No one in world history has had more written about them. More than 90 separate biographies of Adolf Hitler have been published in German alone since 1945, not counting short profiles, translations, and right-wing tributes. The other literature on individual aspects of his rule over Germany is literally immeasurable.
Nevertheless, there are still aspects that remain relatively unexplored, such as his personal finances. It was carefully cultivated as part of Hitler’s propaganda image that he selflessly led the fate of Germany, lived a modest life, and had only the well-being of “his” people in mind. The reality was quite different.
In 1934, Hitler was sued by the Munich tax office for 405,494.40 Reichsmarks in unpaid taxes, plus interest and penalties. He tried to settle the case by offering 2,000 Reichsmarks, but the tax office rejected his offer. Hitler then used his newly acquired position as Führer to issue a decree that granted him immunity from taxation and retroactively canceled his tax debt.
While the “Völkische Beobachter” announced on its front page in bold letters on February 7, 1933, that “as the Reich Press Office of the NSDAP reports, the Führer, as Chancellor, does not receive a salary, since he earns his income as a writer, he has waived the Chancellor’s emoluments.” However, this demonstrative modesty didn’t last long because, from 1934, Hitler resumed receiving his salary as Chancellor and, since August 2, 1934, also that of Reich President following Paul von Hindenburg’s death. Such dual remuneration was, in principle, not permitted by German civil service regulations, but it posed no obstacle for Hitler.
A similarly unsavory and lesser-known secret revolves around Hitler’s honesty in paying taxes. Earning money is only half as enjoyable when a considerable portion of one’s income must be surrendered to the state. Hitler had encountered difficulties with tax authorities before his rise to power.
Hitler curtly responded, according to his tax file in the Munich State Archives, 18 days after receiving a request from the Munich East tax office on May 1, 1925, to report his income for the first quarter of 1925, along with a warning of a penalty of ten Reichsmark or one day in prison: “I had no income in I924 or in the first quarter of 1925.“
Hitler with his car Mercedes-Benz 11/40 PS. Image: Loc.gov.
The tax office was not satisfied with Hitler’s response. On July 23, 1925, an official noted that the allegedly income-less taxpayer had purchased a car for 20,000 Reichsmarks. In early September, the announced penalty order was issued, which the NSDAP leader paid because he did not want to go to prison again.
He could not avoid a tax return for the third quarter of 1925 and submitted it, albeit belatedly. The tax officials were likely not pleased. Hitler admitted to a rather substantial quarterly income of 11,231 Reichsmark but also claimed advertising costs of 6,540 Reichsmark and paid credit interest of 2,245 Reichsmark.
Goebbels’ Envy of Hitler’s Money
Back and front cover of a A4 sized decorative telegram folder in colour from Deutsche Reichspost (“German Empire Mail”) 1937. Image: Public Domain. High Resolution: Malevus.
In the following years, he engaged in a minor war with the tax authorities, regularly appealing against assessments and deferring tax debts. The Munich tax office treated the taxpayer Hitler leniently until 1932, but essentially lawfully.
The instruction in 1933 to be able to deduct half of his private income from “Mein Kampf” flatly and without verification as advertising costs was completely illegal. That’s exactly what happened. Of the 1,232,335 Reichsmark that Hitler reported as income from the sale of about a million copies of his book for the calendar year 1933, he deducted exactly 616,167 Reichsmark. Due to the progression, an income tax of 297,005 Reichsmark was due on the same amount to be taxed.
Stamps that made Adolf Hitler money.
Hitler apparently did not pay. In any case, his tax file on October 20, 1934, indicated an outstanding balance of 272,190 Reichsmark in income tax for 1933, as well as an additional 24,383.20 Reichsmark in church tax, 14,315 Reichsmark in marriage assistance, and 23,776.70 Reichsmark in sales tax. The tax office demanded around 70,000 Reichsmark in advance payments for the third quarter of 1934; the Chancellor’s tax debt amounted to exactly 405,494.40 Reichsmark.
The Reich Finance Ministry and the President of the Munich Regional Tax Office arrived at a completely one-sided agreement that favored Hitler after some correspondence: the tax debt was entirely forgiven, the pending criminal proceedings were dropped, and Adolf Hitler disappeared from the view of the German tax administration on March 12, 1935. From then on, he paid no taxes at all. This information was, of course, not made public.
Hitler’s tax evasion was exposed after his death, when the Allies seized his financial records and documents. They estimated that he owed about 8 million Reichsmarks in taxes, plus interest and penalties, to the German treasury. They also discovered that he had stashed away millions of Reichsmarks in secret bank accounts and hidden assets.
Until 1945, it was also strictly kept secret that Hitler received payments from the Reich Post for the use of his image on German stamps—for the use of his personality rights. Over the years, at least high double-digit, possibly even triple-digit, million amounts have accumulated here. Goebbels noted in his diary that this arrangement would bring Hitler “a lot of money.” The envy of the Reich Minister of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda, who was certainly not poorly off himself, was unmistakable.
Jehovah’s Witnesses don’t celebrate Christmas because, according to their understanding of the Bible, the holiday should be about remembering Jesus’ death, not his birth. This is close to the Amish’s and Mormons’ understanding of Christmas. They disagree with those who celebrate Christmas in accordance with biblical teachings, but they acknowledge the freedom of others to observe the holiday, unlike many Jews who deeply disdain Christmas celebrations.
There are a number of biblically-based reasons why Jehovah’s Witnesses do not celebrate Christmas. Although they don’t celebrate it, they recognize the right of others to do so instead of openly disdaining them in public.
Instead of Jesus’ Birthday, They Commemorate His Death: Jehovah’s Witnesses believe that Jesus ordered the commemoration of his death, not his birth. This is how they understand Scriptures like Luke 22:19 and 20.
The Date of December 25 Has No Basis in the Bible: The Bible does not provide any evidence supporting December 25 as Jesus’ birth date. Nativity celebrations began no sooner than 243 AD, according to the New Catholic Encyclopedia; this was almost a century after the death of the final apostle.
A Pagan Celebration: Based on their understanding of 2 Corinthians 6:17, Jehovah’s Witnesses reject Christmas because they feel it has pagan origins, although it is pretty much a secular celebration now.
Following Biblical Teachings: Jehovah’s Witnesses are known for their strict adherence to the teachings of the Bible, regardless of the social consequences. According to Romans 12:1-2, they are truth-seekers who put their “power of reason” to work.
Secularization: For Jehovah’s Witnesses, the secularization of Christmas has diluted its religious significance. They lament that the religious essence of the day has been lost amid the holiday’s emphasis on shopping and presents.
They are abstain from any Christmas since they believe they are pagan rituals and are thus forbidden by God. They go about their usual daily lives and religious observances. They pray, spend time with loved ones, or engage in other religious activities. They don’t celebrate Christmas themselves, but they are accepting of those who do since they appear to believe in goodwill toward men, according to their take on Proverbs 11:25 and Romans 12:18.
Preaching: They maintain their regular worship schedules during the winter holidays. The Christmas season does not slow them down from knocking on people’s doors and preaching on the spot. They still use Christmas to spread their views.
Family Visiting: During this time, they also choose to meet together for dinners or other social events that have nothing to do with Christmas.
Charitable Work: They are also allowed to do volunteer work during Christmas. They help out at a charity or do other good deeds for the community, most often to spread their religion.
Why Some Jehovah’s Witnesses Still Celebrate Christmas
Jehovah’s Witnesses actually observed the Christmas until the early 1900s, even though they knew Jesus was not born on December 25. They reasoned that even if they knew the date was wrong, they could still rejoice in the spirit of the holiday. However with additional investigation explaining the origins of the date and the typical objects linked with Christmas, they ultimately discovered that Christmas was a pagan religious feast disguised as a Christian holiday.
Most Jehovah’s Witnesses adhere to the teaching that Christmas has pagan roots and is forbidden by the Bible, but some Witnesses still observe this holiday. Because not many people can resist the magical spirit of Christmas. Some of them celebrate Christmas owing to their own cultural norms, or the influence of their families, especially the interfaith ones. However, some Witnesses actually celebrate Christmas to blend in with mainstream society. They feel the need to fit in with the rest of the people, especially when their preaches are found disturbing by citizens.
Their Views on Santa Claus, Christmas Tree, and Snowman
Jehovah’s Witnesses view Santa Claus as purely secular and not religious. They’d rather not engage in Christmas-themed pursuits like seeing Santa at the mall or sending letters to him. Putting up Christmas trees and building snowman are also considered secular and they are not supported by their community.
Explanation of the Jehovah’s Witnesses Religion
They are a Christian group that rejects the Trinity and believes in a future millennial kingdom. The whole Bible is considered to be Jehovah’s “inspired message” to humanity, and the followers of this religion have a strong faith in this deity.
God: According to Jehovah’s Witnesses, Jehovah is the one and only real God, the one who created the universe and everything in it, and the “Universal Sovereign.” According to their theology, he is the exclusive object of devotion and not one of three in a Trinity.
Jesus Christ: Jehovah’s Witnesses consider Jesus to be God’s representative and the only means by which God may forgive humanity’s sins. The followers of this group consider Jesus to be an artificial entity named Michael the Archangel. They preach that Jesus willingly submitted to God’s plan to be born of the Virgin Mary so that he might take on humanity’s sins as a substitute.
Holy Spirit: God’s operative power in the world is called the Holy Spirit in their theology.
Bible: To Jehovah’s Witnesses, the Bible is the one and final authority on matters of faith and practice. They oppose interfaith and ecumenical efforts because, in their view, the Bible explicitly forbids the mingling of faiths. In their view, only Jehovah’s Witnesses can claim to speak for all of Christendom, and all other faiths will perish because they don’t follow God’s exacting rules.
Lifestyle: Aspects of daily life unique to them include door-to-door evangelism, the distribution of publications like The Watchtower, and Awake!, and the rejection of both military duty and blood transfusions. They take part in a yearly remembrance of Christ’s death on the 14th of Nisan in the Jewish calendar (March or April in the Gregorian calendar); at this time, witnesses distribute bread and wine as emblems of Christ’s flesh and blood (!). They do not own weapons and abstain from politics because of their belief in being apart from the secular government. Divorce is frowned upon unless it is the result of adultery, which they see as a violation of the sacred nature of marriage.
Holidays and Celebrations: The Jehovah’s Witnesses do not observe the Christian holidays of Christmas and Easter, nor do they celebrate birthdays, since they consider these celebrations to have pagan roots and to be contrary to the teachings of the Bible. They participate in the yearly remembrance of Christ’s death but do not commemorate his birth.
Nittel Nacht, also known as “Christmas Night” or “Blind Night” in Yiddish, refers to Christmas Eve in Ashkenazi Jewish communities. During this time, especially among Hasidic Jews, the tradition is to refrain from studying the Torah, which may be traced back to the medieval Latin term “Natale Domini,” meaning “the birth of the Lord.” Various practices have emerged around Nittel Nacht, such as abstaining from Torah study, avoiding public activities, and engaging in specific customs to subtly express disdain for the Christian holiday of Christmas and the birth of Jesus. The origins of the name and the tradition are varied, braided with historical events, apologetic stances, and coded language. Despite its complex origins, some Jewish communities continue to observe Nittel Nacht today.
Nittel Nacht (Yiddish: “Christmas Night” or “Blind Night”) is the term used to refer to Christmas Eve in the Jewish communities of Ashkenazi descent. They also call this day simply “Nittel” or “Nitel,” and it is customary for Jews, especially Hasidic Jews, to not study the Torah on this evening. This practice may be traced back to medieval Latin, notably “Natale Domini,” which means “the birth of the Lord,” and in this sense, “Nittel Nacht” also means “night (of the holiday) of the birth.”
The Harsh Practices Associated with Nittel Nacht
Nittel Nacht is celebrated in a number of different ways by different groups but is most widely associated with the Hasidic communities of Eastern Europe and Hungary. On Christmas Eve, the fundamental tradition is to abstain from studying the Torah from sundown until midnight. German rabbi Moses Sofer’s students often went to bed early and came back to work after midnight. Another practice includes speaking aloud the part of the prayer known as “Aleinu” that asks God to forgive those “who bow down to vanity and emptiness,” which was formerly said in hushed tones to spare the feelings of Christians.
Some Hasidic groups provide regular gatherings where members may learn about secular issues, play chess, or share a friendly game of cards. The Mertzdorf Hasidic group has a tradition of cooking items with a particularly offensive smell as a way of subtly displaying their disdain. One of the Gur Hasidim leaders used to tear toilet paper into strips and use them all year as a sign of the group’s stance against the Jewish Christian faith.
According to legend, Solomon Luria, a famous Polish Jewish scholar, used this night to tithe, or donate 10% of his income and expenditures, to good causes. Nittel is used by a large number of individuals to perform a wide range of administrative, organizational, and domestic duties. Some people would spend hours a day reading biographies of saints. Some Hasidic groups also observe the sabbath by immersing in a ceremonial bath (mikveh), fulfilling the requirement of “Onah” (marital relations), and refraining from being married on this night.
The Book of the Tales of Jesus, a “humorous” depiction of Jesus’ life written in Hebrew in the early Middle Ages and later translated into Yiddish, is read in certain communities on this day. Furthermore, in the 19th century, the “Megillat Nittel” (Nittel Scroll) appeared, which recounts the events of Jesus’ life and is said to have been written by one of Moses Sofer’s students from materials he discovered in his teacher’s possession.
Some celebrate both “Nittel Gadol” (Big Nittel) and “Nittel Katan” (Small Nittel), both on the evening of the Western Christmas (December 24) and on the evening of the Eastern Christmas (January 6, also known as “Second Christmas”). Hasidim who “choose” between the two Christmas dates often follow the Christian tradition that is more widely observed in their nation. As an added bonus, some Hasidic courtyards celebrate Nittel on January 5 from midday to midnight.
Nittel Nacht in History
A Nativity scene.
Annotations to the Austro-Hungarian historian Isaac Tyrnau’s “Book of Customs” from the 14th century provide the earliest evidence of the practices associated with Nittel Nacht; in them, the custom of reciting the prayer “Aleinu” aloud on this night is mentioned, along with the phrase “who bow down to vanity and emptiness,” which is avoided during the rest of the year out of respect for the Christian community. A notable 17th-century German Jew, Yair Bacharach, first documented the practice of halting study on a certain festival night. As for the name “Nittel,” he said, “Lest a Capricorn be swallowed between seventy lions, we do not count on a miracle.”
The Mishnah’s tractate Avodah Zarah in Talmud states that “three days before their (idolaters’) holidays, it is forbidden to engage in commerce with them, borrow from them, lend to them, repay debts to them, or demand repayment from them.”
According to the Mishnah, these celebrations were known as “Kalenda, Saturnalia, and Kratisim, the day of their king’s birth and the day of his death (Genusia).” Kalenda and Saturnalia, two winter solstices observed in ancient Europe and recorded in the Mishnah, had an early impact on the development of Christmas celebrations. These well-known celebrations were included in Christian rituals as a means of attracting new members.
Commenting on the Mishnah, Italian rabbi Obadiah of Bertinoro (1450–1516) stated, “It is forbidden to engage in commerce with Christians every Sunday, and also on their holidays when they celebrate, such as Nittel and Peshkva, but their other idolatrous days, which they observe for their holy beings where divinity is not invoked, are permissible.”
In 1616, the anti-Semitic polemicist Dietrich Schwaab testified about the distorted custom in his book “The Jewish Mask” (Jüdischer Deckmantel):
“While we Christians, according to our ancient and beautiful custom, celebrate with great honor, with ringing bells, in prayer, singing, and gratitude… and the Jews hear the ringing bells, they utter words of mockery… He is here, to instill fear in the hearts of the children and the rest of the household, to the point where they do not want to go to the restroom unless they have a great need… Likewise, they do not permit themselves to study or pray on the night of Christmas, which they call ‘Nittel,’ meaning the holiday of hanging. The reason for this is that they believe that on this night, Jesus is in terrible agony, and by preventing study and prayer, he will not find peace and tranquility. Therefore, they prefer to sit idle, curse, and mock him.”
Why Jews Don’t Study Torah on Nittel Nacht
The grieving for the birth of Jesus is the reason why Torah study is forbidden on Nittel Nacht, according to a 17th-century rabbi from Karlsruhe named Nathaniel Weil. Moses Sofer, on the other hand, disputes the mourning justification, maintaining that one may engage in permitted study at any time, regardless of whether it is before or after midnight. According to him, this means that the restriction against studying the Torah is designed to silence academics. To prevent a scenario where Jews are asleep when Christians are up, they will retire to bed early at night owing to their lack of activity and wake up at midnight when the Christians rise for their prayers.
An explanation ascribed to the French rabbi Rashi’s book “Likutei HaPardes” is referenced in the late 19th-century book “Ta’amei HaMinhagim VeMekorei HaDinim,” which states that on Christmas Eve, disruptions and assaults on Jews who ventured out into the streets were widespread. This clarification does not occur in Rashi’s “Likutei HaPardes,” although its likely exclusion was owing to book burnings or other forms of censorship that targeted Hebrew texts.
This account of the origin of the tradition has been adopted by several scholars. On the other hand, critics say the risk rationale isn’t credible since education could continue in the comfort of one’s own home and there’s no proof that public prayer was suspended. The rabbis’ apologetic and contradictory stance against Christians’ assertions that Jews do not study the Torah in order to disrupt Jesus’ peace might be a manifestation of their fear of their Christian surroundings.
An example of this can be seen in the correspondence between the Jewish book censor in Prague, Karl Fischer, and Bohemian rabbi Elazar Fleckeles (1754–1826), who attempts to dismiss the questioner’s opinion by belittling certain customs and offering convoluted explanations about the origin of the term “Nittel.” The rationales from the realms of mysticism and Kabbalah refer to the night being considered impure due to the birth of Jesus, and special impure forces are attributed to that night.
The 9th of Tevet, which is quite near Christmas, is listed as a fast day on a list of around 20 days of sorrow that was transmitted from the book “Halachot Gedolot” to the “Shulchan Aruch”. But unlike the other days on the list, no clear explanation is given for this fast; instead, it is simply said, “The distress that occurred on this day is not known.” But later, rabbis interpreted that the day of Jesus’ birth was the cause of this fast. However, there is no Jewish tradition associated with abstaining from food for a Christian feast.
Theories for the Origin of This Name
Several folk theories have been proposed to explain the origin of the word:
Theory 1: The phrase “the night of the removal of that man from the world” is the inspiration for the name. Jews have always avoided discussing Jesus or even using his name.
Theory 2: A coded term used to keep the beginnings of the Jewish words (“Nisht Yiden Tarn La’er’an”) which means “Jews are forbidden to study Torah”.
Theory 3: Perhaps because no one was studying the Torah at that time, “Nittel Nacht” was a common name for the night in Eastern Europe.
Theory 4: “Nolad Yeshu Tet L’Tevet” is an initialism for the Hebrew phrase “Some believe that the 9th of Tevet fell on the same day as Jesus’ birthday.”
Another theory contends that the original name for Passover, a significant Jewish holiday, was “Chag HaNitu’ach” (the “Hanging Holiday”), a derogatory term Jews used to refer to Jesus because of the account of his execution by crucifixion on the eve of Passover (according to the Book of Acts) “for sorcery and inciting Israel” French rabbi Rashi used the word “Nitu’ach” (hanging) in his works as early as the 13th century. Over time, the written form of “Chag HaNitu’ach” morphed into “Chag HaNitul” and then “Chag HaNittel” to conceal its true meaning from non-Jews.
It is not surprising that some Jewish communities still practice this ritual today despite its roots in historical and theological contexts given the complex interaction between cultural practices and religious beliefs.
Since the birth of Jesus has no religious significance in Judaism, Jews do not celebrate Christmas as a religious festival. In countries like Russia, where pine trees are linked with the New Year, Jews may observe non-religious aspects of Christmas celebrations, like having a tree. Some Jews may celebrate Christmas with friends and family, with an emphasis on sharing good times rather than religious adherence.
Hanukkah (late November–early December), a Jewish festival celebrated for eight days, often coincides with Christmas and shares several of its traditions, such as the exchange of gifts and the display of festive decorations. In the past, when Jews lived in areas where they were persecuted, they established new Christmas customs to help keep them safe. Unlike Christmas, which commemorates the birth of a religious figure, Jews commemorate Hanukkah for the Maccabean revolt and subsequent triumph against the Hellenistic-Syrian empire.
According to Jewish people, no Jewish person or community should ever celebrate Christmas for the following reasons:
Theological Disagreements
Christians believe Jesus to be the promised Messiah, while Jews disagree. Jewish people think he can’t be the one who was prophesied since he hasn’t fulfilled all of the prophecies about him. Christians, but not Jews, expect Jesus’ second coming to bring about the events foretold in his writings. Jews observe the Torah, which Jesus ‘violated’ by not keeping the Sabbath sacred according to Jews. Christianity directly challenges Jewish tenets. When it comes to God, Roman Catholics believe in a Holy Trinity consisting of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, whereas Jews hold that there is only one God.
Traditional Persecution
Jews in Eastern and Central Europe have been terrified of Christmas for millennia. To escape danger, they would stay indoors and engage in peaceful family activities. The 25th of December often saw a peak in anti-Jewish violence in history.
During the Middle Ages, Jews were prohibited from public appearances during Christmas, with Christmas Eve often leading to attacks on them. To avoid danger, many Jews observed Nittel Nacht (“Idle Night” or “Blind Night”) by staying home and refraining from any activities that might suggest they were celebrating the Christian holiday. They passed time by playing cards and chess.
Originating in the 16th century, Nittel Nacht, named for Christmas Eve in Yiddish and marked by Jewish scholars, involved abstaining from Torah study and refraining from public appearances due to historical tensions. Some customs included late-night games, while certain Hasidic communities continue to observe them in modern times.
Hanukkah: A Jewish Alternative to Christmas
In the same timeframe as Christians celebrate Christmas, Jews observe Hanukkah. While for some, Hanukkah serves as a Jewish alternative to Christmas, for others, it’s just another opportunity to take part in mainstream society. The Zionist movement embraced Hanukkah because of the holiday’s symbols of Jewish manhood, power, and political triumph. Some Jews combine the two holidays into one they call “Chrismukkah.”
Hanukkah takes place over the course of eight consecutive evenings and days. The date of this festival varies from year to year, although it is often around the latter half of November or the beginning of December. This is the case since Hanukkah is fixed to the 25th day of the Hebrew month of Kislev.
Commercialization
Another factor in Jews’ refusal to observe Christmas is the holiday’s increasing commercialization. The commercialization of the celebration, which emphasizes extensive preparation for Christmas, has muddied the traditionally liturgical separation of Advent and the Christmas season.
Then Why Did Jews Write Christmas Songs and Movies?
Many popular Christmas songs and films have Jewish composers or directors for a few reasons. To make ends meet and feel more included in mainstream society, some Jews continued to create Christmas-themed music and films. This was a way for them to feel involved in the society they were living in.
Integrating Themselves: It’s possible that Jews’ desire to fit in was a driving force behind the proliferation of Christmas music and films. Jewish artists and musicians participated in the celebration of Christmas through their works. It allowed them to blend in with society without losing their religious identity.
Opportunity: Jews in the early 20th century had limited employment options, but those working in the entertainment sector were mostly unaffected by the pervasive anti-Semitism of the time. The hope of making it big in the music or film industry meant the possibility of escaping the plight of immigrant poverty.
Appreciation for the United States of America: Throughout their Christmas and other songs from the mid-20th century, Jewish artists express their own successful assimilation and appreciation for America. Their art appealed to a nation that wanted to feel courageous and unified as it fought World War II.
Secular Lyrics and Films: Jewish singers and filmmakers have often crafted secular takes on the Christmas genre. Both the joy of the holiday season and its status as a uniquely American celebration are captured in those works.
Why Some Jews Still Celebrate Christmas
While Jews do not celebrate Christmas, some of them nevertheless do, particularly mixed households:
Interfaith: One or both members of an interfaith couple usually opt to observe both the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah and the Christian holiday of Christmas.
Open Mindness: Rather than seeing it as a religious holiday, some Jews celebrate it as a cultural holiday. The party’s décor, music, and vibe can strike a chord with anyone. The secular customs of exchanging presents and decorating a tree may be observed.
Feeling a Part of It: Feeling part of society is a driving motivation for those Jews. To avoid feeling out of place throughout the holiday, some Jews prefer to celebrate it even if it isn’t their favorite holiday.
Blending In: For the sake of blending in, some Jewish people celebrate Christmas. They feel pressured to fit in with the majority, and adopting a Christmas celebration is one way to do so.
What Do Jews Do on Christmas?
They take this holiday season as an excuse to delve into their own distinct activities:
Movies and Chinese Food: Due to the fact that many businesses shut on Christmas Day, many people go to the relatively few venues that are open, such as movie theaters and Chinese restaurants.
Family Visiting: Some Jews utilize this day to get together with relatives or catch up on work.
Hanukkah: It is possible for the Jewish festival of Hanukkah to coincide with Christmas in certain years. Many Jewish households observe this holiday by lighting the hanukkiah, engaging in games of dreidel, and feasting on traditional dishes such as latkes and sufganiyot (jelly doughnuts).
Synagogue: If Christmas comes on a Saturday, the Jewish Sabbath, some Jews may observe the holiday by attending synagogue.
The Relationship Between Christmas and Judaism
Christ’s birth is commemorated as the reason for Christmas, a Christian celebration. It is not a Jewish festival, and Jews do not observe it religiously. Yet, Christmas and Judaism have shared roots throughout history.
There is a correlation between the persecution of Jews and the holiday season since so many well-known Christmas songs and films have Jewish composers or authors. Many Jews feel uneasy about Christmas Eve, which is known as Nittel Nacht in Jewish tradition.
Persecution: For decades, Central and Eastern European Jews lived in terror of Christmas because of persecution. Normally, devout Jews wouldn’t be seen at the synagogue on Christmas Day, studying the Torah. Wary of being assaulted in the street, they sought sanctuary in their houses, playing cards and board games with their families. As a result of being the religious minority in nations where Christians make up the majority, many Jews have traditionally been subjected to antisemitism.
Jewish Ties: There are Jewish ties to Christmas music since several well-known carols were penned by Jews. Jewish authors have produced some of the most beloved Christmas films and TV specials. However, a recent approach for Jews to react to the Christmas mindset has been loudly reiterating their ethnicity in defiance of the holiday.
Christmas and Hanukkah: Over time, a connection emerged between the Jews and the great Christian festival of Christmas, including the establishment of independent customs and the confluence of Hanukkah and Christmas. While some traditions endure due to a fear of change, others thrive because they are fun and easy to access when stores are closed over the Christmas season.
Nittel Nacht: In Jewish practice, Christmas Eve is referred to as Nittel Nacht. On Nittel Nacht, people consume large quantities of garlic to fight off the werewolves and vampires that are claimed to prowl the streets. The day of Nittel Nacht is also taboo for sexual activity since it is believed that a child conceived on that day would be born with wicked intentions.
December Dilemma: Many Jews feel uneasy about Christmas, creating a dilemma for everyone throughout December. They are OK with those around them enjoying Christmas, but they themselves feel uneasy about all the holiday glitz and glitter. Jewish parents suffer the “December Dilemma” when their children express envy for the gifts and celebrations associated with the Christmas holiday, and interfaith couples face the same dilemma while trying to determine how to celebrate the December holidays.
The Origins of Christmas
Painting by Jenny Nyström (1854-1946)
The roots of Christmas trace back thousands of years to primitive rituals around the midwinter solstice. In time, the celebration has adapted to include elements from many different cultures.
Beginnings in Paganism
Many of the customs linked to Christmas have pagan roots. During the winter solstice, the Germanic peoples had a feast known as Yule. The festivities included cooking over open flames, exchanging gifts, and lighting candles. The arrival of longer days and more sunshine during the winter solstice was a cause for celebration in many civilizations.
The Norse celebrated Yule from the winter solstice on December 21 to January. During the midwinter festival, the pagan deity Oden was celebrated throughout Germany. Both Saturnalia, a two-week celebration commemorating Saturn, the Roman god of agriculture, and Mithra’s birthday, the Roman deity of the sun, were celebrated by the ancient Romans in December.
The Christian Origin
In 325 AD, on December 25th, the first Christian Roman emperor, Constantine the Great, established Christmas as a fixed feast. The 25th of December has been celebrated as a holiday since at least 273 AD. However, history tells us that the first confirmed Christmas was celebrated on December 25, 336 AD, marking the beginning of the Christian era.
The date was selected because it marks nine months after March 25, the day traditionally observed as the anniversary of the Annunciation and the beginning of the Christian calendar. In the eyes of Christians, Jesus Christ is both God’s son and humanity’s savior, and his birth is celebrated as a holy day. Christians take stock of their faith and their lives during this holiday season dedicated to commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ and honoring his life and teachings.
The First Christmas Trees
Decorating Christmas trees is a German custom that dates back to the Middle Ages. The tradition of decorating a tree with Christmas ornaments dates back to at least the 16th century and gained widespread acceptance in the 19th. Decorating evergreen trees with lights and decorations is a common method to mark the winter holiday season and the renewal represented by the season. Since 1870, the federal government has officially recognized December 25 as a holiday.
Why Gift-Giving?
The tale of the Three Wise Men visiting the infant Jesus and presenting him with gifts is the basis for the custom of exchanging presents at Christmastime. In the 18th century, gift-giving among families was already a common practice.
Commercialization
The commercialization of Christmas originated in the 19th century, when greeting cards and commercialized gift-giving became commonplace. This commercialization, with its focus on elaborate Christmas preparations, has blurred the traditional religious distinction between Advent and the Christmas period.
In 507, the Visigoths and Auvergnats to the south fought the Franks under the leadership of Clovis to the north of Gaul in the Battle of Vouillé, which took place in the same-named town close to Poitiers. Clovis, the Frankish king, driven by his ambition for conquest, initiated this battle primarily for military, political, and religious reasons. Previously, the Franks had launched two expeditions in 496 and 498 against the Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse. In 507, aided by his eldest son, Thierry, Clovis headed to Poitiers for another confrontation.
Clovis emerged victorious in this battle, and the Visigoths lost their king, Alaric II, who was killed in combat by Clovis himself, known for his formidable warrior skills. Following this victory, Clovis seized control of the southwestern part of France, extending his rule over most of the Visigothic Kingdom between the Loire and the Pyrenees, which constitutes the southern region of present-day France.
Clovis’ conversion to Christianity, particularly to Nicene Christianity, had a unifying effect on his Frankish forces. It is believed that his Christian faith played a role in the battle, as he attributed his victory to the Christian God.
Why Did the Battle of Vouillé Take Place?
Frankish campaigns in Aquitaine (507-509).
Clovis was renowned for his ambitions of conquest and expansion. He had previously attacked the Visigoths in 496 and 498. Clovis succeeded his father, Childéric, as the leader of the Salian Franks at the age of 15. The Franks were of Germanic origin and had settled within the Roman Empire, along the Rhine, and in present-day Belgian territory. Influenced by his devout wife Clotilde, Clovis converted to Catholicism, and this highly symbolic baptism took place on December 25, 496 or 498, depending on the sources.
This conversion marked a major event in French history, and it was from this event that future kings of France would be known as the “Eldest Son of the Church.” Clovis’s conversion strategically aligned him with the Catholics and the Eastern Roman Emperor to facilitate his conquest of Gaul, in which the Battle of Vouillé in 507 played a pivotal role.
Which People Were Involved in the Battle of Vouillé?
The Frankish king Clovis led the Burgundians and the Franks in the Battle of Vouillé, with the Burgundians controlling the northern region of France.
The Burgundians originally came from the Baltic Sea shores and settled between the Jura Mountains and the northern Alps after being displaced by the Huns. They were particularly numerous between the Loire and the Saône. The Burgundian kingdom reached its zenith under the rule of Gondebaud, who happened to be the uncle of Clotilde, Clovis’s wife.
In this battle, both of these peoples, under the leadership of Clovis, would attack the Visigoths, who had formed an alliance with the Auvergnats (from whom modern-day Auvergne derives its name). The Visigoths were led by King Alaric II, a Germanic people descended from the Goths, who had split into two branches: the Ostrogoths and the Visigoths.
At the time, the Visigoths controlled a vast territory, ranging from Vouillé to the entire southwestern part of France, including Hispania.
How Did the Battle of Vouillé Unfold?
In 507, the Franks, led by Clovis and his son Thierry, crossed the Loire in the direction of Poitiers. Their goal was to seize the Visigothic kingdom and conquer Gaul. On the other hand, the Visigoths, with their king Alaric II, moved north to impede the Franks’ advance. Alaric II didn’t have all his forces with him, as part of his troops were already engaged in the southern part of their territory, under attack by the Romans. He also counted on the support of the Ostrogoths, but this hope would go unfulfilled.
Despite his reservations, Alaric II engaged in combat that began at dawn in the plain of Vouillé. The Visigoths lacked the military strength, and in a final one-on-one duel, Clovis himself killed Alaric II. In disarray, the Visigoths fled to the south with Amalaric, the heir to their kingdom. The Auvergnats, allies of the Visigoths, did not surrender either; they fought until mid-morning and suffered heavy casualties. The Battle of Vouillé finally came to an end.
Who Won the Battle of Vouillé?
In the Battle of Vouillé, where Alaric II lost his life, the Franks under Clovis’ leadership prevailed.
Clovis, thanks to his conversion to Catholicism, garnered the support of a significant portion of the Roman Empire, which was led by the Catholic Emperor of Constantinople. In the battle of Vouillé, Clovis positioned himself as a defender of the Christian faith against Arianism, the religion of Alaric II, which was considered heretical.
During the period of the Battle of Vouillé, the Visigoths were already under attack by the Romans in the southern part of their kingdom. Alaric did not have all his armed forces at his disposal. The Ostrogothic King Theodoric, an ally of the Visigoths, was unable to come to Alaric’s aid because his own territory was also under attack.
The Battle of Vouillé marked a significant step in the Frankish expansion in Gaul. It contributed to the establishment of the Merovingian Dynasty, which played a pivotal role in the formation of the medieval Frankish state and later the Carolingian Empire.
What Were the Consequences of the Battle of Vouillé?
Following Clovis’s victory over the Visigoths and the death of their king, Alaric II, the path to the south opened for the Franks. Faced with this massive breakthrough, the Visigoths retreated to Hispania, except for the region of Narbonne. In 508, Clovis and his army captured Tolosa (Toulouse), the former capital of the Visigoths, and the Narbonnaise. The Ostrogoths, however, later decided to intervene and retook the Narbonnaise. The Franks gained control of numerous territories, including Aquitaine, Gascony, Languedoc, Limousin, and Auvergne. The Burgundians, allies of Clovis, obtained control over Provence, although they failed to conquer Arelate, the predecessor of the city of Arles.
The Battle of Vouillé resulted in a decisive victory for Clovis I and the Franks.
King Alaric II of the Visigoths was killed in the battle, and the Visigothic kingdom in Gaul effectively collapsed, marking the end of their rule in the region.
The Battle of Vouillé had significant consequences, as it marked the beginning of the shaping of the future boundaries of France, with the Pyrenees line established. Subsequently, Clovis’s successors gained influence over strategic territories, such as the County of Toulouse and the Duchy of Aquitaine. In 508, Clovis established the new capital of his kingdom in Lutèce (Paris) to facilitate governance over the newly acquired territories. In the same year, the Emperor of Constantinople, who led the Eastern Roman Empire, granted Clovis the highly symbolic title of Consul of the Romans.
The Battle on the Ice, also known as the Battle of Lake Peipus, was a decisive military confrontation that took place on April 5, 1242, on the frozen surface of Lake Peipus, the largest lake in Europe. The combined army of the Livonian Order, the Bishopric of Dorpat, and the Kingdom of Denmark, under the command of Andreas von Velven, the master of the Livonian Order, and Bishop Hermann von Buxhövden, faced off against the Novgorod Republic and the Vladimir Grand Principality under the command of Prince Alexander Nevsky (Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky). The battle ended with a crushing defeat of the Western invaders and a triumphant victory of the Russian defenders, who secured the independence and sovereignty of their lands from the papal crusade.
The battle took place on Lake Peipus because the frozen lake provided a strategic advantage to Novgorod. The ice surface made it difficult for the heavily armored Teutonic Knights to maneuver, allowing the Novgorod forces to outmaneuver and defeat their adversaries.
The Background of the Battle
Alexander Nevsky. Image: malevus.com
The Battle on the Ice was the culmination of a series of conflicts that erupted in the early 13th century between the expanding states of Western Europe and the Orthodox Christian lands of Eastern Europe. The Pope declared several crusades against the pagan and heretical peoples of the Baltic region, such as the Prussians, the Lithuanians, the Estonians, and the Finns, and encouraged the German and Danish knights to conquer and convert them. The Livonian Order, a branch of the Teutonic Order, was the main instrument of papal policy in the region and established a powerful state in Livonia, encompassing present-day Latvia and Estonia.
The Livonian Order also sought to extend its influence and control over the neighboring Russian principalities, especially the Novgorod Republic, which was a wealthy and influential city-state that dominated the trade routes between the Baltic Sea and the Volga River. The Novgorodians resisted the Livonian aggression and maintained their autonomy and faith, despite the Mongol invasion that devastated most of the Russian lands in the 1230s. The Novgorod Republic was ruled by a veche, a popular assembly of citizens, but also relied on the military leadership of the princes of the Rurikid dynasty, who were appointed by the Grand Prince of Vladimir, the nominal overlord of the Russian lands.
In 1236, the Novgorodians invited Prince Alexander Yaroslavich, the son of Grand Prince Yaroslav II, to be their prince and commander. Alexander, who was only 19 years old at the time, proved to be a brave and skillful warrior who earned the respect and admiration of his subjects. In 1240, he defeated the Swedish army at the Battle of the Neva, saving Novgorod from a naval invasion and earning the epithet Nevsky, meaning “of the Neva”. In the same year, he also repelled the attack of the Livonian Order, which captured the fortress of Pskov and besieged Novgorod. Alexander managed to break the siege and force the Livonians to retreat, but the threat was not over.
In 1241, the Livonian Order allied with the Bishopric of Dorpat, a vassal of the Kingdom of Denmark, and launched a new campaign against Novgorod, hoping to take advantage of the Mongol pressure on the Russian lands. The Livonian-Danish army, consisting of about 300–400 knights and several thousand infantrymen, mostly Estonians, marched along the southern shore of Lake Peipus, ravaging the lands of the Votians and the Karelians, who were the allies of Novgorod. Alexander Nevsky gathered his forces, which included about 800 warriors from Novgorod, Pskov, and Suzdal, and marched to meet the enemy on the northern shore of the lake.
The Battle on the Ice had significant implications for the power dynamics in the Baltic region during the medieval era. It marked a turning point in the Northern Crusades and contributed to the eventual decline of the Livonian Order and the rise of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the emerging Russian state.
The Course and the Outcome of the Battle
The two armies met on the ice of Lake Peipus on April 5, 1242, a Saturday that coincided with the feast of St. Claudius, a Roman martyr. The battle began with a fierce clash of the cavalry as the heavily armored Livonian knights charged at the Russian horsemen, who were more lightly equipped but more agile and maneuverable. The Livonians tried to break through the center of the Russian line, where Alexander Nevsky placed a screen of archers who showered the enemy with arrows. The Russian flanks, however, held firm and counterattacked, enveloping the Livonian advance. The Russian reserve, led by Prince Andrei Yaroslavich, the brother of Alexander Nevsky, also joined the fray, adding more pressure on the Livonian ranks.
The Livonian army soon began to lose cohesion and morale and started to retreat towards the shore. The Russians pursued them relentlessly, cutting down many of the fleeing soldiers. Some of the Livonian knights managed to reach the shore and escape, but others were trapped on the ice and slaughtered. The Russian chroniclers report that 400 Germans and countless Estonians were killed, while 50 Germans were taken prisoner. The Livonian sources, on the other hand, only mention the losses among the knights of the order: 20 dead and 6 captured. The exact number of casualties on both sides is unknown, but it is clear that the Livonians suffered a devastating defeat while the Russians achieved a glorious victory.
What Were the Tactics Used by Alexander Nevsky?
He chose the ice of Lake Peipus as the battlefield, knowing that the heavy armor and horses of the Livonian knights would be a disadvantage on the slippery and unstable surface.
He arranged his troops in a wedge-shaped formation, with the center composed of archers and the flanks of cavalry. He also kept a reserve force under his brother Andrei Yaroslavich behind the main line.
He provoked the Livonian army to attack first, and then retreated slightly, luring them into a trap. He used his archers to weaken the enemy’s advance and his cavalry to envelop and outflank them.
He exploited the cracks and holes in the ice, which caused many of the Livonian soldiers to fall into the freezing water and drown. He also used the wind and the sun to his advantage, blinding and disorienting the enemy.
He pursued the fleeing Livonians relentlessly, cutting them down or capturing them. He also prevented them from regrouping or retreating to the shore.
These tactics enabled Alexander Nevsky to achieve a decisive victory over the Livonian army, which was numerically superior and better equipped. The battle demonstrated his courage, skill, and intelligence as a military leader.
The Significance of the Battle on the Ice
Alexander Nevsky (1938). Scene: Battle on the Ice.
The Battle on the Ice was a decisive event in the history of Eastern Europe, as it marked the end of the Livonian expansion and the beginning of the decline of the crusading movement in the Baltic region. The battle also demonstrated the courage and skill of the Russian warriors, who defended their lands and their faith from the Western invaders, despite the Mongol domination. The battle cemented the reputation and authority of Alexander Nevsky, who became the Grand Prince of Vladimir in 1252 and the leader of the Russian resistance against the Mongols. He was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church in 1547 and is revered as one of the greatest saints and heroes of Russia.
The Battle on the Ice has inspired many artistic and cultural works, such as the epic film “Alexander Nevsky” (1938) by Sergei Eisenstein, the opera “Alexander Nevsky” (1939) by Sergei Prokofiev, and the video game “Age of Empires II: The Conquerors” (2000).
The battle is also commemorated as a day of military glory in Russia, celebrated on April 18, according to the Gregorian calendar. The battle is also remembered in Estonia and Latvia, where it is seen as a symbol of the struggle for national identity and independence. The battle site on Lake Peipus is marked by several monuments and memorials, honoring the fallen warriors and the victorious prince.
