is designated to ensure the regency of the Kingdom of France. He held this position until 1723.

February 18, 1712 — Death of the Dauphin Louis of France

The grandson of King Louis XIV, heir to the throne since the death of his father on April 14, 1711, died in Versailles, struck by smallpox. At two years old, his son, the future Louis XV, becomes the Dauphin in turn. He will ascend to the throne of France three years later.

September 1, 1715 — The Sun King Dies

At the age of 76, Louis XIV dies of gangrene at the Château de Versailles. His reign (nearly 72 years) is considered one of the longest in the history of France. He is buried at the Basilica of Saint-Denis.

August 23, 1754 — Birth of Louis XVI

Born Louis-Auguste, Louis XVI was born in 1754 at Versailles. He holds the title of Duke of Berry. At the age of 11, he loses his father, Louis de France. He became the King of France in 1774. He was the last sovereign before the French Revolution.

May 16, 1770 — Louis XVI Marries Marie Antoinette

In 1770, Louis XVI married Marie Antoinette, respectively, at the ages of 16 and 14. The main goal of this marriage was to consolidate the alliance between the Kingdom of France and the Austrian Empire.

May 10, 1774 — Death of Louis XV

In 1774, Louis XV died of smallpox at Versailles. He is 69 years old. His reign is essentially marked by his contribution to the arts, culture, and philosophy. However, he does not modernize the country.

May 10, 1774 — Louis XVI, King of France

Louis XVI became the King of France in 1774. He is credited with the cahiers de doléances, which allowed the people to express their grievances. However, he faces an unprecedented economic crisis.

June 11, 1775 — Coronation of Louis XVI

Monseigneur de La Roche-Aymon, Archbishop of Reims, crowns Louis XVI as the King of France. The ceremony takes place at Reims Cathedral. The reign of the sovereign is expected to last for fourteen years.

November 17, 1755 — Birth of Louis XVIII

Louis XVIII was born in 1755. His brother, Louis XVI, was guillotined during the French Revolution. During the period of the Restoration, he was made king of France in 1814. He died in 1824 without leaving any descendants.

October 9, 1757 — Birth of Charles X

Brother of Louis XVI and Louis XVIII, Charles X was born in 1757 in Versailles. He became the King of France in 1827, after the death of Louis XVIII. The July Revolution of 1830 removed him from power. He died on November 6, 1836, in Austria.

September 16, 1824 — Death of Louis XVIII

Affected by infectious gangrene in the legs, Louis XVIII died on September 16, 1824. Charles X, his brother, succeeded him on the throne of France. However, he reigned for only six years before the July Revolution of 1830.

May 29, 1825 — Charles X Crowned in Reims

The coronation of Charles X took place in 1825 at the Cathedral of Reims. His reign is marked by several attempts to return to the absolute monarchy. He was forced to abdicate in 1830 and went into exile in Austria.

November 6, 1836 — Death of Charles X

While staying at the monastery of Gorizia in Slovenia, Charles X died of cholera in 1836. He was 79 years old. He is then buried under the Church of the Annunciation in Kostanjevica, also located in Slovenia.