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Category: History

Witness the transformation across time and interpret the past of human societies while shedding light on the most prominent events.

  • Potsdam Conference: Reconstructing Europe after the World War II

    Potsdam Conference: Reconstructing Europe after the World War II

    On July 17, 1945, the Potsdam Conference commenced near Berlin. While Japan continued to engage in combat, the Allied powers convened in this German town to determine the fate of their enemies. Three heads of state led the discussions until August 2, 1945: Winston Churchill, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom; Harry Truman, the President of the United States; and Joseph Stalin, the General Secretary of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The occupation and denazification of Germany were decided upon in Potsdam, while an ultimatum was issued to Japan to definitively end World War II.

    As the February 1945 conference at Yalta (Yalta Conference) progressed, Stalin seemed to be in control. While Roosevelt was relatively weak, he had already committed to several Soviet positions, and the Red Army seemed to be winning the race for Berlin. Churchill had serious concerns, but the American president held out hope that the Soviet state would eventually become more democratic. In addition, Roosevelt expected the future United Nations to limit any communist expansionism that could occur. His successor, Truman, would attempt to control the resulting compromises at Potsdam due to these events.

    What is the Historical Background of the Potsdam Conference?

    In the middle of July 1945, the Allied powers were on the brink of triumph in World War II. By this time, Germany, particularly the Third Reich, had already surrendered on May 8, 1945, with Adolf Hitler having taken his own life a few days earlier in his bunker. Japan, on the other hand, was still engaged in the conflict, persistently defending its territories. It wasn’t until September 2, 1945, following the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, that Japan finally surrendered. The Potsdam Conference ensued, building upon the Teheran Conference held in 1943 (which played a crucial role in organizing the Allied landings in 1944) and the Yalta Conference in February 1945, along with the London Agreement signed on June 26, 1945. The objective of the Yalta conference was to expedite the conclusion of World War II and shape the future of Europe in the aftermath of the Third Reich’s defeat. These conferences aimed to ensure the stability of the newly established global order.

    Organizing the Post-War World

    The Big Three’s first order of business at Potsdam was to discuss Germany’s potential postwar trajectory. The immediate goal for the Allies was to demilitarize Germany, which entailed destroying its military-industrial complex if necessary. Poland benefited greatly from the division of Austria into four occupation zones (American, British, French, and Soviet), which reduced Austria’s western boundary along the Oder Neisse line (which the Soviet Union had amputated from its eastern part). Large-scale migrations of people also occurred as a result of these territorial shifts; in particular, 11 million Germans were forced to leave the eastern areas.

    The Nuremberg Trials were the apex of the Big Three’s commitment to a forceful campaign of denazification and the prosecution of war criminals inside the new Germany. Both the governmental and economic systems would be decentralized. In addition to disarmament, these four measures insured that the Allies would never again tolerate Germany as a military force.

    The situation in Japan was also a key topic of discussion at the meeting. Though at war with the Western Allies since December 1941, the Empire of the Rising Sun held out hope that a negotiated end to the battle might be reached, particularly with the help of the then-neutral Soviets in Asia. The Japanese government was in the dark about Stalin’s decision to join the war on the side of the Americans at Yalta. To take on the wealthy regions of Manchuria and northern Korea, the Soviet Union assembled a formidable military force in the Soviet Far East.

    The possibility was raising alarms in the nation’s capital. The Americans planned to maintain control of East Asia even if the defeat of Japan was certain (particularly in light of potential further atomic strikes). In particular, they were worried that Moscow might intervene on behalf of the Chinese Communists, whose ceasefire with Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalists was tenuous at best.

    However, on July 26, the Big Three sent Japan an ultimatum demanding unconditional surrender or immediate annihilation. Despite being left out of the ultimatum’s language, the atomic bomb hangs heavy over ties between the USSR and the USA. Stalin would soon have to catch up with the Americans.

    Who Attended the Potsdam Conference?

    The Potsdam conference saw the participation of only three invited signatories who agreed to attend.

    • Harry Truman, the Democratic successor to Franklin D. Roosevelt, represented the United States during the conference.
    • Joseph Stalin, the Soviet statesman who had been in control of the federation since 1920, acted as the representative of the USSR.
    • Lastly, Winston Churchill, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom since May 1940 and a member of the Conservative Party, represented his country.

    Stalin emerged triumphant at the Potsdam conference, advocating for the interests of the USSR and emphasizing the immense sacrifice of 20 million soldiers who had perished in the fight against Nazi Germany. France, which was no longer considered a “great nation,” was not included in the conference but received updates on the proceedings and decisions. General de Gaulle expressed his disappointment with this situation. It is worth noting that the Potsdam conference marked the sole meeting between Truman and Stalin. By 1946, the two nations had descended into the Cold War.

    Where and When Did the Potsdam Conference Take Place?

    The Potsdam Conference was held at Cecilienhof Castle, located southwest of Berlin. Princess Cecilie, the castle’s occupant, was compelled to flee due to the advancing Red Army, and the Soviet military government took over the premises. Despite the interior being designed by German architect Paul Troost, all belongings were removed to accommodate the Potsdam Conference. A round table was brought into the castle hall, where the three heads of state, Truman, Stalin, and Churchill, convened from July 17 to August 2, 1945. The Potsdam Agreement was officially signed on July 26, 1945. Originally, the conference was intended to be held in Berlin, but extensive bombing damage rendered it impractical.

    What Decisions Were Taken Concerning Germany?

    One of the initial decisions made was the separation of Germany and Austria, which constituted the German Reich, with the goal of restoring Austria’s independence. Both countries were divided into four zones of occupation. The USA, the UK, and the USSR all occupied different parts of Germany. France, on the other hand, was granted an occupation zone along its borders by the USA and the UK. Subsequently, in 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the German Democratic Republic (GDR) were established. Poland was granted authority over the former German provinces bordering its territory. The focus shifted from defeating Nazism to preparing for the post-war era and the division of assets and territories. The BNF map below illustrates the zones of occupation, with a zoom on Berlin, which itself was divided into four occupation zones.

    Germany Zones of occupation
    Germany Zones of occupation.

    En ce qui concerne le montant des réparations que l’Allemagne devra payer, les Etats-Unis et le Royaume-Uni sont en désaccord avec Staline dont la demande est jugée excessive. Un compromis est finalement trouvé. Cette question sera abordée lors de la Conférence des ministres des Affaires étrangères. En attendant, il est convenu que les Soviétiques peuvent prélever ce qu’ils souhaitent dans leur zone d’occupation.

    Among the other decisions made at the Potsdam Conference, there were the “five Ds”: disarmament or demilitarization, denazification (elimination of all elements related to Nazism), decartelization of German industries controlled by large corporations, democratization, and decentralization. Within the framework of denazification, the Nuremberg trials were organized from November 1945 to October 1946 to prosecute war criminals. They were accused of conspiracy, crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. The concept of “crimes against humanity” was a novel development. Twelve high-ranking Nazis were sentenced to hanging, and others received life imprisonment.

    Regarding the amount of reparations Germany would have to pay, the United States and the United Kingdom disagreed with Stalin’s excessive demands. Eventually, a compromise was reached. This issue would be further addressed during the Conference of Foreign Ministers. In the meantime, it was agreed that the Soviets could extract whatever they deemed necessary from their occupation zone.

    The decisions made, particularly the creation of occupation zones, led to significant population displacements. Germans and Poles were expelled from the east, German populations were expelled from certain territories such as Silesia (a historical region spanning the Oder Basin, Poland, Germany, and the Czech Republic), the Sudetenland, and Transylvania.

    What Decisions Have Been Taken Regarding Japan?

    On July 26, 1945, an ultimatum was presented to the Empire of Japan. It demanded the Japanese government’s surrender, warning of “swift and complete destruction” if they refused. This ultimatum was delivered during the Potsdam Conference, where Truman informed Stalin about the existence of a new weapon: the atomic bomb. On July 29, 1945, Japan announced its disregard for the new Allied ultimatum. In response, the first atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima on August 6 of the same year.

    Following the Japanese government’s continued refusal to surrender, a second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki on August 9. Concurrently, on August 8, the USSR declared war on Japan, in accordance with the agreement reached at the Yalta Conference in February. Emperor Hirohito of Japan accepted the terms of the Potsdam Accords on August 15, 1945. The official Japanese surrender was signed a few weeks later, on September 2, aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay.

    What Does It Mean For Other Nations?

    At the Potsdam Conference, the decisions made had repercussions for France, Poland, and Italy, as well as other members of the Axis.

    Regarding Poland, on July 5, 1945, the United States and the United Kingdom recognized the pro-Communist provisional government. The conference also established the temporary border between Germany and Poland, known as the Oder-Neisse line.

    In the case of French Indochina, the Allied forces entrusted the restoration of order to the United Kingdom and China without consulting France. Despite being under Japanese control since March 1945, France managed to negotiate its reinvestment in Indochina. However, Vietnam’s desire for independence led to the outbreak of the Indochina War in 1946.

    Benito Mussolini’s Italy faced sanctions and lost its African colonies. Eritrea and Italian Somalia came under British administration, although Somalia regained its Italian identity between 1950 and 1960 under a United Nations mandate. Before gaining independence in 1951, the United Kingdom and France occupied Italian Libya. Albania regained its independence, and French territories that had been annexed during the war were returned to France.

    Bibliography:

    1. Gormly, James L. From Potsdam to the Cold War: Big Three Diplomacy, 1945–1947. (Scholarly Resources, 1990)
    2. Lewkowicz, Nicolas, The German Question and the International Order, 1943-1948. Palgrave, 2010. ISBN 978-1349320356
    3. Mee, Charles L., Jr. Meeting at Potsdam. M. Evans & Company, 1975. ISBN 0871311674
    4. The Tehran, Yalta & Potsdam Conferences. Documents. Moscow: Progress Publishers. 1969.
    5. Harriman, W. Averell, and Elie Abel, Special Envoy to Churchill and Stalin, 1941-1946 (1975)
  • Rembrandt: Prodigy of Light and Shadow

    Rembrandt: Prodigy of Light and Shadow

  • The First Tanks: “Armored Boxes” in World War I

    The First Tanks: “Armored Boxes” in World War I

  • Wannsee Conference: Planning the Final Solution

    Wannsee Conference: Planning the Final Solution

    It was on January 20th, 1942, that the Wannsee Conference convened. Fifteen high-ranking Nazi officials, including Heydrich, Eichmann, Freisler, and Müller, met at a luxurious Berlin villa, and their discussions are now widely regarded as a watershed moment in the events leading up to the Holocaust and the final solution of exterminating the Jews of Europe. In reality, the conference was just one part of a larger series of meetings held by Nazi leaders during the winter of 1941–42, during which they established a rationalization of their genocidal policy and began implementing the “final solution of the Jewish question”.

    The Wannsee Conference was organized and chaired by Reinhard Heydrich, a high-ranking SS officer and one of the key figures in the Nazi regime. Heydrich was known for his brutal involvement in Nazi activities.

    The Wannsee Conference and the Holocaust’s Final Solution

    About fifteen high-ranking Nazis met with Adolf Eichmann at Wannsee, a Berlin suburb, on January 20, 1942, to plan the “Final Solution” to the “Jewish issue.” The strategy of systematic discrimination against German Jews, followed by a program of extermination that was extended to all nations that Germany controlled directly or indirectly from the commencement of World War II, was to have this gruesome result.

    Jews in Germany and the annexed areas were ordered to start wearing the yellow star of identification on their clothes as early as September 1941. Thousands upon thousands of Jews were murdered by Einsatzgruppen commandos or sent to ghettos in Poland and the Soviet Union in the months that followed. Hermann Göring, Nazi Germany’s number two, issued an order to Reinhard Heydrich, the chief of the Gestapo, to carry out a “Final Solution to the Jewish Question” throughout Europe.

    Wannsee is emblematic because it was under the direction of the ambitious Reinhard Heydrich, who advocated an industrialized and centralized approach to the “final solution,” and it was at his headquarters that this process was centralized. Although Adolf Hitler may have sensed the war was lost (though perspectives on this issue vary), he would not give up the aim of purging Europe of its Jewish population, by whatever means. This strategy would sometimes even take priority over military operations.

    The mechanization of mortality

    The goal of Heydrich’s plan was to “cleanse about 11 million Jews.” This meant that the Holocaust would be institutionalized and carried out methodically throughout all seized territories and areas under German control. They were planned for deportation to Polish ghettos and concentration camps, where they would be killed through “natural decrease” due to forced labor. “Any survivors will have to be treated appropriately because, being the product of natural selection, they could, once released, be the ferment of a new Jewish organization.”

    The Nazi state as a whole was mobilized for the Final Solution, and the administrative administration of the extermination was mastered. The Nazi leadership prioritized the creation of an industry of death to facilitate the killing process more quickly and effectively. Central Europe was the site of the concentration camps and extermination camps, where deportees were promptly killed, sometimes by means of gas chambers. Those deportees who weren’t gassed right away were utilized as slave labor by German factories or as test subjects by Nazi physicians. More than five million Jews were killed in this way, out of an estimated six million victims of Nazi crimes.

    The Allies brought the remaining Nazi leaders to court at the Nuremberg Trials after the war. Twenty-one people were put on trial, including Nazi racism theorist Alfred Rosenberg. Conspiracy, crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity were the charges against them. This last allegation was made to downplay the enormity of the atrocities perpetrated against Europe’s Jews. The two principal actors of Wannsee would each meet a different fate: Heydrich would be slain in 1942 by Czech resistance fighters, and Eichmann would be hanged in 1962 after a dramatic trial in Jerusalem.

    References

    • Creation of the Memorial Site”. Haus der Wannsee-Konferenz.
    • Longerich, Peter (2012). Heinrich Himmler: A Life. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-959232-6.
    • Dederichs, Mario (2009) [2006]. Heydrich: The Face of Evil. Casemate Publishers. ISBN 9781935149125.
  • Night of the Long Knives: The Nazi Purge of 1934

    Night of the Long Knives: The Nazi Purge of 1934

  • Battle of Agincourt: The Decisive Battle of the Hundred Years’ War

    Battle of Agincourt: The Decisive Battle of the Hundred Years’ War

  • Yalta Conference: Setting Up the World After World War II and How the Cold War Began

    Yalta Conference: Setting Up the World After World War II and How the Cold War Began

    The major wartime commanders in the fight against the Third Reich gathered in the Crimean resort of Yalta from February 4–11, 1945 to plan for a new global order in the wake of Germany’s impending defeat. The leaders of the world’s three superpowers were all there: Joseph Stalin for the Soviet Union, Winston Churchill for the United Kingdom, and Franklin D. Roosevelt for the United States.

    For several days, they will strive to come to a consensus on how to go forward in order to set the tone for this momentous conference. The goal was to finish the war as quickly as possible but also to establish the groundwork for a durable restoration of peace in a Europe freed from Nazi rule. At the conclusion of this conference, the United Nations Organization (UNO) was formed to ensure global stability.

    How does the Yalta Conference fit into history?

    The three major World War II winners—Joseph Stalin, Winston Churchill, and Franklin D. Roosevelt—met at the Yalta Conference in February 1945. World War II broke out in September 1939. The main goal of this conference was to find solutions to the problems brought on by the impending defeat of Nazi Germany. While this historic and significant meeting was focused on the conditions of the German surrender, it also signaled the start of a protracted process of talks between the winners of this brutal conflict to create a new international order.

    What were the dates and location of the conference?

    In retrospect, it’s clear how pivotal a role this meeting played in World War II was. It took place at Yalta, Ukraine, between February 4 and 11, 1945. Yalta is a popular vacation destination in the Crimea, and it can be found on the northern coast of the Black Sea, not far from the city of Livadia. The summit took place at the Livadia Palace, the summer palace of the last Russian tsar, Nicholas II.

    What was the purpose of the Yalta conference?

    Germany’s capitulation seemed inevitable, and with it, the end of World War II. After almost six years of war against Nazi Germany, the world’s top leaders gathered at Yalta to establish a new international order. As a result of Hitler’s defeat, the many goals of this landmark summit were as follows:

    1. Use of a coordinated plan of action to hasten the war’s conclusion, primarily via the involvement of the Soviet Union in the fight against Japan.
    2. The planning for the future of a Europe freed from Nazi Germany and Hitler’s oppression.
    3. The establishment of the United Nations, a global body with the power and duty to keep the peace.

    Why was France not present at the Yalta conference?

    The Yalta conference, which reunited the Allied powers, was the summit gathering of the three main postwar conquerors. Even though General de Gaulle’s temporary government of the French Republic was recognized by the Allies in October 1944, it was not invited to the Yalta conference. Because of this, France was not seen as a triumphant state symbolically throughout World War II. A further humiliation, following the conclusion of four years of occupation endured by the French people, was felt by the French delegate when he was not invited to participate in the meeting.

    But why such an exclusion of France?

    The French weren’t at Yalta for a variety of reasons. To begin with, General de Gaulle was viewed with suspicion by the United States and Franklin Roosevelt in particular. He was labeled an “apprentice dictator” by the opposition. In contrast to the General’s optimism, the Soviets did not seem persuaded by his suggested strategy of continental balancing. Among the British, Churchill was the lone dissenter who advocated excluding France from the negotiations and instead sparing the country. In fact, the British prime minister desired to have France become a powerful continental partner in the fight against Stalin.

    What decisions were taken at the conference?

    During World War II, the Allies met for days to debate and negotiate the Yalta Accords, which included:

    1. The development of democratic administrations via free elections in the freed European republics. 
    2. The United Nations was formally established when the United Nations Charter was signed during the San Francisco summit between April 25 and June 26, 1945.
    3. The USSR’s entry into the war against Japan.
    4. The eradication of German militarism and weapons.
    5. The victorious Allies partitioned Germany into three sections, which they then occupied in turn. After some time, France was granted a fourth zone of occupation thanks to Churchill’s backing and General de Gaulle’s mobilization.
    6. Poland’s relocation to the western side of the Soviet Union was to create new boundary lines. This nation gave up some land to the Soviet Union but gained back some areas that Germany had occupied. 
    7. The formation and operation of the UN is a guarantee of peace and security throughout the globe. The United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, and China, all of whom have the authority to veto any decisions made by the Security Council, will agree on its foundation.

    What are the results of the Yalta conference?

    The Yalta Conference in February 1945 was a watershed moment. In light of the impending defeat of Nazi Germany, it seemed to be the only way to deepen the links of trust and collaboration that united the major Allies and winners of World War II. Germany was to be demilitarized and divided into three occupation zones, and this plan was agreed upon by all parties involved. A fourth zone would be added to France in the future. By holding fair elections, the other European nations will have the same chance at self-determination.

    However, additional demands will emerge from these concerns of collaboration and peace, and many of the various aspirations of the allied countries will become clear. As a result, the Yalta accords give the appearance of being a huge victory for Stalin. Although he advocated for peace, all of Eastern Europe was ultimately subject to Soviet dominance. In a short amount of time, the continent was effectively split in two by the Iron Curtain, which marked the beginning of almost fifty years of conflict between two radically different philosophies. In the early decades of the twentieth century, the Cold War emerged as another significant war with no open hostilities between opposing nations.

    Bibliography:

    1. Beevor, Antony (2012). The Second World War. New York: Little, Brown and Company. p. 709. ISBN 978-0-316-02374-0.
    2. Truman 1973, p. 208
    3. Fenby, Jonathan (2012). The General; Charles de Gaulle and the France he saved. Skyhorse. pp. 280–90.
    4.  Pavel Polian. Against Their Will: The History and Geography of Forced Migrations in the USSR. Central European University Press 2003 ISBN 963-9241-68-7 pp. 244–49
    5. “Agreement Regarding Japan,” Protocol Proceedings of the Crimea Conference (February 11, 1945). Online.
    6. Leffler, Melvyn P. (1986). “Adherence to Agreements: Yalta and the Experiences of the Early Cold War”. International Security. 11 (1): 88–123. doi:10.2307/2538877. JSTOR 2538877. S2CID 153352217.
    7. “Potsdam Declaration”. Ndl.go.jp. July 26, 1945.
  • Munich Agreement: The Signature of the De Facto Beginning of World War II

    Munich Agreement: The Signature of the De Facto Beginning of World War II

  • Etruscans: The Most Mysterious Pre-Roman Society

    Etruscans: The Most Mysterious Pre-Roman Society

  • Battle of Stalingrad: The Collapse of Hitler’s Grand Plan

    Battle of Stalingrad: The Collapse of Hitler’s Grand Plan

  • New Deal (1933): Experimental Policies That Saved the United States

    New Deal (1933): Experimental Policies That Saved the United States

    Distress in the economy in 1929 In response to his administration’s role in plunging the country into the Great Depression, President Franklin D. Roosevelt instituted the interventionist New Deal. In response to firm failures and steadily rising unemployment, the state implemented social and economic measures to mitigate the situation. After its implementation in 1933, this strategy lasted until 1938. The New Deal established union rights, controlled business practices, and transformed the financial sector.

    What Is the New Deal?

    President Franklin D. Roosevelt
    President Franklin D. Roosevelt.

    In the wake of the 1929 stock market collapse, the United States saw a wave of bankruptcies and a subsequent surge in the unemployment rate. The Great Depression affected the United States throughout the 1930s. Roosevelt took extraordinary political action to mitigate the economic damage. Indeed, it was the New Deal.

    The New Deal was a vast economic recovery program implemented between 1933 and 1938 by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt to counteract the effects of the Great Depression caused by the stock market crash of 1929. Beyond the rapid recovery of consumption and investment, this “New Deal” aimed to thoroughly reform the American economic system to prevent new crises.

    The New Deal profoundly transformed American society, which until then had been opposed to any federal government intervention in the economy. It also inspired many economists, including John Maynard Keynes, who published his “General Theory” in 1936, a work that advocated government intervention, including budget deficits, to ensure full employment.

    Why Did Franklin D. Roosevelt Create the New Deal?

    Despite the efforts of the previous president, Herbert Hoover, the economic situation in the country was catastrophic. The unemployment rate was around 25%, the GDP had fallen sharply, the financial situation was precarious, millions of savers and farmers had been ruined. Between 1930 and 1933, American industrial production fell by half, or even by two-thirds in some sectors, agricultural prices fell by 25% to 50% depending on the product, and 14 million Americans were unemployed in 1933, that is, a quarter of the working population, who could only survive thanks to soup kitchens.

    new deal 1933

    These were all indicators of an unprecedented economic crisis that saw the resurgence of demonstrations of revolt that were thought to be from another time and another world: the food riots.

    Many businesses failed, and the number of people without jobs rose dramatically after the stock market crash of 1929. During Herbert Hoover’s presidency, the first signs of the Great Depression emerged. Franklin Delano Roosevelt, who assumed office after him, reformed the financial markets to stimulate the U.S. economy. It was the principles of economist and “Keynesian” movement founder John Maynard Keynes that influenced his interventionist New Deal strategy.

    When and Where Did the New Deal Take Place?

    First implemented in the United States in 1933, the New Deal strategy sought to improve economic conditions. The first noticeable effects of these and other policies, most notably those affecting the allocation of resources and economic power, were apparent in 1935. The five-year period of this interventionist program ended in 1938. The United States gradually shifted towards a military economy during this time.

    The Great Depression of the 1930s was significant in that it ushered in the period of state intervention (theorized by John Maynard Keynes) in a market economy that had become weak due to its length, scope (beyond the United States, the crisis grew international), and societal hardship.

    In light of this crisis, President Roosevelt and his advisors made the decision to increase Federal State involvement in economic regulation. This required a crackdown on certain financial activities (particularly credit and debt management), the creation of a massive public works program, and the establishment of a social welfare state. Far from it, this bold strategy did not have widespread support. Many economists panned it for the restrictions it placed on free markets, while the media and some politicians called it dictatorial and too centralized to fit with American ideals.

    How Was the New Deal Put Into Action?

    president signs bill extending reciprocal trade program washington dc april, Franklin D. Roosevelt

    Initiated in 1933, the New Deal sought to rapidly implement Roosevelt’s economic and social initiatives. In these “First 100 Days,” policies like welfare, workfare, and financial reform were implemented as an emergency response. In 1935, a new New Deal was enacted, which included redistribution of wealth and protections for labor unions. The New Deal officially ended in 1938, while several of its initiatives continued for a while thereafter.

    As part of his plan to end the Great Depression, President Franklin D. Roosevelt heavily intervened in the economy by creating new government agencies, subsidized programs, and public services in an effort to bring about a period of economic growth and job creation. The president relied on a committee of advisers, the brain trust, made up mostly of academics from Harvard (Boston) and Columbia (New York), each of whom represented a distinct school of thought in economics, to help him make these decisions.

    There were two camps: the “planners,” who favored long-term changes to the system, and the “spenders,” who thought it was sufficient to just pump money into the economy to get things moving.

    Roosevelt significantly expanded government expenditure by resorting to the practice of budget deficits ($3.5 billion in 1936). Among the main measures of the New Deal were;

    1. reviving industry and regulating competition (National Industrial Recovery Act or NIRA, 1933);
    2. combating unemployment through a policy of massive public works, most notably the development of the Tennessee Valley in 1933 (see the Tennessee Valley Authority or TVA);
    3. abandoning the gold standard and devaluing the dollar to 59% of its former value in gold (Gold Reserve Act of 1934);
    4. aid to farmers and the fight against agricultural overproduction (Agricultural Adjustment Act or AAA);
    5. and the creation of a social security system (Social Security Act, 1935), instituting old age insurance and unemployment insurance, within the framework of the Welfare State were all central tenets of the New Deal.

    The Work Project Administration (WPA)

    The Work Progress Administration (WPA) was founded on May 6, 1935, as a government organization that focuses on large-scale building projects (renamed in 1939 as the Work Projects Administration). The construction and restoration of private homes and public structures were both within the WPA’s purview. The Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, one of its most famous works, was a testament to its excellence. Through the FAP (Federal Art Project), it served a vital function in the cultural sphere. On June 30th, 1943, President Roosevelt signed an act disbanding the WPA.

    The National Recovery Administration (NRA)

    On June 20, 1933, Congress created a new government agency called the National Recovery Administration (NRA) to oversee matters related to the economy, workers, and the workplace. The NIRA mandated a level playing field for industries in need of revival. Businesses were now permitted to set a floor price for their products. The length of the work week and the minimum pay were both regulated by the NRA. On May 27, 1935, it was formally disbanded.

    The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)

    Pumping water by hand from the sole water supply in this section of Wilder, Tennessee (Tennessee Valley Authority, 1942)
    Pumping water by hand from the sole water supply in this section of Wilder, Tennessee (Tennessee Valley Authority, 1942).

    The TVA was a government agency that managed power plants, waterways, and flood protection in the Tennessee Valley. Tennessee, Alabama, Kentucky, Georgia, and Mississippi were all included in the TVA’s service area. It has been around since 1933, when it was first established. Hydroelectric and nuclear power generation are the primary focuses of its output. Thermal power plants are another asset of the TVA’s.

    The Results of the New Deal

    Franklin D. Roosevelt, Henry Wallace, and Robert Fechner in the Shenandoah Valley, Virginia
    Franklin D. Roosevelt, Henry Wallace, and Robert Fechner in the Shenandoah Valley, Virginia. Image: National Archives NextGen Catalog

    Though the New Deal had a mixed record when it came to the economy as a whole (in 1939, the national income still hadn’t returned to its 1929 level), it did contribute to long-term improvements in the country’s infrastructure. During the New Deal, the federal government refined its monetary (activity on the money supply) and fiscal (new taxes, practice of budget deficits) policy tools, which it would subsequently use to mitigate the consequences of economic downturns.

    On the other hand, the social front saw tensions escalate during the major strikes of 1937, which were exacerbated by the crisis and the expanded privileges of trade unions. Although the jobless, single women, and the crippled had been marginalized in the 1920s, they were able to participate in American society again because of the New Deal’s social security programs.

    After a promising start, another crisis in 1937 threatened to derail this strategy (or rather these policies, since priorities shifted over Rooselvelt’s first two mandates). Even while the New Deal’s impact on society is indisputable, its economic effectiveness is open to debate. Many people believed that it was America’s rearmament and subsequent involvement in the war in 1941 that helped lift the country’s economy out of its rut.

    The consequences of Roosevelt’s economic strategy during the Great Depression are disputed, and at best they are seen as negligible. But the New Deal’s positive influence on society is undeniable. The president kept in close contact with the populace by holding frequent news conferences.

    Due to the revisions, new laws could now be enacted to protect workers’ rights in the workplace and regulate the financial sector. The New Deal left a significant political and social legacy since it authorized the establishment of several government agencies, most notably those tasked with protecting individuals’ civil liberties.

    The Global Impact of the New Deal

    With the New Deal, a new kind of “experimental” interventionism was born in an emergency setting to try to alleviate shortages. Keynesianism is most often understood as a method entirely linking social expenditure with economic recovery, and after WWII it was applied to all developed nations.

    Public interventionism, however, was originally intended as a mechanism fulfilling a function similar to that of a liberal economy: to secure, as far as possible, an optimum equilibrium in all markets, whether they be for commodities and services, the labor market, or the money market.

    This has led to an increase in the number of separate interventions across different economic sectors, with the state increasingly taking on the role of an entrepreneur by intervening directly in the workings of the economy through measures such as nationalizations, price controls, and banking dirigisme rather than simply seeking to correct imbalances on a macro level. The role of the state is central to the discussion, since this interventionism is often seen to be the driving force behind the “pure” liberalism that has defined the economies of the industrialized world since the mid-1980s.

    FOCUS DATES OF THE NEW DEAL

    The Black Thursday, October 24, 1929: The Wall Street Crash

    Black Thursday, October 24, 1929, was the beginning of the “great panic” in the financial markets. First to go was the New York Stock Exchange, where 12 million shares were sold. On Tuesday, October 29, 1929, a price decline of 30 percent was recorded, triggering the worst economic catastrophe in human history. The name for this event is the 1929 stock market collapse.

    A bankruptcy for the Creditanstalt was filed on May 11, 1931.

    The international repercussions of the 1929 crisis may be seen even now. Creditanstalt, an Austrian financial institution, collapsed two years later. As a result, the Austrian stock market crashed, followed by Germany’s, and the European economy went into a tailspin.

    The financial collapse of the Danat Bank on July 13, 1931

    Both the Danat Bank and the Creditanstalt filed for bankruptcy in 1931. The American companies’ approach of buying up failing foreign companies in an effort to mitigate the economic fallout from the Great Depression of 1929 had a devastating effect on a German bank. They were able to recoup their losses by selling the stocks they had purchased overseas.

    September 21, 1931 – The pound sterling is devalued

    The depreciation of the British pound sterling occurred after the stock market crisis of 1929. In a little over a year, the value of the pound dropped by about 40%. As part of this process, the government also gave up the gold standard for its currency.

    During a speech on July 2, 1932, President Roosevelt brought up the “New Deal”

    As early as 1932, Roosevelt laid out the foundations of the New Deal. Several of his close associates, such as the economist John Maynard Keynes, were mentioned, along with their suggested economic and social policies. The goal of this interventionist strategy was to reduce the damage caused by the Great Depression of 1929. It put an emphasis on reworking financial markets, building real estate, and expanding welfare services.

    Formed by Roosevelt on March 4, 1933, “A New Deal for the People”

    Soon after his election as president, Roosevelt began making plans to enact the New Deal in order to mitigate the economic downturn. This included building large-scale projects around the country and establishing agencies and initiatives to boost the economy.

    The United States banks were shut down by President Roosevelt on March 5, 1933

    All American banks were closed for four days after Roosevelt’s inauguration. This step was an attempt to calm the market after a string of bankruptcies. Creditors were to be repaid on March 9, 1933, and banks were to be permitted to reopen.

    On March 6th, 1933, President Roosevelt instituted a ban on the trading of gold

    As part of his plan to end the Great Depression, Roosevelt imposed a ban on the export of gold. After abandoning the gold standard in April 1933, the president reaffirmed this policy approach.

    The Civilian Conservation Corps was established on March 31st, 1933

    A job-creation initiative launched by the Roosevelt administration, the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) provided training and paid employment to young people who were otherwise without opportunities. Planting trees and fixing up old buildings were meant to be the means by which poverty and crime were kept at bay. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) was an organization established during the New Deal that is famous for its role in constructing bridges, towers, and trails throughout the United States.

    Agricultural New Deal programs launched on May 12, 1933

    The New Deal policies had an impact on the agriculture industry in the United States. The AAA’s restrictions on agricultural output were enforced by the government. The government provided monetary compensation in exchange. Overproduction, which led to a drop in raw material prices, was the target.

    The Tennessee Valley Authority was established on May 18th, 1933

    The TVA was a government agency whose mission was to lower the rate of unemployment in the Tennessee Valley. After years of research and development, it was optimized for the generation of energy. In use even now, it has established itself as a pioneer in the fields of hydroelectric and nuclear power.

    The National Industrial Recovery Act was signed into law on June 16, 1933

    The New Deal included the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) vote, which was focused on the manufacturing sector. It stipulated a code of fair competition and the implementation of minimum pricing on the worth of goods and services. These orders were carried out by the NRA (National Recovery Administration). It’s important to notice that there was a floor under which both hours worked and money earned had to fall.

    The Social Security Act was signed into law on August 14, 1935

    The United States now has a system of social assistance thanks to the passage of the Social Security Act. The elderly, the jobless, single mothers, and their children without father figures were the primary targets. In the midst of extreme poverty, it was referred to as a “welfare state” and a kind of social insurance.

  • Battle of Kursk: The Largest Tank Battle in History

    Battle of Kursk: The Largest Tank Battle in History

    The Battle of Kursk, fought in western Russia from July 5 to July 13, 1943, was a defining moment of World War II. As the largest tank battle in history, it involved over 2 million men and over 3,000 Russian and German tanks. More than 100,000 Nazi soldiers died in the final large-scale offensive attempt on the Eastern Front, and Adolf Hitler suffered irreparable losses to his armored divisions, which had been unbeatable up until that point. The Soviet Union’s victory demonstrated to the world that the German Panzerwaffe was vulnerable to attack. Peaceful conditions improved to the point where the great liberating offensives of 1944 could be launched.

    The Context of the Battle of Kursk

    German Panzer IV and Sd.Kfz. 251 (Sonderkraftfahrzeug 251).
    German Panzer IV and Sd.Kfz. 251 (Sonderkraftfahrzeug 251).

    Since most German units were located in the east, it was only logical that the West German government would intervene against the Soviets. It’s crucial, first and foremost, to put to rest the horrors of Stalingrad (the Battle of Stalingrad), but it’s also important to bring back Germany’s struggling allies (be it Italy, Hungary, or Romania). In addition to protecting “Fortress Europe” (Festung Europa), Hitler planned to bleed to death a Soviet Union that he believed had been weakened by two years of war with a new successful offensive in the east.

    The real start-up of the war economy (the famous Totaler Krieg of Goebbels’ speech of February 1943) organized by Speer was likely to reinforce Berlin’s optimism. This allowed the Germans to reassemble their best offensive weapon: tanks. The latter was fortified and reorganized under the leadership of General Guderian (who became Inspector General of Armor), who drew inspiration from his experiences fighting Soviet armored formations (and their famous T-34). Hitler had high hopes for new equipment like the Tiger tank and the Panther tank, which could take on the most powerful Soviet armored vehicles.

    In 1943, the Allies decided to launch an offensive somewhere in the eastern hemisphere. If you look at a map of the front from that period, you’ll see that the answer is obvious: Kursk. The winter Soviet offensives did create a salient, roughly 180 km (north to south) by 140 km (east to west). Kursk, a major railroad hub in the middle, provided the Red Army with a strong foothold from which to launch attacks south (Kharkov) or north (Moscow) (Orel).

    The German high command hoped that by attacking Kursk preemptively, they could shorten Stalin’s front by about 280 kilometers and thus deprive him of his best troops (the Central Front and the Voronezh Front), an economy of about twenty divisions. Due to the salient’s shape, Operation Citadel will resemble a traditional pincer movement. In the south, Field Marshal von Manstein’s army group was in charge of a “pincer” maneuver.

    Hitler had faith in Manstein because of his ability to turn around hopeless situations, and he did so by arranging impressive formations on paper. Hermann Hoth’s Fourth Armored Army, on the left, consists of 10 divisions, 200,000 men, and around 1100 armored vehicles (including the elite of the armored and mechanized formations, such as the SS Armored Corps of Hausser). This is a detachment of the Kempf army, on the right, with three mechanized brigades. General Model’s 9th Army was in charge of the northern end of the pincer. Model, a defense expert who was popular with his troops but particularly harsh, fielded 21 divisions, 335 thousand men, and nearly 900 armored vehicles.

    It became immediately clear that Manstein’s units would be responsible for the bulk of the offensive effort due to the temperament of the two concerned leaders and the disparity of their forces (and the air support that could be offered by a Luftwaffe already reduced by the lack of fuel). The victor of Sevastopol, in contrast to Model, was confident that his tanks could breach the Soviet defensive system’s fortifications and depth. Weak German intelligence was the cause of an overconfident outlook.

    The Citadel of Stalin

    Zhukov with Ivan Konev, commander of the Steppe Front, during the Battle of Kursk.
    Zhukov with Ivan Konev, commander of the Steppe Front, during the Battle of Kursk. CC BY 4.0.

    The German military intelligence consistently underestimates the strength of the Red Army throughout the German-Soviet war. However, the partisans and an advanced eavesdropping system meant that the Soviets, despite their reputation as disinformation experts, were in the dark about German intentions. That allowed them to construct a strong defense. Beginning in March of 1943, more than 300,000 troops and civilians in the Kursk region set up eight defense lines, each one 300 kilometers in depth.

    The German attack formations were supposed to be channeled by the trenches, minefields, and fortified points, and then destroyed by the armored reserves. The entire operation was kept secret using tried and true maskirovka methods, which was why the Germans had no idea of the full extent of the resistance mounted against them. Without a doubt, Model would have hesitated to launch the attack with his 9th army if he had known that he would have to face 80,000 mines, 2800 artillery pieces, and 537 multiple rocket launchers.

    Stalin, who had recently granted Soviet generals greater autonomy, had obviously devoted a large amount of resources to protecting the Kursk salient. So that he can develop his own offensives (primarily Operation Kutusov towards Orel) in peace, the master of the USSR plans to make this salient a fixation point for the best German units. Central Front was led by General Rokossovski (Polish-born and a victim of the purges of 1937), who was stationed in the north to face Model. In order to complete his mission, the brilliant officer had access to multiple armies, or a total of 700,000 men and 1,800 armored vehicles (Soviet armies and divisions were smaller than their German counterparts). Rokossoskvi had time on his side and the option to use the reserves Stalin prudently amassed on his back if Model needs to break through in two days.

    Young general Vatutin’s (42 years old) Voronezh Front is aligned with Manstein. Vatutin, a local who was familiar with his opponent, had a total of six armies at his disposal (two of which would not be attacked and would serve as reserves). There were a total of 1700 tanks and 625,000 men represented here. Not enough to stop Manstein’s offensive, but sufficient to set up a devastating counterattack. In fact, Vatutin, like Rokossovski, was aware that, in the long run, he can count on the assistance of two reserve groups he had amassed (including the Steppe Front) in order to counter the salient. The STAVKA (Soviet High Command) will send their two best officers, the brutal Zhukov and the level-headed Vassilievsky, to Kursk to coordinate their actions. A dynamic duo whose skillsets perfectly complement one another, able to hold their own against their Germanic rivals.

    Two Weeks to Change the Course of the War

    Battle of Kursk (map).
    Battle of Kursk (map).

    Operation Citadel’s official launch date was finally settled on July 4th, 1943, after several delays caused in part by Hitler’s desire to supply his armored formations with the latest equipment (Panthers tanks, among others). With four months of planning and practice under their belts, the Luftwaffe Stukas will fly into action at 4 o’clock. The objective was to set up for the on-the-ground charge of Hoth’s 4th armored army.

    Vatutin was unfazed by the brutality of the mechanized attack and maintains his composure. Russian defenses were strong because they were positioned on higher ground. The Soviet Union’s counterbattery fire and minefields were both highly effective. When the Luftwaffe took to the skies, the red-star planes severely hampered their ability to fight. But Hoth’s woes were compounded by the fact that the 200 Panthers making up its front line have been plagued by persistent mechanical issues. While in 1941 it would have been several dozen kilometers, on the evening of July 6 it was only a few kilometers.

    Model had an even more trying time of it than everyone else. The 9th Army commander wisely followed the Soviet playbook and went in with infantry, later exploiting the situation with tanks (while Hoth rushes with its armor in the lead … to the Germans). Nonetheless, the implementation of these units was hampered by the activity of an admirably informed Soviet artillery late on the night of the 4th/5th (by deserters, among others). The Red Army’s resistance was strong, and the minefields significantly slowed the German advance, just as they had in the south. The 9th Army, at a cost of nearly 10% of its potential, broke through a 20 km wide and 7 km deep corner on the evening of July 5. The 6th Rokossovski had already begun their counterattack, so it would be a waste of money and a poor use of their time. Even though the Soviets suffer heavy casualties due to the poorly coordinated attack, the 9th army only loses a day. Sufficient time for Rokossovski to reflect on his setback and rethink his approach.

    The Last German Great Eastern Offensive at Kursk

    Battle of Kursk
    Soviet troops of the Voronezh Front counterattacking behind T-34 tanks at Prokhorovka, 12 July 1943.

    By July 6, the Germans learn some encouraging news from the south. The 2nd SS armored corps (Hausser) was given the opportunity to attack in a poorly guarded area and made its way through toward Prokhorovka. The other Hoth army corps joined the breakthrough on the 7th, and the entire 2nd Soviet defense line was broken. As a result of the crisis, Stalin sent a large number of reserve formations, including the 5th Tank Army of Romistrov’s Guard, and Vatutin’s general staff was forced to respond (from Voronezh). Stalin had reason to be optimistic about continuing the operations despite Vatutin’s concerns. Even though the Hoth armored army had great success, the Kempf army detachment almost stalled in the north.

    The 9th Army’s formations were showing signs of wear and tear due to constant bombing by Soviet aircraft. The strongest sectors of Rokossovski’s system were surrendered on July 9 by a Model that was unable to maneuver and was stuck in a logic of frontal assault. Model, a defense expert, realized right away that he was at a loss. On July 12, his superior, Marshal Von Kluge (Army Group Center), worried about his northern flank, ordered him to begin withdrawing. Half of the Battle of Kursk had been won by the Soviets at that point.

    Therefore, the onus fell upon von Manstein to turn the tide. To be sure, he was upbeat because he had no idea how significant the Soviet Union’s upcoming reserves were. Hoth, frustrated by the positioning of Soviet forces, spends September 9th through 12th making his way to Prokhorovka, where the Schutzstaffel (SS) Panzers appear to have cleared the road. Killing Vatutin’s armored reserve would clear the way to Kursk, which was why he plans to do it. Nonetheless, the onslaught of Romistrov’s Guards tanks caught him and Hausser’s SS by surprise.

    On July 12, the finest Soviet and German armored weapons will face off along a front of 8 km on both sides of the local railroad. Most recent studies agree that Prokhorovka was not the “swan song of the Panzerwaffe,” despite the fact that the battle was made out to be much more difficult than it actually was by Soviet propaganda. Although the SS armor was victorious on the defensive to some extent, they were unable to take the Prokhorovka railway junction due to heavy casualties and a lack of reinforcements.

    Hitler called Manstein and Kluge to his headquarters in Rastenburg, East Prussia on the 13th. Though he was troubled by Hausser’s demise, he was even more so by some other information. The Western Allies had landed in Sicily and taken Syracuse three days prior. The Italian defense had been so ineffective that the island may as well be abandoned for the time being.

    Thus, Hitler was compelled to organize a reserve army to protect the southern flank of Fortress Europe. This force could only count on the political stability of Hausser’s SS. The planet of Hoth cannot make significant progress without its spearhead. As a result, on the 17th, work on the Citadel was permanently halted. The gamble didn’t pay off, and the Führer had lost the upper hand on the Eastern Front. As a result, the German armies had no choice but to withdraw.

    A Critical Moment in World War II

    A major setback for the Hitler Reich was the inability of the Germans to take Kursk and completely destroy the Central and Voronezh Fronts. Although the Eastern Front did not shrink, the Red Army’s operational situation improved thanks to the creation of a strategic reserve. Worse, the Soviets still went ahead with Operation Kutusov on July 12 after Operation Citadel cost them 250,000 men against 60,000 Germans.

    The myth of German invincibility was put to rest at Kursk. In the summer of 1943, the Red Army begins its campaign with a renewed vigor and the assurance that comes from knowing it can hold its own in mechanized combat. It had run out of chances to win.

    Bibliography:

    1. Healy, Mark (1992). Kursk 1943: Tide Turns in the East. London: Osprey. ISBN 978-1-85532-211-0.
    2. Jentz, Thomas (1995). Germany’s Panther Tank. Atglen: Schiffer Pub. ISBN 0-88740-812-5.
    3. Jacobsen, Hans Adolf; Rohwer, Jürgen (1965). Decisive battles of World War II; the German view. New York, NY: Putnam. OCLC 1171523193.
    4. Mulligan, Timothy P. (1987). “Spies, Ciphers and ‘Zitadelle’: Intelligence and the Battle of Kursk, 1943” (PDF). Journal of Contemporary History. 22 (2): 235–260. doi:10.1177/002200948702200203. S2CID 162709461.
    5. Moorhouse, Roger (2011). Berlin at war: Life and Death in Hitler’s capital, 1939–45. London: Vintage. ISBN 9780099551898.
    6. Taylor, A.J.P; Kulish, V.M. (1974). A History of World War Two. London: Octopus Books. ISBN 0-7064-0399-1.
    7. Searle, Alaric (2017). Armoured Warfare: A Military, Political and Global History. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4411-9813-6.
  • Vichy France: France Ruled by Pro-nazi French for Four Years

    Vichy France: France Ruled by Pro-nazi French for Four Years

    Following France’s defeat at the hands of Germany in World War II, the Third Republic was replaced by Vichy France on July 10, 1940. Marshal Pétain was granted absolute power and promptly established the “French State,” relocating his government to the free zone city of Vichy. The marshal then took center stage as World War I‘s heroic “providential man,” the man who would help France recover from its devastating loss to Germany, which had occupied the country’s northern and western regions.

    With daily interactions with the Germans, the Marshal used all the power at his disposal to introduce new principles; this was collaboration. The Germans evacuated France upon the arrival of the Allies on August 20, 1944, and General de Gaulle assumed the presidency of the Provisional Government of the French Republic, bringing an end to the Vichy regime.

    How Did the Vichy Regime Collaborate With Germany?

    Personal flag of Philippe Pétain, Chief of State of Vichy France (Chef de l'État Français)
    Personal flag of Philippe Pétain, Chief of State of Vichy France (Chef de l’État Français).

    The “French State,” or Vichy France, was nominally independent after the German occupier handed over administration of France to them. Towards the end of October 1940, Philippe Pétain gave a speech in which he openly supported collaboration. There was a meeting between Hitler and the Marshal in Montoire-sur-le-Loir on October 24th, 1940. Immediately following the German invasion of the free zone on November 11, 1942, collaboration intensified. Compulsory Work Service (Service du travail obligatoire, STO), increased repression of opponents, establishment of the SOL (Legionary Order Service) and then the French Militia, economic measures favoring Germany, etc. all served German ideology under the Vichy regime. Moreover, anti-Semitic laws (such as the mandatory wearing of the yellow star and the confiscation of property) were enacted, as well as the establishment of a General Commissariat for Jewish Questions (CGQJ) and Jewish roundups like the Vel’ d’Hiv’.

    Was the Vichy France an Anti-republican Regime?

    The anti-republican Vichy regime had Marshal Pétain exercising legislative and executive powers and had abolished Parliament. It was a dictatorship, in which one man made all the decisions without consulting the people. The regime’s anti-republican tenor was bolstered in 1943 when a militia was formed to combat resistance fighters and apprehend Jews. After a short period of time, references to the “French Republic” were removed from all government publications.

    What Was the Composition of the Vichy Government?

    Secretary of State members served alongside French President Philippe Pétain. François Darlan succeeded Pierre-Étienne Flandin as Vice President of the Council after Pierre Laval stepped down. In April 1942, Pierre Laval became the Head of Government of Vichy France, a position he combined with his duties as Minister of the Interior, Minister of Foreign Affairs, and Minister of Information. Financial Minister Yves Bouthillier was succeeded by Pierre Cathala. Pierre Pucheu (Minister of the Interior) and Paul Baudouin (Minister of Foreign Affairs and then Minister of Information) were just two examples of the many different people who have held high offices in France. There were then separate ministers of state in charge of the air force, the navy, and the war.

    What Were the Symbols of the Vichy France?

    Propaganda image with the motto and Philippe Pétain above a scene of rural and industrial France.
    Propaganda image with the motto and Philippe Pétain above a scene of rural and industrial France.
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    Image: Wikimedia.

    The motto “Travail, Famille, Patrie” (Work, Family, Homeland) replaced the French Republic’s former motto of “Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité” (Liberty, Equality, Fraternity) as the defining symbol of the Vichy regime, its ideology of “national revolution,” and its new moral order.

    Official emblem of Marshal Pétain and de facto coat of arms of the Vichy regime.
    Official emblem of Marshal Pétain and de facto coat of arms of the Vichy regime.

    The francisque, the national symbol, comes next. It’s a battle axe with both sides decorated in the blue, white, and red of France, and it’s been kept in mint condition. It was used on all government publications, advertisements, and trophies. The song “Maréchal, nous voilà!” was taught to every schoolchild in Vichy France and quickly became the unofficial anthem of the regime.

    KEY DATES IN VICHY FRANCE

    April 5, 1939 – Albert Lebrun was re-elected President of the Republic

    The newly re-elected French President Albert Lebrun fought against signing an armistice with Adolf Hitler’s Germany. Eventually, he had to cede power to Marshal Pétain, who was elected president of the Council. In the end, authorities in the Austrian Tyrol captured and imprisoned Albert Lebrun.

    Pétain was elected Council President on June 16, 1940

    Pétain served as President of the Council of the Third Republic prior to becoming head of state of France (Vichy regime). On the same day he took office, he was replaced by a government formed after Paul Reynaud’s resignation. As required by the Constitution, this change had taken place.

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    When Pétain was in charge, his administration went by that name. The Marshal was already 84 years old. After signing the armistice on June 22, 1940, Philippe Pétain immediately established a new government in Vichy.

    France and Germany sign an armistice on June 22, 1940

    France’s Council President Philippe Pétain officially ends hostilities with Germany. The country of France was effectively divided in half, with the northern and western regions under German control and the southern region remaining independent. There was a line drawn in the sand that divided the two halves. The Marshal set up his new government in the southern city of Vichy.

    July 2, 1940 – The Pétain government settled in Vichy

    Pétain’s government established its headquarters in the free zone city of Vichy. Considering its proximity to the demarcation line with the occupied zone and its convenient train connections to Paris, this was a calculated move. The hotel’s facilities also made it simple to house the government officials. Since the government settled here, its rule was known as the Vichy regime.

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    French State was founded by Pétain on July 10, 1940

    On this day, the “French State” officially began. The Third Republic ended when Marshal Pétain was given absolute power by the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. Assembly business was settled at the Grand Casino in Vichy. There were 569 in favor of Marshal Pétain and 80 opposed; 19 people didn’t vote. To legitimize the establishment of the “French State,” now known as the Vichy France, a new constitution was enacted. “Work, Family, Country” became the new national motto of France.

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    July 12, 1940 – Pierre Laval vice-president of the Council

    Phillipe Pétain named Pierre Laval vice president of the Council and his successor on July 12. After the Allies won the war in Europe in August 1944, the “French State” was no more.

    Churchill officially recognized de Gaulle as the legitimate leader of France on August 7th, 1940

    Churchill’s official endorsement gave General de Gaulle the confidence he needed to take decisive action. Britain officially recognized the independence of the Free French Forces (FFL) after he signed agreements with Churchill on that day. Agreements like these provided the FFL with the funds it needed to take action and ensured that French possessions would be returned upon the country’s liberation.

    Léon Blum was taken into custody on September 15, 1940

    Léon Blum, the founder of major social laws and the Popular Front’s president in 1936, voted against giving Marshal Pétain full powers on July 10, 1940. As both a Jew and a socialist, he was targeted for arrest by the Vichy regime on September 15 and sent to Chazeron prison, where he attempted to coordinate resistance efforts from behind bars. After being tried in Riom and found guilty of leading France to defeat, he was turned over to the Germans and sent to Buchenwald.

    Position of Jews in the Neutral Zone as of October 3, 1940

    The Vichy government issued a new law regarding the status of Jews without any influence from the Nazi regime. According to Article 1, a person was considered Jewish if they have at least three Jewish grandparents or two non-Jewish grandparents whose spouse was Jewish. This was the first of a series of measures that will progressively worsen over time. Jews were restricted from working in many fields. Marshal Pétain’s collaboration led to the deportation of 75,721, including 6,012 children.

    Pétain and Hitler shake hands on October 24, 1940

    This handshake took place at the Montoire meeting and was captured on film forever. This was a visual representation of the Nazi regime’s cooperation with the Vichy government. After their interview at the train station, Hitler and Pétain continued their discussion in Hitler’s private carriage. On October 30, Pétain addressed the French people and urged them to “collaborate,” explaining that he had sought to improve France’s situation with the war’s victor.

    December 13, 1940: Pierre Laval was dismissed

    After being accused of having too close of ties to Germany, Philippe Pétain removed Pierre Laval as vice president of the Council and put him under house arrest. Adolf Hitler did not agree with the new Vichy government leader, so he had Laval released. In April of 1942, Pierre Laval regained prominence when he was appointed prime minister, foreign minister, interior minister, and minister of information all at the same time.

    French strike ban on October 4, 1941

    The law of October 4, 1941, known as the “Labor Charter”, was passed by the Vichy regime. It prohibited strikes and established the principle of single, compulsory unions.

    The Riom trial began on February 19, 1942

    On February 19, 1942, the Vichy regime initiated the Riom trial in an effort to establish the guilt of Third Republic politicians for the defeat of 1940. The likes of Léon Blum and Édouard Daladier, among others, were among those who stood accused. However, the defense presented compelling evidence that the loss was a result of military failure rather than political missteps. The trial was put on hold because it did not result in an indictment. With his newfound authority, Marshal Pétain decided to hand down a conviction himself.

    22 February 1942 – Creation of the Service d’Ordre Légionnaire (SOL)

    Joseph Darnand established the “Service d’Ordre Légionnaire” (Legionary Order Service) on February 22, 1942. They were a Vichy regime military group. They took an oath to “fight against democracy and the Jewish leprosy” and pledged their allegiance to the Nazi regime in exchange for membership in this openly collaborator army. After initially supporting the Vichy regime, the Service d’ordre légionnaire eventually broke away and aligned itself with less extreme collaborationist regimes. Joseph Darnand continued to lead the SOL after it morphed into the French Militia in 1943.

    Vel’ d’Hiv’ raid, 17 July, 1942

    A total of over 13,000 Jews, including around 4,100 children, were arrested in the Paris area overnight. René Bousquet, the French police’s General Secretary, was the one to carry out the order from the Vichy government. The Vel’ d’Hiv’ round-up got its name from the days the prisoners were stacked up at the Velodrome d’Hiver. Their next stop was Drancy, before they were shipped off to Auschwitz.

    German forces invade the free zone on November 11, 1942

    To counter the Allied invasion of North Africa, Adolf Hitler launched “Operation Attila” against France on November 8. The Germans invaded the southern part of the country, which had been a “free zone,” despite the name. Germany exerted full control and influence over the Vichy government.

    February 16, 1943 – Institution of the STO

    Vichy France passed a law instituting the Obligatory Labor Service because the “relief” and volunteer systems weren’t enough to meet German demand for labor. Every single man between the ages of 21 and 23 was shipped off to Germany to work for a total of four years. Some of the young men, however, defied the authority. People who didn’t want to sign the STO formed the maquis.

    April 26, 1945 – Pétain took himself prisoner

    Philippe Pétain, facing charges of “intelligence with the enemy” and “high treason,” decided to surrender as a prisoner in Switzerland. A few months later, there was no question about the verdict: he was sentenced to death. The sentence was changed from death to life in prison by General de Gaulle.

    July 23, 1945 – Philippe Pétain’s trial opens

    Marshal Pétain, a hero of World War I, went on trial in the High Court of Justice on July 23, 1945. In his trial, where he remained silent, questions were raised about his possible collaboration and his reasons for sparing France. It took a long time, but he was ultimately found guilty and given the death penalty. He was given a life sentence instead of death because General de Gaulle intervened on his behalf.

    October 4, 1945: Pierre Laval’s trial opens

    Pierre Laval, who had no idea how unpopular he was, learned the hard way during his trial, when he was subjected to jeers and insults from the crowd. The trial was hastily wrapped up, and the defendant was found guilty of high treason and conspiracy against the internal security of the State. For this reason, Pierre Laval was given the death penalty.

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    On October 15 of that year, he was killed inside the Fresnes prison.

  • Armistice vs. Surrender: What Is the Difference?

    Armistice vs. Surrender: What Is the Difference?

    An armistice is a political agreement to temporarily suspend hostilities between warring parties, whereas a surrender is a military act. Students, and even communicators or the media, might be prone to mistaking an armistice for surrender because of a lack of education or experience with the terms. However, as the instances we have selected to demonstrate this misunderstanding reveal, the distinction is not only semantic, since the outcomes for the nations in question are not identical.

    The differences between a surrender and an armistice

    When a city (in the event of the conclusion of a siege), a province (in the case of a military campaign), or a country (in the case of a total loss) surrenders, all hostilities between the two sides are immediately and permanently halted. It’s the choice of an army’s commander, and it usually means giving up control of the land in question to the enemy. The statute acknowledges the command structure’s direct accountability.

    We may point to many episodes of capitulation or surrender throughout history, including:

    • The American Civil War ended in 1865 with the unconditional surrender of Southern forces. 
    • It wasn’t until Germany surrendered on May 7–8, 1945, that the war in Europe was finally over. 
    • Japan’s surrendered on September 2, 1945.
    • The Argentine surrender in 1982 signaled the end of hostilities in the Falklands War.
    Armistice vs. surrender What is the difference

    But an armistice, which is an agreement accepted by both sides, officially ends hostilities even though both sides may theoretically resume fighting at any time. It’s the consequence of a political compromise that lets the loser keep running things in its seized area.

    Armistices are not uncommon throughout history; a few notable instances include:

    • Napoleon Bonaparte‘s armistice with the Prussians, signed at Pläswitz on June 4, 1813 (Truce of Pläswitz)
    • The Franco-Prussian War of 1870 was officially ended by the Franco-German Armistice on January 28, 1871.
    • An armistice was struck between the Allies and Germany on November 11, 1918; the Treaty of Versailles was signed the following year.
    • The French and Germans called an armistice on June 22, 1940, thereby ending the Battle of France.
    • In an armistice signed on July 20, 1954, France and North Vietnam, ended the First Indochina War.

    The meaning of “armistice”

    The Latin term “armistice” means “a cessation of hostilities” between opposing sides. As early as the 1600s, it was utilized in the form of a convention wherein the warring parties agreed to a temporary halt in fighting.

    Armistices of 11 November 1918 and 22 June 1940

    Given the advances gained (which signaled the end of trench warfare) and the possibility of a more enormous commitment by the recently landed American soldiers, it was evident that the Allies had acquired the upper hand against the German army by the year’s end of 1918.

    The German leadership made the wise choice to end hostilities knowing that continuing the war would have resulted in millions of extra fatalities and possibly destroyed a significant portion of German land.

    However, nationalist and revolutionary currents argued against and capitalized on this choice, arguing that it would have been a “stab in the back” for the supposedly “undefeated” German army.

    In June of 1940, when France was already on the verge of defeat, Philippe Pétain and Maxime Weygand’s influence led them to decide to call an armistice to let the politicians take the blame. A surrender of the army in metropolitan France was an option. With that, all governmental control would be handed to the victors.

    With an entire French navy and French soldiers in North Africa and several other colonies, the war might have continued abroad while the two countries were nominally at war.

    May 7 and 8, 1945 – The German surrender

    In January 1943, with the fate of World War II still uncertain, the Allies convened for the Casablanca Conference. None of the Allied leaders would consider an end to the war other than with the unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany and the other Axis states, and no armistice or separate peace would be contemplated.

    Two years later, the German army sought to negotiate a separate peace to concentrate its troops on the Eastern Front after being crushed by the Soviet counterattack and locked in a vice after the Allied arrival in Normandy. Instead, the Allies demanded an unconditional surrender. Even though Adolf Hitler was dead and there were only a few hundred thousand men remaining to fight when Berlin fell, and even though a few fanatical Nazis were ready to resist the occupation by withdrawing to the mountainous territories of Austria, the army was clearly defeated and had surrendered or capitulated.

    Instances of high-level state confusion between armistice and surrender

    Even the states get confused between capitulation and armistice. In 2010, the President of the French Republic gave the impression of a lukewarm interest in history by referring to the “65th anniversary of the armistice of 1945” in a message meant to prepare for a commemorative event honoring the end of hostilities in Europe in May.

    However, the German army did really sign an unconditional surrender on May 7 and 8, 1945. To say the least, it’s puzzling that this muddled state of affairs has been perpetuated several times at the very top… Not only do words have significance, but they also have a story.

  • Battle of Midway: The end of Japanese supremacy in the Pacific

    Battle of Midway: The end of Japanese supremacy in the Pacific

    The United States achieved naval air superiority over Japan in the Pacific Ocean following the decisive Battle of Midway during World War II. The fighting occurred in the waters off the Midway Islands, to the northwest of the Hawaiian Islands, from June 3-7, 1942. The Japanese plan to encircle this atoll with an underwater barrage was thwarted by the American military, who achieved a major victory. This effectively ended any further maritime expansion by the imperial army, as the United States military effectively cut off their supply lines. As much as the Allied victory on the Russian front or in North Africa, the sinking of four aircraft carriers, three destroyers, and two hundred and sixty-one fighter planes at Midway shifted the balance of power in the war.

    The Midway trap

    After five months of defeats since Pearl Harbor, the Americans’ luck appeared to be changing with the paradoxical victory at the Battle of the Coral Sea in May 1942. Admiral Yamamoto, however, had not finished speaking, and he planned to trap the enemy carriers. Despite the setback at the Coral Sea for the operation against Australia and New Guinea, Admiral Yamamoto decided to maintain the initiative by preparing a new offensive. Although the primary goal was relatively unimportant, it was actually meant to lure the enemy fleet so that it could be destroyed.

    Actually, Yamamoto had his sights set on Midway, a Pacific atoll that was far from everything and of little strategic interest, but a landing there would still force the Americans to react. The Japanese admiral expected the American fleet to be depleted since Pearl Harbor, but he also anticipated that after the loss of the Lexington in the Coral Sea, the United States would be compelled to commit its last remaining forces to this battle.

    It was also decided to launch a parallel attack on the Aleutian Islands; if the goal was to confuse the Americans, this also had the disadvantage of complicating the Japanese plan and even dividing the forces for no real reason. This strategic flaw would prove to be a recurring theme for the Japanese throughout the war.

    The American surprises

    As a whole, the American fleet’s experience at the Battle of the Coral Sea was mixed. While they were successful in stopping the Japanese offensive on Australia, they also suffered heavy losses, including the destruction of the aircraft carrier Lexington and the severe damage sustained by the battleship Yorktown.

    The intelligence services had made great strides since Pearl Harbor, and it appeared that they had identified the next enemy target by breaking the Japanese code: Midway. This was the first good news Admiral Nimitz received. While it may have appeared that the Yorktown (commanded by Fletcher) was in dry dock for weeks, its repairs were actually completed in record time thanks to Chester Nimitz’s orders to bring the carrier to Pearl Harbor.

    The aircraft carriers Enterprise and Hornet (commanded by Spruance) should be able to get to the area quickly, so the Admiral had that going for him as well. The Japanese did not realize that the forces were even.

    Beginnings of the Midway conflict

    The Japanese were so intent on carrying out their complex plan that they failed to anticipate facing not one, not two, but three aircraft carriers; they had been led to believe that the Yorktown had been sunk in the Coral Sea. Worse, they had to make do without the Shokaku and the Zuikaku, both of which were damaged in this conflict. Consequently, Yamamoto “only” had four aircraft carriers—the Kaga, the Hiryu, the Akagi, and the Soryu—for the Midway attack.


    One thing to keep in mind was that they were all there when Pearl Harbor was bombed.

    The majority of the Japanese fleet set sail for Midway and the Aleutians on May 26, 1941. They left Pearl Harbor the following day without the enemy knowing it, and the Japanese command thought the Enterprise and the Hornet were still operating in the Solomon Islands. The U.S. had won the intelligence war long ago.

    On June 3, much to the shock of the Japanese, who had assumed they would not be attacked, the first contact was made when B-25s from Midway began bombing their island. The only thing that really got damaged was the Japanese pride after it became clear that the Americans hadn’t fallen for the Aleutian trap.

    Raid on Midway and reconnaissance

    Even so, Yamamoto continued to launch his assault. When he gave the order to invade the atoll on June 4, 1942, Nagumo was ready. The first attack ended at 7:10 a.m., and the Japanese pilots promptly requested another one. While passing through Midway, they ran into the American air force, which launched an unsuccessful attack on the Japanese fleet. The atoll-based air force did not cease to exist until 9 a.m. However, their efforts were not in vain, as the Japanese had already spotted the American fleet by the time the Midway raid took place, but were unable to attack it due to the destruction of their aircraft.

    The reconnaissance ballet had been going on for hours. Disturbing and sometimes muddled messages were sent to Admiral Nagumo, one of which mentioned an American aircraft carrier being nearby. In the end, he decided to wait until the Midway raids were over before launching an attack, despite his initial reluctance. The Japanese mechanics were so confused that they had to switch the plane’s ammunition twice; once from torpedoes to bombs and once back again. A technical issue arose and all four Japanese aircraft carriers were in complete disarray. What the Japanese feared most came true: the Americans had also spotted them.

    The American Box

    An American reconnaissance plane spotted the Japanese fleet at 5 a.m., hours before the Japanese had signaled Fletcher’s aircraft carrier, the Yorktown. After two hours of the Midway raid, Enterprise’s planes were the first to make contact with the Japanese fleet, but the old Devastator torpedo boats had little effect and were shot down like rabbits by Japanese flak. Though flawed, they accomplished their goal of clearing the skies of enemy fighters for the subsequent aircraft, most notably the Dauntless dive bombers.

    The Nagumo fleet was then hit by a barrage of bombs. Within minutes, the Kaga, the Akagi, and the Soryu were all either sunk or rendered inoperable.


    Not helping matters were the planes waiting on the decks to convert their bombs into torpedoes. After the twenty-minute American raid, the Japanese fleet had only the aircraft carrier Hiryu to launch planes.

    Farewell to Yorktown

    At 10:40 a.m., aircraft from the Hiryu began their assault. The Yorktown, an aircraft carrier spotted early in the day, was their intended prey. Three bombs severely damaged the hero of the Battle of the Coral Sea, followed by a second wave, this time with two torpedoes. All hope was lost when the aircraft carrier was finally destroyed by a submarine two days later. The submarine also managed to sink the destroyer that had been protecting the carrier. Meanwhile, the aircraft launched a new attack on Nagumo’s fleet and sank the Hiryu; the vengeance for the Yorktown continued with a two-day pursuit of the heavy cruisers Mikuma and Mogami, the first of which was ultimately sunk, and the second of which was very seriously damaged.

    As a result of arriving late to the scene, Admiral Yamamoto missed his chance to save Nagumo. He issued a retreat order. It was a devastating setback.

    Results and implications of the Midway conflict

    Unlike in the Coral Sea conflict, there was no ambiguity about the outcome this time! Whereas the Americans only abandoned one, the Japanese abandoned four. And most importantly, the war would ultimately come down to the loss of far too many of the Japanese fleet’s most experienced pilots.

    Admiral Yamamoto’s attempt to capture Midway was a strategic failure, and he lost the initiative as a result. From Midway on, the Japanese advance was stopped for good, and more importantly, the Americans were able to launch a counterattack, which they did on Guadalcanal. As with the Allied victories on the Russian front and in North Africa, this was a turning point in the Pacific War.

    Ultimately, the outcome of this naval engagement proved once and for all that aircraft carriers are superior to battleships. The ultimate defeat of the two titans, Musashi and Yamato, later in the war served as a symbolic confirmation of this. However, we still have a ways to go.

    TIMELINE OF THE BATTLE OF MIDWAY

    December 7, 1941: Attack on Pearl Harbor

    At 7:55 a.m., Japanese air forces launched an attack on the Pearl Harbor naval base. Over 2,000 Americans and roughly 100 Japanese were killed in the conflict. The Japanese Empire sought to destroy all U.S. naval and air vessels. They wanted to solidify their dominance in the Pacific by launching campaigns in Australia and Malaysia.

    December 8, 1941: The United States declared war on Japan

    After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States ends its state of neutrality. Involvement in World War II and the Pacific War begins with a declaration of war against the Empire of Japan.

    May 4, 1942: Battle of the Coral Sea

    The United States and Japan fought each other off the coast of Australia in the Coral Sea. The dates of May 4–May 8 of 1942 were crucial to this conflict. In spite of being the first naval air battle ever recorded, the outcome was a draw. The United States claimed a strategic victory, while the Japanese Empire won on the ground. The resolution of this conflict was exploited by both parties.

    June 7, 1942: American victory in the Battle of Midway

    The United States won the Battle of Midway on the fourth day of fighting. Air strikes on both sides’ naval fleets were a defining feature of this conflict. Both the strategic mistakes of the Japanese empire and the deciphering of their communications helped the Allies win the war. Japan will no longer be the one to initiate attacks during the Pacific War.

    August 7, 1942: Marines land at Guadalcanal

    The Solomon Islands campaign officially kicked off with the landing on Guadalcanal. The Allies were able to retake the strategic position from the Japanese in just six months.


    During this assault, 3,100 Americans and 31,000 Japanese were killed. Hundreds of airplanes and ships were lost on both sides.

    Bibliography:

    1. Morison, Samuel E. (1949). Coral Sea, Midway and Submarine Actions: May 1942 – August 1942. History of United States Naval Operations in World War II. Vol. 4. Boston: Little, Brown. ISBN 978-0-316-58304-6.
    2. Isom, Dallas Woodbury (2007). Midway Inquest: Why the Japanese Lost the Battle of Midway. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34904-0.
    3. Lord, Walter (1967). Incredible Victory. New York: Harper and Row. ISBN 1-58080-059-9.
    4. Buell, Thomas B. (1987). The Quiet Warrior: A Biography of Admiral Raymond A. Spruance. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-562-0.
    5. Symonds, Craig L. (2018). World War Two at Sea: A Global History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1902-4367-8.