Seventh-day Adventists are not subject to restrictions regarding Christmas celebrations because the Bible neither explicitly supports nor rejects them. The Church suggests that each Adventist must evaluate the holiday in light of his or her beliefs and studies before deciding whether or not to celebrate it. Adventists are free to celebrate Christmas as they see fit; however, they may opt to forgo any traditions or rituals that they find offensive, such as their alleged pagan origins. For Adventists, the celebration of Christmas depends on the effect it will have on their devotion to Jesus.
Concerns over Christmas’ pagan roots and commercialization have led some Seventh-day Adventists to forego the holiday. They fear that they will get preoccupied with the trappings (greed and selfishness) of the season and forget the true meaning of Christmas, which is to love God.
Many of the symbols and rituals associated with the event also have their roots in ancient pagan celebrations. The origin of December 25 can be traced back to an ancient festival celebrating the sun deity. This is why many Seventh-day Adventists prefer to ignore the holiday of Christmas.
Jesus’ Birthday is Not Known
Pope Julius I, around 350 AD, first declared publicly the conventional Christian date of Jesus’ birth as December 25. According to the Seventh-day Adventists, the Bible does not offer a definite date for the birth of Jesus. Matthew and Luke, the New Testament gospels from which we get the nativity stories, make no reference to a specific date for Jesus’ birth.
The gospel writers tended to emphasize theological details over chronological order. Birth is usually accepted to have occurred between 6 BC and 4 BC, the year of King Herod’s death, with no evidence. That’s why they hesitate to celebrate Christmas.
The time and the rituals surrounding Christmas have strong ties to pre-Christian celebrations. Many ancient cultures celebrated the winter solstice on December 25, which is also the day of Christmas.
The winter solstice, which falls on December 22, is the shortest day of the year, although it was traditionally considered a time of optimism due to the lengthening of the days that followed. This was a cause for rejoicing; therefore, dining and exchanging gifts were common. In ancient Rome, the pagan holiday Saturnalia celebrated the god of agriculture. Gift-giving, eating, and even role reversal when masters would serve their slaves were all part of it, which grew from a single day to a weeklong celebration commencing on December 17.
The early followers of Christ in Europe took up preexisting festivals as their own. They connected these winter solstice rituals with Christmas, making the birth of Jesus that much more auspicious. This is why many customs associated with Christmas—such as the use of holly in decorations, the cultivation of Christmas trees, and the sharing of passionate kisses under the mistletoe—have their origins in pagan fertility rites. Christmas borrowed certain customs from ancient pagan celebrations, but it’s pretty much a secular festival now, except in a few countries like Peru or Russia.
How Do Seventh Day Adventists Celebrate Christmas?
Christmas for the SDA members is a double-edged sword: on the one hand, they feel the need to ban the festival but on the other hand, they feel the need to participate in it to not scare potential future believers away. That’s why their church is neutral on the matter since modern celebrations don’t raise ethical concerns. To observe or not observe Christmas is not a sin.
When they choose to celebrate Christmas, the Seventh-day Adventists mostly spend time with family or church members, exchanging gifts. They don’t decorate their houses with trees or lights but they celebrate Christmas lunch. Adventists may still listen to sermons centered on the birth of Jesus. They may also get their young groups engaged in activities like Christmas plays by staging or attending Christmas performances or concerts, holding food and gift drives, and so on. However, they are not so fond of Santa Claus since he is not a religious figure.
The Bible is the only source of faith for Seventh-day Adventists, a Christian group that adheres to the Protestant principle of Sola Scriptura (“Bible only”). They consider certain fundamental convictions to be the Holy Scriptures’ teaching. They agree with many core Protestant Christian doctrines, such as the authority of the Bible, the reality of sin and the need for redemption, and the atoning work of Jesus.
The Seventh-day Adventist Church (SDA) is a subset of the larger Protestant Adventist community. Saturday, the seventh day of the week in the Christian and Hebrew calendars, is observed as the Sabbath, making it a distinctive feature of this church, which was formally created in 1863. The church has a firm belief in the return of Jesus, or the Second Advent.
The well-known observance of Saturday as Sabbath Day is one example of their doctrines outlined in the SDA’s 28 Fundamental Beliefs. They are a group of Christians who share a common mission: to emulate Jesus in their daily lives, relationships, teachings, and acts of service. Some members ignore Christmas because of its pagan roots or the temptation it has to indulge in self-centeredness.
For a variety of reasons, Christmas is not celebrated by all faiths. Some Christian groups, including Jehovah’s Witnesses, Seventh-day Adventists, and the United Church of God, reject Christmas. Since Jews do not believe that Jesus is divine, they also do not observe Christmas. The Quakers (or the members of the Religious Society of Friends) hold the belief that “every day is a holy day,” meaning that there is no need to celebrate on any particular day of the year, so they also reject Christmas. Atheists either celebrate some aspects of this holiday or ignore it. Political and religious organizations have also staged protests against the growing popularity of Christmas and Santa Claus in a number of other nations, including Turkey and Indonesia.
1. Judaism
Due to their rejection of Jesus as divine, Jews do not observe the Christmas holiday. The birth of Jesus of Nazareth is not a big deal in Judaism, and the teachings of Christianity go counter to those of Judaism, so there’s no use in having a celebration in his honor. In the triune God (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit) that Roman Catholics place their faith, Jews regard God to be one but do not endorse the notion of a Holy Trinity.
Consequently, Jews do not observe Christmas as a religious holiday. Hanukkah is a Jewish holiday that honors the rededication of the Second Temple in Jerusalem by lighting candles, hence the name “Festival of Lights.” Judaism as a whole does not partake in Christmas since the holiday is not central to their beliefs and because Jesus is not considered to be divine.
2. Islam
According to Islamic theology, Jesus is honored as a prophet but not as a god or divine entity. December 25 is not the day of Jesus’ birth, according to the Quran and the Bible. Muslims believe that in order to honor a prophet’s birthday, one must fully embrace the prophet’s teachings. The Islamic faith frowns upon the practice of commemorating the birthdays of any prophet, including Jesus. It is typically frowned upon in Islam to mimic nonbelievers and participate in their religious celebrations. Even though Jesus is revered as a prophet, Christmas is not a holiday celebrated in Islam.
3. Buddhism
Christmas is not historically celebrated in Buddhism because of the celebration’s lack of significance. Some Buddhists celebrate it, but they do it in a manner emphasizing the importance of sharing goodwill and joy. Some Buddhists see Jesus as a “High Bodhisattva,” a spiritual aspirant who exemplified the qualities of a Buddha, such as limitless compassion for all beings and a commitment to helping others achieve their potential. However, Buddhism emphasizes inward peace and enlightenment, which is at odds with the commercialization and materialism of Christmas.
4. Hinduism
Observing the Christian festival of Christmas, which honors the birth of Jesus Christ, is not a customary part of Hinduism. The Hindu religion does not recognize Christmas as a religious holiday, yet some Hindus celebrate the holiday for cultural reasons. Neither Jesus’s birth nor the commemoration of his birthday is mentioned in the ancient Vedas or the Late Vedic Upanishads, two key Hindu holy books. Hindus celebrate their own holidays, such as the Festival of Lights in November’s Diwali, which symbolizes the “victory of light over darkness, good over evil.” Some Hindus join in the Christmas festivities by incorporating elements of the December festival of Pancha Ganapati (December 21 to December 25), which does not violate their religious beliefs.
5. Sikhism
Founded in the Punjab area of South Asia around the tail end of the 15th century AD, Sikhism is both a religion and a philosophical system practiced by roughly 25-30 million believers. Sikhism does not usually observe Christmas. Sikhs reject the idea that Jesus is divine and also shun the worship of idols.
Despite their religious convictions, Sikhs may still enjoy Christmas with their friends and family in a secular manner. They are still discouraged from taking part in the festivities. Instead, Sikhs celebrate their own festivals, the most important of which is Vaisakhi, on which they pray to God to express their devotion on April 13.
Jehovah’s Witnesses do not celebrate Christmas. Although the Bible does not provide a date for Jesus’ birth, some people consider the day to be different from December 25. Many popular Christmas customs have pagan roots and are thus avoided by Jehovah’s Witnesses who have sworn to avoid associations with false doctrine. In addition, they think it is more important to celebrate Jesus’ death than his birth. Last but not least, they try to do what’s right in the eyes of God and man, which sometimes involves doing the unpopular thing in order to stay true to Bible values.
7. Shinto
Shinto, the Japanese people’s traditional faith, does not observe the Christmas holiday. The reason being, Christmas is at odds with Shinto’s emphasis on nature and reverence for one’s ancestors. Additionally, Shinto temples are particularly busy preparing for Hatsumōdë, the first Buddhist shrine visit of the New Year, around December 25th. Some also argue that a Shinto temple is not the proper place to celebrate Christmas since the holiday is not Japanese. Thus, Christmas is not celebrated as a religious holiday in Shinto.
8. Jainism
Christmas is not a practice followed by the members of the Digambara or Svetambara sects of Jainism, a religion that borrows heavily from Hinduism. The core belief of its adherents is that freedom can be attained through peaceful means alone. Jesus is not mentioned in any Jain scriptures (Agamas); hence, the idea of a holiday dedicated to his birth is foreign to the Jain worldview. Instead, Jina are people who have succeeded in overcoming their attachment to sensual pleasures. Consequently, Christmas is not acknowledged as a holy occasion in Jainism.
9. Scientology
L. Ron Hubbard established Scientology in 1952, and the devout Scientologists do not celebrate Christmas as a religious holiday, as Hubbard states in a 1968 lecture, “The man on the cross, there was no Christ.” Scientologists believe that all human beings are eternal spirits who have lost contact with themselves. Hubbard still respected the great religious figures of the past, including Jesus, for the knowledge they contributed to the world; however, they do not worship Jesus. Celebrating Christmas is not openly banned but it’s not encouraged either and it is mostly a cultural preference for the Scientologists. Some people believe that Christmas is cynically used by Scientology for advertising goals, just like when they celebrate the winter solstice, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa, and other holidays. Certain states do not recognize Scientology as a religion and others term it a cult.
10. Wicca
Wicca is a modern religious movement that is a branch of Western esotericism associated with the occult, and as such, its adherents do not observe Christmas. Wicca is an alternative religion that originated in the early 20th century in England and centers on the worship of the divine feminine and divine male, respectively represented by the mother goddess and the horned god. Some Wiccans celebrate Christmas, but they do it in a manner that is distinct from Christianity, emphasizing the importance of bringing goodwill and joy to others. Nonetheless, Wicca’s emphasis on nature worship and the devotion of deities is still at odds with the commercialization and materialism of Christmas.
11. Taoism
Christmas is not a celebrated holiday in Taoism, a religion that promotes a life in accordance with the Tao (the way). The ancient Chinese concept of Wu-Wei, which means non-activity or action without intention, is central to Taoism, as is the notion of living in accordance with the Tao. Some Taoists celebrate Christmas, but they do it in a non-religious fashion to emphasize the importance of goodwill. However, Taoism emphasizes harmony and balance, so they are actually at odds with the commercialization and materialism of Christmas.
12. Zoroastrianism
The ancient faith of Zoroastrianism, which is widely followed today, does not observe the Christmas holiday. Reason being, Christmas is a Christian celebration of the birth of Jesus Christ, whom Zoroastrians do not acknowledge as divine. Zoroastrianism celebrates its own holidays that are linked to the Zoroastrian calendar. There are a total of six gahambars, or seasonal celebrations, celebrated throughout the year to honor the six “primordial creations” of Ahura Mazda (“god of the sky”). Zoroastrians do not celebrate Christmas as a religious day.
13. Rastafarianism
According to the Jamaican Abrahamic religion Rastafari, the birthday of Jesus Christ should be commemorated on January 7, not December 25. Ganna or Lidät, as it is called in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, is celebrated on this day, not at Christmas. Rastafarians start a 43-day fast on November 25 in preparation. They celebrate the Christmas liturgy, or gahad, on Christmas Eve. They celebrate in a way that is quite different from Western Christmas, focusing on their own religious practices and the teachings of Haile Selassie I, the god of the Rastafari movement. But they still acknowledge Jesus’ birth.
14. Confucianism
Christmas is not a holiday in Confucianism, the intellectual and ethical principles established by Confucius. The main reason for this is because Christmas is a Christian celebration celebrating the birth of Jesus, a person who does not appear in Confucian writings. Confucianism, on the other hand, stresses the value of ties to one’s family, elders, and the dead.
15. Paganism
Traditional Pagans do not celebrate the Christmas holiday since their beliefs are grounded in indigenous, earth-centered faiths. Yule is their winter solstice festival and is often observed within a week after Christmas. Since Christmas has its origins in both the Germanic Yule and the Roman Saturnalia, there are parallels between the two celebrations. Many of today’s Christmas customs have their roots in ancient pagan festivals honoring Yule.
16. Baha’i
Despite Christ’s importance being recognized in Baha’i beliefs, they do not celebrate Christmas. It is recommended that Baha’is only observe Baha’i Holy Days and not those of other religions. There is still no harm in Baha’is celebrating Christmas with their Christian family and friends, as declared by the Universal House of Justice, the Baha’i community’s governing body. Going to Christmas parties or other religious celebrations shouldn’t make life difficult for Baha’is; rather, it should serve as a teaching moment about respecting the beliefs of others and a motivation to expand the observance of Baha’i Holy Days and anniversaries. So, it’s a win-win situation.
17. Seventh-day Adventists
Since Christmas is not mentioned as a separate holy day in the Bible, Seventh-day Adventists do not feel compelled to celebrate this holiday. Therefore, the members are free to decide for themselves. Some Adventists opt not to celebrate it out of skepticism about its origins or because of the heightened temptations to materialism and pride that it provides. Honoring Christmas is not a requirement for membership in the Adventist church.
18. Quakers
Quakers, or the Religious Society of Friends, do not celebrate Christmas or other “times and seasons”. According to their beliefs, every day is sacred and there is no distinction between holy days. The holiday is not regarded as sacred under the church’s canon. Quakers celebrate Jesus’ birthday, ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection every day as a “holy day” to reflect on his teachings non-stop. But to be harmonious, many Quakers still participate in gift-giving, and some even join in a carol sing-along.
19. United Church of God
In general, members of the United Church of God do not partake in Christmas. It is their opinion that neither the date of Jesus’ birth nor the celebration of Christmas are mandated by the Bible for Christians. They also note that Christmas customs have heathen roots. They reject Christmas in favor of other biblical holidays such as Passover, the Feast of Unleavened Bread, Pentecost, the Day of Atonement, and the Feast of Tabernacles. For them, the festivals that the early church celebrated are more in line with God’s guidelines.
20. The Churches of Christ
Churches of Christ adherents have always avoided Christmas. They believe that the Bible does not mandate the celebration of Christmas or specify a date for it. They shun the Christmas customs because they have pagan roots and it’s a man-made holiday. If one of their members is seen celebrating it, it’s only for tradition. They don’t decorate their houses with trees and exchange presents during Christmas.
The event known as the “Affair of the Placards” is a somewhat surprising term. Although not the most well-known episode of the 16th century, its consequences for the evolution of relations between Catholics and Protestants in France were disastrous. On the night of October 17–18, 1534, Protestants posted texts criticizing the Catholic religion and its practices throughout the country. The Mass, in particular, was singled out. These writings were displayed not only in the streets of Paris but also in the provinces.
The provocation went so far as to post one of these “placards” on the door of the chamber of King Francis I in Amboise. Up to that point, Francis I had shown great tolerance towards Protestants and the ideas of the Reformation. However, he strongly disapproved of the content of these texts, viewing them as a challenge to his divine authority. This led to fierce repression against the Protestants.
In What Context Does the Placards Affair Erupt?
A rare surviving copy of the incriminating placards, preserved at the Bibliothèque nationale de France.
We are in the 16th century. Francis I was crowned king of France in 1515, and it is around the same time that the religious movement giving rise to Protestantism emerges: the Reformation. In 1517, Martin Luther, with his 95 “theses” exposing the corruption of the Catholic Church, was the originator. Two tendencies then distinguish themselves in Protestantism: the evangelicals, who aim to maintain continuity with Catholicism, and the Lutherans, who adhere to a complete break.
Among the influential Protestants are Antoine Marcourt, a pastor; Jean Calvin, a reformer; and Clément Marot, a poet.
Francis I reacted strongly, initiating a crackdown on Protestants and intensifying persecution in response to the placards.
What Were the Causes of the Placards Affair?
Francis I demonstrated tolerance towards the Protestants, akin to his sister, Marguerite de Navarre. However, this tolerance, in the case of the French monarch, was coupled with a lack of protection for the reformists, perceived as heretics by the Church and condemned to the stake, exemplified by individuals like Jean Vallière or Jean Leclerc, with no intervention from the authorities. This situation fueled the escalating anger of the Protestants, prompting them to respond through acts of vandalism, particularly targeting religious objects symbolic of Catholicism.
How Did the Placards Affair Come About?
King François I takes part in a reparation ceremony ordered following the mutilation of a Parisian statue of the Virgin by Lutherans. Panégyrique de François Ier, circa 1531, Chantilly, Musée Condé, Ms. 892.
On the night of October 17–18, 1534, French Protestants decided to escalate their provocation by posting posters in Paris, Blois, Rouen, Tours, and Orleans. These posters contained a text that openly and sharply criticized the Catholic religion, particularly the Mass. Not only were these texts displayed in the streets of Paris but they also spread to the provinces.
In Amboise, Francis I could not ignore the existence of these “Placards,” as one was affixed to the door of his chamber. The king interpreted this as a provocation and an attack on the divine right monarchy, as at that time and for several centuries to come, the king derived his power from God. To curb the enthusiasm of the Protestant instigators of this affront, the king responded by initiating a crackdown. Those who wrote and posted the placards were sought out. Efforts were made to expose and apprehend the protesting individuals, some of whom were ultimately brought to the stake.
What Does the Text of the Placards Affair Contain?
The infamous “Placards” could have triggered royal anger. Their title is “True Articles on the Horrible, Grand, and Important Abuses of the Papal Mass, Invented Directly Against the Holy Supper of Jesus Christ.” One must, of course, envision the text in Old French, but the tone is set. The text consists of a brief introduction, followed by four dense paragraphs authored by Pastor Antoine Marcourt. The Catholic mass is at the heart of the criticism, as evident in the opening expressions like “pompous and proud papal mass.” In the final paragraph, it is also stated: “The outcome of the mass is indeed contrary to the outcome of the Holy Supper of Jesus Christ.” There are critiques of all the rituals that take place during the Catholic service, described as “ringings, howlings, chantings, ceremonies, illuminations, incensings, disguises, and such manner of antics.”
What Were the Consequences of the Placards Affair?
The royal reaction is swift: the king puts an end to the policy of conciliation, and repression is initiated to avenge the affront to the monarchy. The authors of the Placards and those who posted them are sought after, and Lutherans as a whole are hunted down to be sent to the stake. There is also control over supposedly Protestant writings, with the establishment of a special commission in January 1535. It is also on this date, precisely on January 21, that an expiatory procession takes place during which six Protestants are burned alive, not without being tortured before. Some Protestants manage to escape, and among them, one of the ardent defenders of Reformation ideas leaves France: Jean Calvin. The theologian was known for advocating Protestant ideas and drawing the ire of Catholics.
The repression appears to subside with the Edict of Coucy (July 16, 1535), which considers sparing Protestants who promise to behave as good Christians. However, all of this is swept aside with the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1540, which rekindles repression and the hunt for Lutherans. One of the symbols of this resurgence is the massacre of Mérindol in April 1545, where nearly 3,000 inhabitants of the Luberon region were murdered, deemed heretics. All of this will be a precursor to the Religious Wars that will erupt in the second half of the 16th century.
Intensification of Religious Conflict: The Placards Affair exacerbated religious tensions between Catholics and Protestants in France. The inflammatory nature of the posters fueled animosity and deepened the divide between the two religious groups.
Persecution of Protestants: In the aftermath of the Placards Affair, King Francis I, who initially showed some tolerance towards Protestantism, took a more hostile stance. He initiated a crackdown on Protestant activities, leading to increased persecution of Protestants in France.
Edict of Fontainebleau (1540): As a response to the growing religious unrest, King Francis I issued the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1540. This edict reaffirmed the royal commitment to Catholicism and sought to suppress the spread of Protestant ideas. It marked a shift towards a more repressive religious policy.
Impact on the Reformation in France: The Placards Affair played a role in shaping the trajectory of the Protestant Reformation in France. The increased persecution contributed to the challenges faced by the emerging Protestant movement, but it also fueled a resilient underground Protestant community.
Long-term Religious Strife: The events surrounding the Placards Affair set the stage for the French Wars of Religion in France, which erupted in the late 16th century. The deep-seated religious tensions culminated in a series of conflicts between Catholics and Huguenots, leading to a protracted period of instability and bloodshed.
In summary, the Placards Affair had far-reaching consequences, intensifying religious conflict, prompting increased persecution of Protestants, influencing royal policies, and contributing to the complex religious landscape that characterized France in the following decades.
Despite occurring in December, Christmas in Australia is distinctly a summer holiday, in contrast to its Northern Hemisphere counterpart. Many common Christmas customs are observed in Australia, including the erecting of Christmas trees, gift-giving, and the singing of Christmas songs. However, Australia also has its own distinct Christmas practices. Santa Claus travels here with a team of six kangaroos in a ute, alternatively he rides in on a boat or a surfboard.
In order to make the most of the warm weather, Australians spend Christmas Day at the beach or in a pool. Roast turkey, ham, or prawns are among the holiday meals. Christmas in Australia features special events like Carols by Candlelight on Christmas Eve and the Adelaide Christmas Pageant, which attracts about 400 thousand visitors.
How Australians Celebrate Christmas
(Kaoz69, cc by sa 3.0)
Due to the country’s summer season, Christmas is an amalgamation of European traditions and indigenous practices in Australia. Since the majority of Australians have British ancestry, most of the country observes the most common Christmas celebrations, but there are also some unique traditions and customary festivities:
Christmas at the Beach: When the weather in Australia is nice around Christmas, many people go to the beach for a swim or have backyard barbecues with seafood.
Adelaide Christmas Pageant: Since 1933, the month of November in South Australia has been marked with a parade complete with floats, musicians, and other forms of entertainment.
Surfing Santa: It’s summer in Australia during the holiday season, so a boardshort-clad Santa riding the waves is a common sight.
Christmas Bush Tree:Like many nations, Australians decorate the Christmas tree and exchange presents on December 25, both of which lie in Pagan festivals. However, some also decorate their houses with native Australian Christmas bush trees for their cream-colored flowers.
Myer Christmas Windows: The Myer Christmas window decorations on Bourke Street Mall have been a tradition for Melburnians since 1956.
Candlelight Caroling: In 1938, Melbourne was the epicenter of this trend’s rise to fame. Carols are sung by candlelight in parks and other outdoor spots, attracting large crowds. The main event occurs on Christmas Eve at the Sidney Myer Music Bowl.
Chocolate Calendars: Australians use chocolate advent calendars to mark off 24 days until Christmas.
Better Christmas Foods: The Christmas meal is a key feature of the Australian holiday. This feast is livelier than in the northern hemisphere since the holiday season occurs in the midst of summer.
Things That Make Australian Christmas Different
Swimming During Christmas
Since Christmas in Australia occurs in the summer, going for a swim is a popular pastime. People spend the day at the beach when the weather is hot, lounging in the sun and taking refreshing swims. It is not uncommon to see depictions of Santa Claus taking a refreshing dip at the beach.
Northern Hemisphere residents also go to Australia for the holiday season so that they partake in the custom of going swimming on Christmas Day. Around 200,000 people arrive in Australia for this occasion every year, according to data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics.
Santas in Australia wear shorts and thongs, but a surfing Santa is also another fun spin on the conventional Santa Claus figure. While it’s not always the norm, you could see a surfer sporting a Santa hat if you go to the beach on Christmas morning. Hundreds of surfers wear Santa outfits and hit the waves at Cocoa Beach.
One significant instance occurred not too long ago when a group of 320 surfing Santas assembled at Sydney’s Bondi Beach and broke the Guinness World Record for the biggest surf lesson. In an effort to educate the public about the importance of mental health, RedBalloon, Let’s Go Surfing, and OneWave hosted this event. Social media helped rally the troops, and the event went off without a hitch. In Australia, the picture of Santa Claus riding a surfboard has become a cultural symbol.
Cold Meals at Christmas
The holiday feast in Australia consists of salads, seafood, and other cold items to cool down the heat, and they are consumed outside or at the beach.
Seafood: Seafood is a favorite for Christmas dinners. Whether in the form of a drink or as part of a seafood platter, prawns are always a hit. Seafood platters are simple to make.
Cold Meats: Christmas dinner in Australia includes cold meats like ham and turkey. The meat is prepared two or three days ahead and served cold.
Salads: The Australian Christmas lunch would not be complete without the traditional salad. Potato salad with Dijon mustard mayonnaise is one example and roasted pumpkin salad with honey and balsamic dressing is another.
A Second Christmas in July
Yes, “Christmas in July” or “Yulefest” is a real thing, although an Australian one. Even though it isn’t recognized by the government as a holiday, this event has gained widespread popularity. The term “Christmas in July” was first used to describe the practice of celebrating Christmas in the Southern Hemisphere during the warmer summer months.
Since Christmas pastimes aren’t as pleasurable during the hot summer months of December, Australians try to enjoy them for real in the winter of July by cozying up by a fire or wearing Christmas jumpers. July 25 is the designated day for Christmas festivities but Christmas on the 25th of December is still a big deal in Australia and “Christmas in July” is just a fun alternative.
Carols by Candlelight
“Carols by Candlelight” was introduced in Melbourne in 1938. People gather by candlelight to sing carols, and the event is traditionally held in a park. Various celebrities play live to an orchestra at these galas. Norman Banks, the event’s emcee, was moved to action after seeing a lonely old lady singing Christmas songs by candlelight and thus, Carols by Candlelight was born.
About 10,000 people showed up for the inaugural one in 1938, when it was hosted at Alexandra Gardens. The event gained so much popularity after WWII that it was relocated to the Sidney Myer Music Bowl, where it has remained ever since. There are still 10,000 people attending this event each year.
The annual “Carols by Candlelight” event raises the most money for Vision Australia’s children’s programs, which help families with children who are blind or have limited vision. In recent years, the public has been invited to attend the dress rehearsal on December 23rd, with proceeds going to Vision Australia.
Myer Christmas Windows
Melbourne, Australia, residents can’t wait for the Myer Christmas Windows every Christmas in early November. This event has been happening since 1956. The six big display windows in front of the Melbourne Myer shop are turned into a Christmas scene and more than a million individuals see the exhibitions annually. The windows are usually opened in the first week of November and they stay this way until December 24th.
The annual theme for each store’s window displays is different. The storylines chosen for these productions have changed throughout the years, from holiday favorites like “The Nutcracker” and “A Christmas Carol” to modern favorites like “Peter Rabbit” and “Charlie and the Chocolate Factory.”
Christmas Events Across Different Cities
Sydney: “A Sydney Christmas,” the city’s holiday event, consists of tree lighting. The city’s business district is home to a big Christmas tree known as the Martin Place tree. The Darling Harbour is also decked out in a festive fashion.
Melbourne: It’s home to the famous Christmas by Candlelight event.
Adelaide: The capital of South Australia holds one of the world’s largest holiday extravaganzas, a Christmas Pageant, complete with enormous floats, marching bands, dance groups, and performers.
Canberra: The capital of Australia is part of a celebration called “Christmas in the City”.
Hunter Valley: This place holds the Hunter Valley Gardens Christmas Lights Spectacular with really beautiful lights.
The youngsters in Australia believe in Santa Claus. In this island continent where summer and Christmas coincide, Santa often dons a less bulky version of his traditional suit—or even shorts—to keep cool. The traditional Australian Santa has a red outfit and a white beard, but he also has a funny portrayal where he is sporting an Akubra hat, dressed casually in shorts and thongs, and driving about in a sleigh (sometimes in the back of a ute) drawn by kangaroos. This humorous twist is mentioned in the classic song “Six White Boomers” by Rolf Harris.
Young Australians get ready for Santa’s visit on Christmas Eve by leaving out cookies and milk, writing letters to Santa, decorating the tree, using an advent calendar with a small chocolate behind each window to count the days until Christmas, and hanging stockings or socks by the bedpost or fireplace mantle. In Australia, it is also traditional to leave cold beer for Santa and carrots for his reindeer. As you can see, the image of Santa Claus has been modified to reflect the warmer temperature and laid-back lifestyle of Australia.
Boxing Day Celebration: December 26th
Just like in the UK, Canada, and New Zealand, Boxing Day is a public holiday in Australia on December 26th. It is celebrated right after Christmas Day. The precise history of Boxing Day is cloudy, but it has evolved from centuries-old British customs of charitable giving in honor of the ancient Roman saint Stephen (5–c. 36 AD), a Christian saint whose feast day is December 26.
The servants in socially stratified 17th-century Britain spent Christmas Day away from their own families in order to serve their employers. Like a holiday bonus, their bosses would hand them boxes stuffed with presents, cash, and leftovers the day after Christmas. This was where the modern Boxing Day celebration originated and continued throughout the Victorian era.
In Australia, Boxing Day is a day to catch up with people you didn’t get to see on Christmas. People go out to eat, to bars, or to hang out at home. This day is also known for its shopping (and Boxing Day sales), athletic activities, and charity events like the Boxing Day Dip, when citizens swim in the cold sea to raise money for good causes.
Australian Christmas Foods and Decorations
Decorations
The many Aussie homes include Christmas trees, koalas, cockatoos, and kangaroos in Santa hats, eucalyptus wreaths, gumnuts, and leaves. They can also feature dwarfs, reindeer, and nativity scenes. The ‘Christmas Bush’ is a natural Australian tree with cream-colored blossoms that is used by some Australians to adorn their homes. Nasturtiums, wisteria, honeysuckle, poinsettias, mistletoe, holly, and pinecones are other popular decorations, and their scents evoke those of a summer garden rather than winter.
Foods
Australians love to eat their Christmas dishes outdoors or at the beach.
Pavlova: Among traditional Australian desserts is the meringue-based Pavlova. Sweet passionfruit flesh sits above a mountain of fresh whipped cream and a mountain of berries.
Prawns: This is a common name for the aquatic crustacean animals in Australia, and they are a popular seafood to cook on the grill. The Sydney Fish Market sells more than 130 tons of prawns just two days before Christmas.
Seafood Platters: They become even more popular than they already are during Christmas.
Roast Ham: Yes, Christmas dinner always includes a roast ham in many cultures, but Australians prepare it two or three days before to serve it cold.
Roast Turkey: Another common Christmas dinner. It is served with stuffing, gravy, roasted potatoes, and roasted vegetables, much as it is in the United Kingdom.
White Christmas Bars: Like Rice Krispie treats, they are a holiday delicacy, and they are made with white chocolate, coconut, cranberries, and cherries.
No-Bake Choc Ripple Log: The chocolate ripple biscuits are sandwiched between vanilla cream in this no-bake dessert.
Aussie Eggnog: A sweetened dairy-based beverage since eggs, milk, and cream are its constituents. Raw sugar is used for the sweetening, and either bourbon or cognac is substituted for the alcohol.
Christmas Music in Australia
Australian Christmas Carols: Australia’s environment and culture have inspired some very unique seasonal songs. These songs, unlike their conventional counterparts, often include references to Australia’s scorching summers and unique animal life. For instance, in “The 12 Days of Aussie Christmas,” indigenous Australian birds take the place of the traditional European ones.
Even the common Christmas songs like “Jingle Bells” typically have an Australian spin. References to the wilderness replace snow, and a “rusty Holden ute” takes the place of a sleigh in the Australian adaptation.
Modern Songs: Many modern Australian musicians have created Christmas albums that pay homage to the peculiarities of spending the holiday in the middle of summer Down Under.
History of Christmas in Australia
The earliest recorded Christmas celebration in Australia took place in December 1788, over a year after the landing of the British First Fleet at Sydney Cove. From the 19th century forward, the practice of constructing Christmas trees, the mailing of Christmas cards, and the display of decorations extended across the country.
Since Australia is in the southern hemisphere, most people would rather spend their vacation time outside than indoors during this hot spell. From the early 1850s forward, outdoor picnics were a way to celebrate Christmas with friends and family. Adventure sports became connected with the holiday season and Boxing Day.
Australians have celebrated Christmas as a secular family holiday with an early emphasis on outdoor activities and celebrations since the holiday’s inception. The Australian Christmas Bush has been used since 1937 to illustrate the Nativity of Christ, continuing a tradition that was begun by Norman Banks.
In Mexico, Christmas is celebrated from December 12th to January 6th and the country features one of the most elaborate Christmas feasts in the world. It begins with honoring the Virgin of Guadalupe, followed by “Las Posadas,” where children mimic Mary and Joseph seeking shelter, visiting different homes each night for festive gatherings. “Las Pastorelas” are plays depicting the shepherds’ journey to find Baby Jesus, guided by the Star of Bethlehem. Christmas Eve, known as “Noche Buena,” concludes with a mass, feast, and family meetings. The Christmas celebrations in Mexico end with Dia de los Reyes or the arrival of the Three Wise Men, on January 6. Homes are adorned with native poinsettias and Christmas trees until the holiday ends.
Elements from pre-Hispanic Mexico, colonial Mexico, and even Germany and the United States have found their way into the Christmas customs in Mexico.
Day of the Virgin of Guadalupe
December 12th
Dia de la Virgen de Guadalupe, observed on December 12th in Mexico, commemorates the Virgin Mary’s appearance to Juan Diego in 1531. Since this national holiday falls close to Christmas Eve, it has become part of Christmas celebrations in the country. According to legend, Mary appeared near Mexico City and left her image on Juan Diego’s cloak, now housed in the Basilica of Guadalupe.
It is noticeable at processions, parades, and other ceremonies. Food sellers line the streets to sell Christmas foods called buñuelos (fried dough balls), and many homes also bake them for this holiday.
Festivities commence on December 11th with Las Mañanitas (“The Mornings”), featuring songs, fireworks, and food stalls. On December 12th, over 10,000 people attend a Catholic Mass, particularly at the Basilica of Guadalupe, with regional variations such as Mexican marigold-strewn streets in Oaxaca and candlelit processions in Chiapas.
Las Posadas
December 16th-24th
Las Posadas, a Mexican Christmas tradition with 400 years of history, begins on December 16th and lasts for nine days, culminating in Christmas Eve (“Buena Noche”). During Posadas, a candlelit procession begins at a designated house, led by children in silver and gold robes carrying lit candles and Mary and Joseph images. Adults, including musicians, follow, visiting homes and seeking lodging—a reenactment of Mary and Joseph’s search for shelter. Two children portray Mary and Joseph, while others act as innkeepers.
Participants carry statues of Mary and Joseph, using blue or black candles for the Virgin Mary and Joseph and red candles for Jesus, symbolizing their journey for shelter. In small towns, candles are placed on cedar stumps near homes as a reminder of the couple’s search for refuge. The practice, rooted in caroling gatherings, signifies unity among families, especially during challenging times like the Mexican Revolution between 1910 and 1917.
Nacimientos
December 16th–January 6th
A Nativity scene.
Another Mexican Christmas celebration is a significant tradition called the Nacimiento. They are detailed Nativity scenes found in Mexican households, often featuring elaborate elements like water features and miniature villages. These scenes, set up from December 16th to January 6th, come to life with the addition of various characters, including the baby Jesus and the Three Kings.
Nacimientos is part of Las Posadas which reenacts the Holy Family’s journey to Bethlehem, with costumed children leading candlelight processions from house to house, symbolizing Mary and Joseph’s search for shelter. When they find a welcoming home, figures of Mary and Joseph are placed in the family’s Nacimiento, followed by a shared feast among participants.
Nochebuena
December 24th
The night of the 24th of December or Nochebuena (“Christmas Eve”) is the pinnacle of Mexican Christmas celebrations. Beginning on the 16th of December with Las Posadas, this festive nine-evening period culminates on Nochebuena. At midnight service (Misa de Gallo or Midnight Mass), children often lead a procession to the church, where they help set up the nativity scene and place the Christ Child figurine.
The major Christmas lunch, which often includes fish specialties like cod, is shared among family members after the ceremony. The poinsettia, or flor de nochebuena (“Christmas Eve flower”), is a traditional holiday decoration in Mexico and also Guatemala.
Furthermore, on February 2nd, Candlemas Day, the host of a tamale party is decided by cutting into a traditional cake that contains a concealed baby figure. Tamales are a traditional Mexican delicacy at Christmas created by steaming maize dough stuffed with different fillings in corn husks.
Dia de os Reyes
January 6th
In Mexico, on the night of January 5th, children write letters to the Three Wise Men, expressing their dreams. While the children sleep, the Three Wise Men leave gifts, which the children unwrap early on January 6th, finding them at the base of the Christmas tree or near the Nativity scene.
Mexican families come together for a special meal and games, sharing the traditional Rosca de Reyes (King Cake), a round sweet bread adorned with dried fruits and a hidden object: a small doll symbolizing Baby Jesus. This celebration, known as Dia de los Reyes (or Epiphany), marks the end of the Christmas season in Mexico and commemorates the visit of the Three Wise Men to Baby Jesus.
For Mexican children, the Three Wise Men are the bearers of Christmas gifts, distinguishing this tradition from the role of Santa Claus. The oval shape of the Rosca de Reyes represents a crown.
Dia de la Candelaria
February 2nd
And just when you thought that Christmas was over, there is another post-Christmas holiday in Mexico called Dia de la Candelaria.
Candlemas, or Dia de la Candelaria, is observed annually on February 2. It’s a religious holiday celebrating Mary’s ritual cleansing after giving birth to Jesus and his presentation to the temple. The feast is known by many different titles, such as “Feast of the Presentation of Jesus Christ” and “Feast of the Holy Encounter”. The customs associated with the festival date back to the period of the Aztecs (1200–1500), far before the arrival of Christianity in the Americas. For instance, as a result of the significance of maize to Native Pre-Hispanic people, corn tamales and the hot corn drink atole are actually parts of Candelaria.
When first introduced, the date of February 2nd coincided with ceremonies in the Aztec calendar to implore the gods for rain and a plentiful crop. Today, it’s neither a federal nor even a state holiday but many Mexicans nevertheless hold special mass services in honor of it.
The person who discovers the Baby Jesus figure during the Dia de los Reyes feast inside a Rosca de Reyes (King Cake) on January 6th is expected to host the Candlemas celebration and prepare a large quantity of tamales for the Dia de la Candelaria. To commemorate the Virgin Mary’s supposed presentation of Jesus to the temple 40 days after his birth, Mexican families dress up the Baby Jesus doll (known as Niño Jesus) from their home nativity scene and transport it to the local church on February 2nd, the 40 days after December 25th.
Traditional Mexican Dishes Served During Christmas
The festive season in Mexico is no exception to the country’s reputation for bold tastes and spices. Here is the Christmas fare that is often eaten in Mexico.
Tamales
Tamales are a Mexican cuisine and are served at Christmas. They are steamed maize dumplings prepared with masa (corn dough) and stuffed with meat, cheese, or veggies. They originated in Mesoamerica from 8000 to 5000 BC.
Pozole
The main ingredients of the hearty soup known as pozole are hominy (dried maize kernels), meat (often pig), and other seasonings. In addition to lime wedges, lettuce and radishes are other garnishes.
Bacalao
Bacalao, a meal made with salted fish, is a Christmas food in the central part of Mexico. Romeritos (small green seepweed leaves) are also included in this dish, along with mole, potatoes, and shrimp.
Ensalada de Noche Buena
Christmas Eve, or Noche Buena, is marked by the consumption of a fruit-based seasonal salad known as Ensalada de Noche Buena (“Salad for Christmas Eve”). Apples, oranges, and pomegranates are used in its preparation, and it is served with almonds and a sugary dressing.
Pavo Navideño
Cumin and achiote are used in the preparation of Pavo Navideño, a roasted and stuffed turkey dish, also known as Mexican Turkey. It’s a staple after the midnight Christmas Eve service, and it goes well with gravy.
Buñuelos
As a Christmas treat in Mexico, Buñuelos are both sugary and crunchy. The dough is cooked and then sprinkled with sugar and cinnamon.
Ponche Navideño
During Christmas, Mexicans enjoy a nice glass of Ponche Navideño, a fruit punch (also called Mexican Christmas Punch). You may add a shot of brandy or rum to this concoction that calls for apples, pears, oranges, guavas, and spices.
Romeritos
Romeritos are small green seepweed leaves that are commonly blended with mole, potatoes, and shrimp (both in patty form and whole) and eaten with Bacalao at Christmas.
Menudo
Northern Mexicans traditionally celebrate Christmas Day with a bowl of menudo, a soup made with tripe and hominy. It’s also known as pancita and mole de panza.
The Importance of Poinsettias
The Mexican Christmas would not be complete without poinsettias. They are known as Flor de Nochebuena, or Christmas Eve Flower. The tale of a Mexican saint explains why this plant, which is really native to Mexico and Central America, has come to symbolize Christmas. One Christmas Eve, a little girl called Pepita went to church and brought a bouquet of weeds to give to the infant Jesus.
Everyone who saw the bunch of weeds was certain they had seen a miracle as they suddenly blossomed into brilliant crimson flowers.
Thereafter, the vibrant red blooms were dubbed the ‘Flores de Noche Buena,’ or ‘Flowers of the Holy Night.’ The Catholic feast of Dia de la Virgen de Guadalupe also features poinsettias. This flower is a symbol of good fortune and financial success in Mexican folklore and Mexicans utilize it extensively in their Christmas décor.
In Mexico, Santa Claus is not a common part of the holiday custom. In spite of this, it is becoming more common, and some Mexican kids even anticipate his arrival on December 24. He is also known as Papa Noel or Santa Clos in some regions. On Dia de los Reyes, or the Day of the Kings, observed on January 6th, youngsters search for presents left by the Three Wise Men, or Magi, who have historically been the most prominent characters of Christmas in Mexico. Despite all that, Santa Claus is gaining popularity every year.
Growing Popularity of Christmas Trees
The second part of the 20th century saw a marked increase in the number of homes in Mexico that displayed a Christmas tree. While the expat community in Mexico was the first market for imported Christmas trees, the Mexican public has subsequently embraced them.
During the Christmas season, these trees are shown alongside conventional nativity scenes. Rising disposable incomes and decreasing tree costs explain the Christmas tree’s rise in popularity. Retailers like Wal-Mart and Costco, as well as smaller Mexican supermarkets, stock artificial trees. The cultivation of Christmas trees has also become a large business and live trees are widely available in the country.
Natural trees, on the other hand, are not as common since they are more costly, and the ordinary Mexican household has a little budget. Despite this, the use of Christmas trees is on the rise. Mexico imports over 1 million trees annually, nearly entirely from the United States and Canada, to meet the country’s yearly demand of approximately 1.8 million natural Christmas trees.
However, almost 17,000 hectares of land in Mexico are dedicated to growing Christmas trees, and Mexico produces more than 1,000,000 Christmas trees for sale inside the country. In the states of Veracruz, Nuevo León, Mexico City, Puebla, Michoacán, Durango, Coahuila, and Guanajuato, the interior highlands are the primary locations for Christmas tree plantations. Many households utilize both real and artificial Christmas trees, and the trees are commonly decked with bright lights and other holiday decorations.
The Overview of the Mexican Christmas
Mexico is one of the last places in the world where Christmas still has great religious significance. The festivities have their origins in both Spanish and indigenous cultures, and the customs have permeated indigenous practices to produce a Christmas celebration unlike any other. Las Posadas, Nochebuena, Misa de Gallo, Dia de los Reyes, and Dia de La Calendaria are the Christmas holidays celebrated in the country.
Elements from pre-Hispanic Mexico, colonial Mexico, and even Germany and the United States have found their way into these customs. All the Mexican Christmas decorations are created of tin, paper, wood, fabrics, or clay, and they are often decked up with nacimientos, tin ornaments, poinsettias, piñatas, luminaries, and Christmas trees. Tamale, pozole, bacalao, ensalada de Noche Buena, pavo navideño, buñuelos, ponche navideño, romeritos, and menudo are the classic Mexican Christmas meals.
The Council of Constance was convened by Pope John XXIII at the request of Sigismund, King of the Romans, in 1414. It lasted until 1418 and was attended by about 600 representatives from various countries and religious orders. The council had three main objectives:
To end the Western Schism, which had resulted from the election of rival popes in Rome and Avignon since 1378. The council deposed or accepted the resignation of the three claimants (John XXIII, Gregory XII, and Benedict XIII) and elected a new pope, Martin V, in 1417.
To reform the ecclesiastical government and life, which had been corrupted by abuses and scandals. The council issued several decrees on matters such as the frequency of councils, the election of popes, the rights and duties of bishops, the discipline of clergy, and the administration of justice.
To repress heresy, especially the teachings of John Wycliffe and Jan Hus, who had challenged the authority and doctrine of the church. The council condemned both as heretics and ordered their writings to be burned. Hus, who had come to the council under a safe-conduct from Sigismund, was arrested, tried, and executed by burning at the stake in 1415.
The Council of Constance was significant for its role in the debates over ecclesial conciliarism and papal supremacy. Conciliarism was the theory that the supreme authority in the church resided in the general councils, not in the popes. The council asserted this principle in two decrees: Haec sancta (1415), which declared that the council derived its power directly from Christ and could judge the pope, and Frequens (1417), which stipulated that councils should be held regularly every ten years.
However, these decrees were controversial and disputed by subsequent popes, who claimed that they were invalid or limited to the specific situation of the schism. The council also failed to achieve a lasting reform of the church, as many of its decrees were ignored or resisted by the papacy and the clergy.
Key Figures at the Council of Constance
Emperor Sigismund, his second wife, Barbara of Celje, and their daughter, Elizabeth of Luxembourg, at the Council of Constance.
Sigismund, King of the Romans and later Holy Roman Emperor, who initiated and presided over the council. He was the main promoter of the conciliarist movement and the protector of Jan Hus until his arrest.
Pope John XXIII, one of the three rival popes at the time of the council. He was the one who formally convoked the council, but he later fled from Constance and was deposed by the council.
Jan Hus, a Czech reformer and follower of John Wycliffe. He came to the council under a safe-conduct from Sigismund, but he was accused of heresy, refused to recant, and was burned at the stake in 1415.
Pierre d’Ailly, Cardinal and Bishop of Cambrai. He was one of the leaders of the French delegation and a prominent theologian. He advocated for the unity of the church and the reform of the papacy.
Jean Gerson, Chancellor of the University of Paris and representative of the French king. He was known as “the soul of the council” and a master of eloquence. He defended the authority of the council over the pope and the condemnation of Hus.
Martin V, the pope elected by the council in 1417. He ended the Western Schism and restored the papal authority, but he also opposed some of the conciliarist decrees and the reform proposals of the council.
Cause of the Reformation
During the sessions, on October 30, 1417, the council identified 18 reform issues, encompassing matters such as the composition of the college of cardinals, the deposition of the pope, and challenges related to simony and finances. Due to internal disagreements, not all proposed reforms were considered. The approved provisions included:
Revocation of all exemptions granted after 1378.
Prohibition of the distribution of ecclesiastical benefices to non-consecrated individuals.
Limitation of clergy reform to ecclesiastical dress.
Prohibition of distributing the Eucharist to the laity under both species.
Approval of the periodicity of councils (Decree Frequens).
Establishment of norms to prevent new schisms.
On April 19, 1418, Martin V called for the next council in Pavia, and on April 22, during the final session, the pope endorsed all decrees, including those predating his election. Subsequently, in 1446, Eugene IV reaffirmed the council and its decrees.
How Did People React to Jan Hus’ Execution?
A scene from the meeting of the Council of Constance with Master Jan Hus.
Outrage and revolt in Bohemia: Hus was a popular preacher and reformer in his homeland of Bohemia, where many people shared his views and criticized the corruption and abuses of the church. His execution was seen as a grave injustice and a violation of the safe conduct granted by Sigismund.
Many Bohemians rose up in armed rebellion against the church and the emperor, starting the Hussite Wars that lasted for more than a decade. The Hussites formed their own church and defended their religious and national rights against several crusades launched by the pope and the emperor.
Support and sympathy from other reformers: Hus was not alone in his critique of the church and his desire for reform. He was influenced by the writings of John Wycliffe, an English theologian who had also been condemned as a heretic by the council.
Many other reformers, such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and John Knox, later recognized Hus as a precursor and a martyr of the Protestant Reformation. They praised his courage and his fidelity to the Scriptures and denounced his execution as a crime and a scandal.
Indifference and hostility from the church and the emperor: The council and the pope did not show any remorse or regret for the execution of Hus. They considered him a dangerous and obstinate heretic who deserved the punishment. They also issued a decree that forbade anyone from questioning or appealing the council’s decisions and threatened anyone who supported Hus or his followers with excommunication and anathema.
Sigismund, who had hoped to use the council to restore his authority and prestige, also failed to intervene or protect Hus. He was more concerned with his political ambitions and his reputation as a defender of the faith than with the rights and fate of Hus.
What Were Some of the Main Beliefs of Jan Hus?
The supreme authority of the Scriptures over the pope and the church tradition: Hus believed that the Bible was the word of God and the only infallible rule of faith and practice. He rejected any doctrines or practices that contradicted the Scriptures, such as indulgences, papal infallibility, and clerical celibacy.
The priesthood of all believers and the right of the laity to receive both the bread and the wine in communion: Hus argued that every Christian had direct access to God through Christ and that the clergy had no special privileges or powers. He also advocated for the restoration of the cup (calix) to the laity, which had been denied by the church since the 13th century.
The necessity of personal repentance and faith for salvation: Hus emphasized the importance of inward piety and moral purity rather than outward rituals and ceremonies. He taught that salvation was a gift of God’s grace, not a result of human works or merits. He also denounced the abuse of indulgences, which were sold by the church as a way of reducing the temporal punishment for sins.
What Was the Role of Women at the Council of Constance
The role of women at the Council of Constance in 1414 was not very prominent, as the council was dominated by male clergy and secular rulers. However, there were some exceptions and examples of women’s involvement and influence in the council. Here are some of them:
Barbara of Celje, the second wife of Emperor Sigismund, initiated and presided over the council. She accompanied her husband to Constance and played a diplomatic role in the negotiations and relations with the different parties and factions. She also supported the election of Martin V as the new pope and received his blessing.
Jan Hus’ female followers, who defended his teachings and protested his execution, Some of them wrote letters to the council, denouncing the injustice and cruelty of his trial and death. Others joined the Hussite movement and fought in the Hussite Wars, which broke out after Hus’ martyrdom. Hus himself had a positive view of women and allowed them to preach and serve in battle.
The voting members of the laity were allowed to participate in the council’s deliberations and decisions. Among them were some women, such as the representatives of the cities of Basel, Strasbourg, and Constance. They had a voice and a vote in the council, and they were effective in promoting the conciliarist agenda and the reform of the church.
What Was the Role of the Pope at the Council?
Portrait of Martin V after Pisanello.
The role of the pope at the Council of Constance in 1414 was controversial. There were three rival popes at the time of the council: John XXIII, Gregory XII, and Benedict XIII. The council aimed to end the schism by deposing or accepting the resignation of all three and electing a new pope. However, each pope had different attitudes towards the council.
John XXIII was the one who formally convoked the council, but he later fled from Constance and was deposed by the council. He initially agreed to resign if the other two popes did the same, but he changed his mind when he realized that the council was not favorable to him. He also opposed the conciliarist decrees that asserted the authority of the council over the pope.
Gregory XII was the only pope who voluntarily resigned and recognized the council as legitimate. He sent his representatives to the council and authorized them to renounce his claim to the papacy. He also agreed to the conciliarist decrees and supported the election of Martin V as the new pope.
Benedict XIII was the most stubborn and defiant of the three popes. He refused to resign or acknowledge the council as valid. He also tried to undermine the council by calling his own council in Perpignan and by excommunicating the council members. He was eventually deposed by the council and by his own cardinals, but he never accepted his deposition and continued to claim the papacy until his death.
Swords have been an integral part of human history, serving as tools of both survival and power. Among the countless swords forged throughout the ages, some have risen to legendary status, transcending their utilitarian role to become symbols of valor, chivalry and mythology. In this list, we have collected the stories of swords with mythological and historical qualities.
Legendary Swords
Tizona
The sword of El Cid, a Spanish hero and military leader in the 11th century. It played a significant role in the Reconquista.
The Tizona in Burgos. The Cathedral of Burgos can be seen in the background. Image: Wikimedia, CC BY-SA 4.0.
Tizona is one of the two swords (along with Colada) attributed to the Cid Campeador, Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, a hero of the Spanish Reconquista in the 11th century according to tradition or literature.
According to the Cantar de mio Cid, an epic poem composed around 1200, Tizona belonged to the King Búcar of Morocco, and El Cid took it from him in Valencia. He later gave it to his nephew Pedro Bermúdez.
Several swords preserved in Spanish museums are known as Tizona, but none can be directly linked to El Cid. They might be replicas made from fragments of ancient swords.
The most famous sword called Tizona is exhibited in the Burgos Museum. It measures 103 cm in length and weighs around 1.1 kg. It bears two inscriptions in Latin: “IO SOI TISONA FUE FECHA EN LA ERA DE MILE QUARENTA” and “AVE MARIA GRATIA PLENA DOMINUS TECUM.”
Another purported Tizona sword was part of the Crown of Castile’s treasury and was inventoried in 1503 at the Alcázar de Segovia. It could be the same sword currently housed in the Real Armería in Madrid.
A third sword called Tisó belonged to the kings of Aragon and was described by James I of Aragon in his Llibre dels fets. There doesn’t appear to be a connection with El Cid, but rather a coincidence of the name.
Excalibur
Of Arthurian legend, this sword was said to be wielded by King Arthur. It possessed magical qualities and was associated with the Lady of the Lake.
Arthur draws the sword from the stone in Henrietta Elizabeth Marshall’s Our Island Story (1906)
Excalibur is the legendary sword of King Arthur, the mythical ruler of Britain in the Middle Ages. The sword has various extraordinary properties attributed to it in different versions of the legend and the stories that followed. Some of the most common features of Excalibur are:
Arthur received the sword from the Lady of the Lake, a mysterious enchantress residing in a lake.
This sword possessed extraordinary qualities, rendering it unbreakable and invincible in battle, capable of cutting through any armor or shield.
Moreover, it came with a scabbard that had the unique ability to prevent the wearer from bleeding or losing blood from any wound.
Notably, only the true king of Britain could wield it; no one else could extract it from the stone in which it was embedded.
Furthermore, upon Arthur’s demise, the sword needed to be returned to the Lady of the Lake; failure to do so would result in Britain’s descent into chaos and ruin.
Excalibur is one of the most famous and iconic symbols of the Arthurian legend, and has inspired many works of art, literature, and media throughout history.
Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi
A legendary sword in Japanese folklore, it is one of the three Imperial Regalia of Japan. The sword is associated with the Shinto god Susanoo.
Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi is a legendary Japanese sword and one of the three Imperial Regalia of Japan. Its original name is Ame no Murakumo no Tsurugi, meaning “Sword of the Gathering Clouds of Heaven”.
The sword has a long and rich history in Japanese mythology and folklore. It is said to have been given to the god Susanoo by the dragon Yamata-no-Orochi, whom he slayed to rescue the princess Kushinada. Susanoo then presented the sword to his sister, the sun goddess Amaterasu, as a token of reconciliation. The sword was later passed down to the imperial family of Japan and became a symbol of their divine right to rule.
The sword is also featured in many works of art, literature, and media, such as the manga and anime series Naruto, Fate/stay Night, and Rurouni Kenshin.
The sword is sometimes compared to Excalibur, the legendary sword of King Arthur in Western mythology, as both are associated with sovereignty, heroism, and magic.
The sword is also revered by some Shinto sects, who consider it a manifestation of the god Takemikazuchi, the patron deity of martial arts and thunder.
The sword is believed to have magical powers, such as controlling the wind, cutting through anything, and revealing the true king of Japan. It is also said to be unbreakable and invincible in battle. The sword is kept in Atsuta Shrine in Nagoya, but its existence and appearance are shrouded in mystery. Only the emperor and a few priests are allowed to see it, and no photographs or drawings of it have been made public.
Joyeuse
This sword is linked to Charlemagne, the medieval Frankish emperor. It was believed to contain the lance that pierced the side of Jesus during the Crucifixion.
Joyeuse in the Louvre. Image: Wikimedia, CC BY-SA 2.5.
Joyeuse is the legendary sword of Charlemagne, the famous king of the Franks and the Holy Roman Emperor in the Middle Ages. The name of the sword means “joyful” in French. The sword has various extraordinary properties attributed to it in different versions of the legend and the stories that followed. Some of the most common features of Joyeuse are:
Forged by the legendary blacksmith Wayland the Smith, known for crafting the swords of heroes like Sigurd and Beowulf, this weapon holds a remarkable history.
Fashioned from the same metal that formed Longinus’s lance, the spear that pierced Jesus Christ’s side on the cross, it possessed an otherworldly brilliance. This radiance could illuminate the night, akin to daylight, and left Charlemagne‘s adversaries blinded by its splendor.
Accompanied by a twin sword named Durandal, which was entrusted to Charlemagne’s paladin Roland, this formidable blade played a pivotal role in defending the rear guard during the Battle of Roncevaux Pass.
Reputedly indestructible and unrivaled in battle, it could effortlessly cut through any armor or shield.
Joyeuse is one of the most famous and iconic symbols of the Carolingian legend and has inspired many works of art, literature, and media throughout history.
Caladbolg
A sword from Irish mythology, wielded by heroes like Fergus mac Róich and Cu Chulainn. It was known for its incredible cutting power.
Fergus mac Róich carrying Sétanta on his shoulder. Illustrated by George Denham(†1917). Image: Public Domain.
Caladbolg (Welsh: Caledfwlch) is a legendary sword in medieval Welsh literature associated with Fergus from the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology. Caladbolg (Old Irish: Caladbolg) is linked to Caledvwlch and is also identified with Excalibur from later Arthurian literature in the Matter of Britain. Caladbolg is also associated with the lesser-known hero Fergus mac Léti from the Ulster Cycle, indicating a merging of two legends. In some legends, it is said to be a two-handed sword that, when swung, would curve like a rainbow and could cut the tops of hills and destroy entire armies.
Caladbolg can be linguistically related to Cú Chulainn’s spear, Gáe Bulg, or to King Arthur’s own Caliburn, which is called Caledvwlch in ancient Welsh mythology. The original versions of the myth used Cú Chulainn.
During the events of the Táin Bó Cúailnge, Ailill mac Mata takes Caladbolg from Fergus when he learns of Fergus’s relationship with his wife, Medb. He returns the sword to Fergus when he fights against the Ulaid people. Fergus sows chaos against the forces of Ulaid with his sword, but Conall Cernach convinces him not to kill Conchobar mac Nessa. Instead, Fergus delivers the ‘Three Great Strikes’ on three small hills, shattering their peaks.
The name Caladbolg, in Old Welsh, literally means “hard cleft.” It appears in the plural form as a generic term for “great swords” in Irish translations of classical literature from the 10th century. Sometimes, it is written as Caladholg, meaning “hard blade.”
Curtana
The ceremonial sword of the British monarchy, it symbolizes the monarch’s role as the defender of the faith.
Left to right: The Sword of Offering, the Sword of State, and the Sword of Mercy
Curtana, also known as the Sword of Mercy, is a ceremonial sword that is used at the coronation of British monarchs. The sword has a blunt tip, which symbolizes the sovereign’s mercy and clemency. The sword is said to have belonged to x, the last Anglo-Saxon king of England, who died in 1066. The sword was then passed down to his successors, and it has been used in every coronation since then.
The sword is made of steel, iron, copper, and wood and has a “running wolf” mark on the blade, which indicates that it was forged by a Germanic smith. The sword also contains relics of saints in its hilt, such as a fragment of the True Cross and a tooth of St. Edward. The sword has a red velvet scabbard, which was made for the coronation of George IV in 1821. The scabbard is decorated with gold embroidery and silver-gilt emblems of roses, thistles, and fleurs-de-lis.
Curtana is one of the three swords that are carried in the coronation procession, along with the Sword of Temporal Justice and the Sword of Spiritual Justice. These swords represent the kingly virtues of justice and mercy, and date back to the coronation of Richard the Lionheart in 1189. The Sword of State, which symbolizes the royal authority, and the Sword of Offering, which signifies the monarch’s duty and knightly qualities, are also used in the coronation ceremony.
Masamune
Goro Nyudo Masamune, often referred to simply as Masamune, was a famous Japanese swordsmith from the Kamakura period (13th century). His swords are celebrated for their exceptional craftsmanship and artistic design.
The katana nicknamed Tsugaru Masamune in the Tokyo National Museum. National Treasure. Image: Wikimedia, CC BY-SA 4.0.
The Masamune sword takes its name from the legendary Japanese swordsmith Goro Nyudo Masamune, who is believed to have lived during the late 13th and early 14th centuries. Masamune is often regarded as one of the greatest swordsmiths in Japanese history, and his swords have been the subject of admiration and fascination for generations. His craftsmanship marked the pinnacle of Japanese swordmaking and contributed to the country’s rich swordsmithing tradition.
What sets the Masamune sword apart are its unique characteristics:
Masamune’s swords are renowned for their sharpness and cutting ability. They are said to have been so sharp that they could cut through multiple bodies with a single stroke.
Masamune’s swords are celebrated not only for their functionality but also for their aesthetic appeal. The blades are often beautifully designed and ornamented, featuring intricate details on the hilt and scabbard.
The process of creating a Masamune sword is a testament to the dedication and skill of Japanese swordsmiths. It involves the meticulous folding and forging of steel, resulting in blades with a distinctive grain pattern called “hada.”
The Masamune sword, like many legendary blades, carries with it an air of myth and mystery. One of the most famous stories associated with it involves a competition between Masamune and another renowned swordsmith, Muramasa. According to the legend, the blades of these two masters were tested by suspending them in a river. Muramasa’s sword cut everything that touched it, including leaves and fish, while Masamune’s sword only cut the leaves but allowed the fish to pass unharmed. This story reflects the contrasting philosophies of the two swordsmiths, with Muramasa’s blades being known for their aggression and Masamune’s for their precision and control.
Kogarasu Maru
This legendary sword, whose name translates to “Little Crow,” is known for its unique shape. It was created by Amakuni, an ancient swordsmith, and is considered one of Japan’s national treasures.
Replica of the tachi Kogarasu Maru, Ozawa Masatoshi, 1970. Image: Wikimedia, CC BY-SA 4.0.
The Kogarasu Maru sword, also known as the “Little Crow” or “Karasu” sword, is a renowned Japanese tanto, a type of short sword, with a distinct design. Its origin traces back to the Heian period (794–1185 AD), making it over a thousand years old. The sword is part of Japan’s cultural heritage, and its history is shrouded in legends and folklore.
Key features of this masterpiece include:
The distinctive hamon, the visible temper line on the blade, is characterized by its wavy pattern, adding both beauty and functionality to the sword.
The sword’s fittings, including the tsuba (guard) and kashira (pommel), are crafted with meticulous attention to detail, often featuring intricate engravings or inlays.
The Kogarasu Maru sword holds cultural significance in Japan and is considered a national treasure. Its historical importance is twofold:
During the Heian period, the sword was a symbol of a samurai’s status and honor, and it is said to have been wielded by legendary samurai.
The Kogarasu Maru sword has inspired artists, poets, and writers throughout history. Its beauty and elegance have found their way into countless works of literature and art.
The Kogarasu Maru sword is currently housed in the Tokugawa Art Museum in Nagoya, Japan.
Muramasa
Swords made by the Muramasa school, especially Sengo Muramasa, are infamous for their alleged bloodthirsty nature. It is said that those who wielded a Muramasa blade were destined for violence.
Muramasa’s “evil sword” and “demon sword” titles only began to flourish during the Edo period, and the reason it was called a “demon sword” was due to Tokugawa Ieyasu’s banning of swords. Image: ljg8.
The origins of the Muramasa sword are shrouded in mystery, much like many legendary blades. It is believed to have been created by the master swordsmith Muramasa Sengo, who lived during Japan’s Muromachi period (approximately 14th to 16th centuries). Muramasa’s swords were renowned for their sharpness, and he employed a unique two-layer steel forging technique known as “soshu-kitae.” This method involved layering hard and soft steel to create a blade with a razor-sharp edge.
The Muramasa sword is infamous for its reputation as a “bloodthirsty” blade. Legends and stories surrounding this weapon suggest that it had a malevolent spirit, causing its wielder to become consumed by a murderous rage. Some stories even claim that the sword would drive its owner to commit acts of violence, making it a cursed weapon.
One of the most well-known stories involves Tokugawa Ieyasu, the creator of the Tokugawa Shogunate, conducting a test. He is said to have tested two swords—one made by Muramasa and another by Masamune, a rival swordsmith. The Muramasa sword supposedly cut through everything with ease, but it was difficult to sheathe because it was so “bloodthirsty.” In contrast, the Masamune sword was sharp but had a more peaceful and calm nature, allowing it to be sheathed without issue. As a result, Tokugawa Ieyasu favored the Masamune sword.
Gram
A sword of Norse mythology, Gram was wielded by the hero Sigurd and used to slay the dragon Fafnir.
Statue of Siegfried forging the imperial sword at the Bismarck Memorial, by Reinhold Begas (1901), Berlin. Image: Wikimedia.
Gram, also spelled Gramr, is the name of the sword that the hero Sigurd used to slay the dragon Fafnir in Norse mythology. The sword was originally owned by Sigurd’s father, Sigmund, who received it from the god Odin. However, the sword broke when Sigmund fought against Odin disguised as a stranger. Sigurd later reforged the sword from the fragments and used it to accomplish many heroic deeds.
Gram is described as a very powerful and sharp sword, capable of cutting through an anvil and a dragon’s scales. It is also one of the few weapons that can injure Odin himself. The name Gram means “wrath” or “fury” in Old Norse, reflecting its destructive nature. Gram is one of the most famous swords in Norse mythology and has influenced many other works of fiction and fantasy.
Zulfiqar
The double-pointed sword associated with Imam Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad, in Islamic tradition.
An early 19th-century Ottoman Zulfiqar flag.
Zulfiqar, also spelled Dhulfaghar, Zolfaaghar, Dhu al-Fiqar, Dhu l-Faqar, Thulfeqar, Dhulfiqar, Zoulfika, or Zülfikar, is the legendary sword of Imam Ali, the son-in-law and cousin of Prophet Muhammad in Islamic tradition. The sword is said to have been given to Ali by Muhammad or by the archangel Gabriel and to have been used by Ali in several battles. The sword is famous for its bifurcated or double-pointed blade, which is often depicted as a scimitar in modern Shia iconography. The name Zulfiqar means “the spine splitter” or “the severer of the vertebrae” in Arabic, reflecting its destructive power.
Zulfiqar is one of the most revered and mysterious swords in history and has inspired many legends and stories. It is also one of the symbols of Shia Islam and is often used as a talisman or an emblem of piety, justice, and strength. A well-known saying attributed to the archangel Gabriel proclaims: “There is no hero like Ali; there is no sword like Zulfiqar.” This phrase is sometimes engraved on sword blades or other objects. According to some traditions, Zulfiqar still exists today and is kept by the Mahdi, the hidden Imam who will return at the end of time.
Hrunting
In the epic poem “Beowulf,” this sword was given to Beowulf to fight the monster Grendel’s mother. It ultimately failed him in that battle.
Beowulf carrying Hrunting fighting the dragon.
It is a sword that appears in the Old English epic poem Beowulf, which dates back to the 8th or 9th century. It belongs to Unferth, the counselor of King Hrothgar, who lends it to Beowulf when he goes to battle Grendel’s mother, a monster terrorizing the kingdom. The sword is described as a powerful and magical weapon, one that has never failed its wielder, but it proves unable to harm the creature.
Beowulf must then use another sword found in the treasure of Grendel and his mother to defeat his foe. Hrunting symbolizes courage, generosity, and loyalty, but also failure and disappointment
Durandal
A famous sword from the medieval epic “The Song of Roland,” it was wielded by Roland, a Frankish knight, and is said to be indestructible.
Alleged fragment of Durendal in Rocamadour. Image: Wikimedia.
Durandal is a legendary sword from medieval European literature, particularly associated with the epic poem “The Song of Roland.” It is said to be the weapon of Charlemagne’s paladin Roland, one of the Twelve Peers of France. The sword Durandal is renowned for its strength and magical properties. In the legends, it is often depicted as an indestructible blade with various supernatural qualities.
Durandal played a significant role in the Battle of Roncevaux Pass, where Roland valiantly defended Charlemagne’s army, and the sword ultimately found its place in medieval chivalric tales and Arthurian legends.
Dojigiri
Forged by the renowned swordsmith Yasutsuna, this sword is historically significant and is believed to have been used by Minamoto no Yoritomo, the founder of the Kamakura Shogunate.
Dōjigiri, also known as Dōjikiri Yasutsuna or Dōjigiri Kyōhō, is a Japanese sword made by Yasutsuna, a famous swordsman who lived during the Heian period (794–1185). This sword is one of the five greateast swords declared Japan’s National Treasure. Each of these swords is attributed to Yamato Takeru, a legendary hero in Japanese mythology who is said to have slain a dragon.
Dōjigiri’s name comes from a story that illustrates the sword’s sharpness. According to this story, Yamato Takeru, while fighting a dragon, plunged his sword into the dragon’s neck. Before the dragon died, it turned its head to look at Yamato Takeru, but the sword was so sharp that it completely severed the dragon’s neck. Hence, the sword was named Dōjigiri, meaning “Dragon (Dōji) Cutter”.
The Dōjigiri sword has belonged to many important people in Japanese history. One of them is Date Masamune, a famous warlord during the Sengoku Period (1467–1600). Date Masamune inherited the Dōjigiri from his father, Date Terumune. Date Masamune used the sword in many battles and considered it one of his favorite swords. Date Masamune left Dōjigiri to his son Date Tadamune before his death. As Date Tadamune served as a loyal vassal to the Tokugawa shogunate, the sword passed to the Tokugawa family.
Today, the Dōjigiri sword is on display at the Tokyo National Museum.
Onimaru Kunitsuna
A sword associated with the legendary warrior Minamoto no Yorimitsu, it was said to have been used to slay oni (demons) in Japanese folklore.
Minamoto no Yorimitsu, picture was drawn by Kikuchi Yōsai.
Christmas and Christianity have been illegal in China for almost a century, but a secularized version of the holiday has become popular in the country. In recent years, Christmas in China has taken on a Chinese flavor while still including familiar elements like trees and lights. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has banned Christmas on the mainland since 1949 and Christmas festivities of any type, even in houses of worship, are illegal on paper. The reason for this ban is to assist in the “sinicization” of the celebration of Western holidays and customs.
Christmas is not a national holiday in China, but it has been growing in popularity in the country in recent years. More than 20 million Christians in China celebrate Christmas with the same or even more fervor than their Western counterparts. Other (often young) Chinese people also celebrate a tuned-down but still flashy version of this holiday. But outside of the Christian minority, Christmas is not generally observed in China.
A Non-Religious Holiday: The festivities have nothing to do with religion outside of China’s Christian population which is around 2% or 23 million. It’s grown into one of the most anticipated yearly events in China’s metropolises.
It’s a Valentine’s Day: Many young Chinese people celebrate Christmas in the same vein as Valentine’s Day. This is the season for romanticism and dates. Chinese people go to ice skating rinks and amusement parks for Christmas. Japan also sees this holiday in a similar vein.
Marketable Quality: Promotional events are organized at Chinese stores and shopping centers to encourage customers to make purchases during Christmas. On Christmas Eve, you may have a Christmas supper at a restaurant. Many stores are decorated with Christmas trees, lights, and other touches as a Westerner would have come to expect.
Gift-Giving Tradition: One custom of Chinese Christmas is the exchange of apples as presents on Christmas Eve. In Mandarin Chinese, the word for “apple” (苹果 píngguǒ / ping-gwor) sounds very similar to the word for “peace”. This word is used for Christmas Eve and the carol “Silent Night.”
The Chinese New Year vs. Christmas
One other reason Christmas is less popular in China is that the Chinese New Year generally falls between January 21 and February 20. So, it’s hard for China to blend Christmas festivities with New Year’s festivities, unlike many other nations. To not celebrate something twice, China puts more emphasis on the Chinese New Year. The Chinese New Year spans across more beliefs and regions in China than Christmas.
Also known as the Spring Festival, it holds immense cultural significance, is deeply rooted in the country’s history and is tied to the lunar-solar Chinese calendar. It is a time for family reunions, akin to Christmas in Western countries. This tradition, spanning centuries, is the most popular holiday in China, lasting about 15 days.
In contrast, Christmas, a relatively recent introduction, is viewed more as a Western tradition. The practices during the Chinese New Year, such as giving red envelopes (to ward off evil spirits), reunion dinners, and house cleaning for good luck, are observed across the country, while Christmas practices, like decorating trees and exchanging gifts, are less common and mostly found in larger cities and regions with significant Christian populations.
The Chinese government has campaigned against religious observances like this due to its declared state atheism but more people in China continue to celebrate Christmas every year. They celebrate it in a manner distinct from Western customs, giving it a Chinese flavor.
Christmas Eve Instead of Christmas Day
In the West, Christmas Day tends to take center stage, while in China, Christmas Eve takes center stage. It is a time for young couples to exchange presents and organize romantic activities, similar to Valentine’s Day. “Christmas Eve dinners” are offered at restaurants and promotions are staged in stores and malls to encourage spending.
Typical Decorations
In big cities, like Shanghai and Beijing, there are typical Christmas trees, lights, and other decorations on the streets. But just a minority of Chinese households have a Christmas tree, and those that do often choose a plastic one decked up with paper garlands, flowers, and lights. Unlike in the West, stores are open during Christmas.
In China, Santa Claus is known as ‘Sheng dan lao ren’ (聖誕老人, literally “Old Christmas Man”), and he is seen as a secular person who resides in a mythical Arctic Christmas Village at China’s North Pole. A Santa Claus on duty can be seen strolling the aisles of a Chinese shopping mall, accompanied by costumed ladies. Because in China, Santa’s helpers are his sisters. It’s not uncommon for mail carriers in large cities to don Santa suits in the days leading up to Christmas. Even though not many people know about or comprehend carol singing, some individuals still do it.
“Christmas Greeting”
In China, there is a thing called “Christmas greeting.” On Christmas, Chinese people exchange greetings, which are referred to as 圣诞快乐 (shèng dàn kuài lè), simply meaning “Merry Christmas” in Mandarin.
Some Chinese Are Not Fond of Christmas
Over the last two decades, Christmas has been divisive in China, with some nationalists calling for it to be abolished as an incursion of Western soft power. The celebration of this festival, they say, might lead to the erosion of Chinese culture.
Christian influence, other foreign cultural influences, and contemporary globalization all contributed to the establishment of Christmas in China. Former colonial control in China (and the rest of Asia) beginning in the 16th century is responsible for introducing the holiday to several formerly non-Christian regions. For instance, being a former British colony until 1997, Hong Kong celebrates Christmas as a legal holiday.
Thousands of Protestant missionaries arrived between 1840 and 1949 in China, established schools, and introduced new customs, including Christmas. However, the Qing government’s (1636–1912) tense relationship with Christian missionaries resulted in occasional bans and other restrictions.
Christmas was not popularly celebrated until the 1920s, when it was given the name Shengdanjie (literally “birth of a saint”). Slowly rising currency rates after the economic reforms of 1978 sparked a renaissance of Christmas, notably in the 1990s. As the public learned more about the holiday, it was frequently divorced from its religious roots and celebrated primarily for its secular significance.
Shanghai and Beijing were among the first major cities to see Christmas decorations, with smaller towns throughout the nation following suit.
Why Does China Ban Christmas?
Christians have been present in China since at least the 7th century AD, according to the Xi’an Stele. However, after 1949, when the People’s Republic of China was officially established, Christmas was seen as a symbol of Western imperialism and was widely discouraged or openly outlawed. Christmas has been outlawed in China on many occasions in the last few decades.
The Chinese government is fond of banning Christmas in an effort to suppress religious practices with foreign influences. Authorities in the Chinese city of Langfang, Hebei Province, banned public Christmas decorations in December 2018, claiming the need to “preserve equilibrium” and prevent societal turmoil. An official document prohibiting Christmas festivities in schools was released by the Department of Education in Rong’an County, Liuzhou City, in December 2021.
Christians make up a small (2.3%) but significant population (28 million) in India, and they do celebrate Christmas. The event is referred to as Bada Din (which translates to “Big Day”). Most Indians adhere to the Hindu faith, but the country’s diversity makes Christmas, among other holidays, a legitimate occasion. Celebrations are especially extravagant in towns with large Christian populations, like Mumbai and Goa, where residents attend midnight mass and decorate their homes with lights and garlands. The varied cultural landscape of India means that Christmas traditions might vary from place to place.
St. Thomas is credited with bringing Christianity to the Indian subcontinent in the first century (52 AD). The arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century is nevertheless credited with establishing the modern Christmas celebration in India. They introduced the first Christmas holiday and the Latin rite in the country. Therefore, it is likely that they were responsible for India’s first Christmas celebration in the 16th century.
The first documented Christmas cake in India was baked by Mambally Bapu in the late 19th century which also makes it one of the first documented examples of Christmas in this country. Bapu established the Mambally Royal Biscuit Factory in Thalassery, Kerala. After tasting some imported Christmas plum pudding, a Scotsman is credited with inspiring him to prepare India’s first Christmas cake.
How Christmas is Celebrated in India
India’s Christmas celebrations are unlike any other, fusing indigenous traditions with Western Christian elements. The season of Advent begins on Advent Sunday, the fourth Sunday before Christmas. Churches, houses, businesses, and malls are decorated with Christmas lights, paper streamers, candles, and poinsettia flowers.
Traditional Foods: Traditional Christmas desserts, known as kuswar, are baked and shared during Christmas in India. Christians in the Konkan area prepare and trade these holiday treats. Biryanis (a rice and meat dish) and kheer (a sweet rice dessert) are among the most popular Christmas dishes.
Fasting: Observant Catholics in the state of Kerala in southwestern India observe a fast from the first of December to the midnight mass service on the 24th of December.
Christmas Baba: You can even see an Indian Santa riding around on a horse-drawn sleigh, delivering gifts to kids in India. “Christmas Baba” in Hindi and in other Indian languages refers to him.
Carols: Bhil tribal Christians in Northwest India go to neighboring villages each night for a week leading up to Christmas to sing songs and recount the Christmas narrative.
Burning Earthen Lamp: In South India, it is common practice for Indian people to celebrate Christmas by lighting an earthen lamp and placing it atop their homes. According to them, this ritual represents Jesus as the true light.
Decorations: Goa is home to the vast majority of India’s Christmas rituals, including the usual suspects like carol singing, Christmas tree decoration, star-shaped lamps, and fruit cake making.
Midnight Mass: During this special occasion, churches in India are lavishly decked with poinsettia flowers and candles.
Some non-Christian groups have also started celebrating Christmas in recent years, bringing with them gift exchanges and even Santa Claus as secular customs.
Different Ways Christmas is Celebrated in Different Regions of India
Kolkata: Christmas festivities in Kolkata are world-famous. String lights and other decorations can be seen on Park Street. Christmas cakes and other holiday delicacies are found on Flurys’ (an iconic bakery) special Christmas menu. In addition, there is the Kolkata Christmas Festival, which is put on in cooperation with the government’s West Bengal Tourism.
Mumbai and Pondicherry: There are many devout Catholics living in Mumbai and Pondicherry. There are additional Christian communities in the cities and towns of Manipur, Meghalaya, and Mizoram. These areas are home to relatively intense celebrations.
Goa: With its big Catholic population and Portuguese influence, Goa is one of the foremost destinations to celebrate Christmas in India. The Goan-Catholic Christmas table comprises foods that are a tribute to the community’s origins. Seafood is the main part of their feasts, and Christmas is no exception.
Why Some Indians Are Against Christmas
Since it is not a part of their religion and because Christians once invaded their country not too long ago, some Indians dislike the fact that Christmas is a Christian holiday. Similarly, some Indians, albeit in minority groups, feel they must not celebrate festivals of other faiths to retain their identity.
Some extreme Hindu organizations have attacked Christmas celebrations in India, claiming that doing so introduces foreign “Western ideas.” Navajo and other people whose religion is based on an appreciation of the natural world and its cycles also find it difficult to celebrate Christmas since it commemorates the birth of a religious figure from a completely different religion.
Christian Populations in the Regions of India
India’s Christian population is dispersed throughout the country, yet there are several particularly dense concentrations:
South India: Approximately 25% of India’s entire Christian population lives in the southern section of the country, namely in the state of Kerala. In Kerala, Christians make up more than 6 million people, or around 18.5 percent of the total population. There is also a sizeable Christian community in Tamil Nadu.
North-East India: Christian majority states in northeast India include Nagaland, Mizoram, and Meghalaya. Christians make up 88% of the population in Nagaland, 87% of the population in Mizoram, and 75% of the population in Meghalaya. The Christian population is also sizable in Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh.
West India: Goa, inspired by its Portuguese heritage, has a considerable Christian population, with Christians accounting for 25% of the state’s population.
Central India and East India: There are Christian groups among the tribal people of Central India and East India.
Union Territories: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are a Union Territory, and 21.3 percent of its population identifies as Christian.
A Brief History of Christianity in India
The Christian community in India has been there for a long time. Christianity was supposedly introduced to India by St. Thomas in the year 52 AD. He supposedly arrived in Kerala, and it was there that the faith took hold. He then crossed to the island of Mylapore off the coast of modern-day Chennai, where he declared the existence of a new deity and a new country.
The legendary apostle Thomas is said to have established seven communities in the country. He went over southern India, preaching to the Hindus and the Jews, and won over tens of thousands of people. Although some of the evidence for Thomas’s time in India may strain the imagination, the bulk of it is at least as believable.
Some Hindus hold the view that St. Thomas was murdered by a local monarch or a Brahmin priest. Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama was taken aback by the vibrant Christian communities they found in southern India and the Subcontinent upon his arrival in 1498. The inhabitants’ firm belief that St. Thomas himself had founded their church further shocked the visitors.
Christians from the Middle East immigrated to St. Thomas in later centuries, substantially strengthening the local Christian population. When the Portuguese arrived in India in the 16th century, it was a watershed moment in the development of Christianity in the country. The Saint Thomas Christians had been adhering to a Syrian rite that was distinct from the Latin rite that the Portuguese invaders brought with them.
28 million Christian followers make up the third biggest religious group in India, after Hindus and Muslims. Aside from Kerala, states like Nagaland, Mizoram, and Meghalaya also have sizable Christian minorities. They come from a wide variety of traditions, including Protestant, Catholic, Syrian Orthodox, and other groups.
