Combat between German and French forces at Verdun raged from February 21 to December 18, 1916. The Germans launched an assault meant to “bleed the French army dry.” In short order, General Pétain was given responsibility for defending this section of the front, and he organized the front’s supply by building the “sacred way,” a road that was widened and maintained to allow two lines of trucks to pass each other without stopping. French resistance forces were able to slow the German advance, but at an unbelievable cost in lives and injuries. France’s victorious offensive at Verdun was widely regarded as a turning point in World War I (1914–1918).
Why Was the Battle of Verdun Fought?
Assaulting French soldiers emerge from their trenches during the Battle of Verdun, 1916.
Since the Battle of the Marne, the war of movement had been transformed into a war of positions: the combatants buried themselves in trenches, fought in horrible conditions, folded in the mud in the midst of rats, were surrounded by corpses that were not always possible to evacuate, and above all, survived in fear. General Erich von Falkenhayn planned to “bleed the French army white” on the Verdun salient with the fire of thousands of cannons, meaning to exhaust it both morally and physically before completely defeating it. The Kronprinz, William II’s eldest son, who was also intent on destroying the French army and who described Verdun as the symbolic “heart of France,” backed him up in this mission.
The location on the Meuse in Lorraine and its fortifications made it a strategic issue and a matter of national honor for the French, and the Germans knew this. The military history of Verdun’s defense was extensive, beginning with the construction of fortifications in the 14th century and continuing with the construction of an underground citadel under Louis XIII, its consolidation under Louis XIV with Sebastien Le Prestre de Vauban, and its reinforcement once more at the end of the 19th century. The Prussians besieged and conquered the city twice: in 1792 and again in 1870.
Due to the salient in the front and the dividing Meuse River, Verdun was a very difficult battlefield to defend. The Germans were also aware of the difficulty the French would have in reaching the Verdun-based troops due to the lack of a proper railway line.
Since Joffre believed the Verdun defenses to be nearly invulnerable, he failed to adequately staff the forts with sufficient numbers of men and equip them with adequate weapons. Also, in August 1915, military leaders decided to relocate around forty heavy batteries and twelve field batteries to safer areas. A battle in Champagne was expected, so the outbreak of fighting at Verdun came as a shock to the French.
A Meticulously Prepared Offensive
The German high command had decided in December 1915 that Verdun would be a decisive battle, and they had prepared for it accordingly. German forces were increased from six to eight divisions, and concrete tunnels were constructed as close as possible to the French positions. The German army was spread out over a dozen-kilometer-long front, and 221 artillery batteries were set up to support them. These plans were kept secret, but the French intelligence services were aware of an attack on February 11. Although some reinforcements were dispatched to the site just in case, military authorities didn’t put much stock in this unexpected information. The assault was delayed for a few days due to bad weather.
A German artillery barrage began at 7:30 a.m. on February 21. It had over 1.2 million cannons, including 13 mighty 420-mm Krupps. Bombs rained down on the three French divisions that were stationed along this fifteen-kilometer front. With only 65 artillery batteries and 270 cannons, von Falkenhayn planned to wipe out as much of the enemy infantry as possible. After nine hours of bombardments, German artillery finally gave way to infantry: German infantrymen launched themselves against French positions, and, for the first time, the formidable weapon of the flamethrower was used.
Two million shells were fired at French positions in the first 48 hours of the war, and the French front was pushed back about ten kilometers in that time. German artillery was relentless, but the French defenders’ tenacity in the face of isolation and a lack of leadership surprised the occupiers. Joffre ordered the French to resist at all costs, declaring with resolve, “They will not pass!” on February 25, after the French had lost 20,000 men and the fort of Douaumont had fallen. In order to defend Verdun, he put General Philippe Pétain in charge, with support from Generals Nivelle and Mangin of the 2nd army.
Pétain Organized the Defense
Pétain had a plan to close the gap the enemy had left and establish communication with the rear starting on February 26. Over the course of 24 hours, reinforcements and supplies of food and ammunition were brought in via the 6,000 trucks that took the “sacred road” connecting Bar-le-Duc and Verdun. They brought back a lot of wounded soldiers when they got home. From that point on, weekly transports included 90,000 men and 50,000 tons of equipment. Additionally, Pétain established a rotation of units that led to two-thirds of the French army taking part in the fighting at Verdun in an effort to minimize losses within each division and provide some respite for the poilus in the area around Bar-le-Duc.
The French army grew from 230,000 to 584,000 strong between February and April, with the artillery nearing 2,000 pieces, of which a quarter were heavy weapons. But the Germans continued to show their strength; on February 27, they captured the fort of Douaumont, which had been defended by only 60 men. The Germans launched their attack on the left bank of the Meuse on March 6 and quickly gained control of Cumières Wood on March 7, Mort-Homme Ridge on March 14, and Hill 304 on May 24.
The German offensive launched in the early spring was repelled on both the eastern and western fronts, and by the end of March, the enemy’s breach had been sealed. Despite the initial setback on April 9, the Germans rallied quickly, and General Mangin was unable to retake Douaumont between May 22 and May 24. Massive casualties were sustained in the so-called “hell of Verdun,” but the war of attrition nonetheless continued. The Germans captured Vaux Fort on June 7, and at the month’s end, they launched a fresh assault on Thiaumont, Fleury, and the area around Froi-deterre.
The Germans advanced three kilometers, endangering French positions on the right bank of the Meuse, and the terrible phosgene bombs made their first appearance. But the situation on the Somme, further north, gradually shifted the balance of power; on July 1, the French and British forces launched a massive offensive that compelled the Germans to reduce their numbers in Verdun in order to hold their positions on the Somme.
The Battle of Verdun Turns to the Advantage of the French
On July 11, the Kronprinz attempted a fresh assault on the fort of Souville in Verdun, but the French artillery response and counterattacks saved the situation just in time. In light of the setbacks suffered by the German forces, Marshal Hindenburg, aided once more by General Ludendorff, relieved General von Falkenhayn of his command on August 29, 1916.
General Robert Nivelle, who had replaced General Pétain as head of the 2nd Army (Pétain was given command of the Army Group Centre), began a counteroffensive against Verdun on the 24th. After losing ground steadily since February, this allowed the Allies to turn the tide and recover quickly, retaking the forts of Douaumont and Vaux within a matter of hours and two months, respectively. Along the right bank of the Meuse, between Champneuville and Bezonvaux, the front had steadied.
The French triumphed at Verdun on December 18, 1916.
The “Massacre” of Verdun
Considering the previous ten months of bloodshed and 37 million shells fired, this victory was monumental. Despite nearly 380,000 dead, missing, and wounded, France maintained its advantage in the Verdun region. It was a double loss for Germany: first, they were unable to break through the French front, and second, their casualty count (estimated at 335,000 killed, missing, and wounded) was nearly as high as France’s. After the Somme, the Battle of Verdun was the bloodiest in World War I.
KEY DATES OF THE BATTLE OF VERDUN
Fort Douaumont before the battle (German aerial photograph).
German forces stormed and captured Douaumont Fort on February 25, 1916. General Pétain was given control of the fortified Verdun area after the French army suffered this symbolic defeat.
The Germans made a small gain for their efforts on April 9, 1916, when they captured the Mort-Homme observation point. General Pétain issued a historic rallying cry the following day: “Courage, we will get them!”
On May 1, 1916, General Joffre appointed General Nivelle to replace Pétain because Joffre found Nivelle more offensive than Pétain.
On May 22, 23, and 24, 1916, General Mangin, acting on orders from General Nivelle, led a major French offensive that ultimately failed to retake the Fort of Douaumont. No adequate artillery preparations were made.
On June 7, 1916, the defenders of Vaux Fort signed a document surrendering the fort. When they realized they wouldn’t have enough water to make it, the local troops under Major Raynal’s command surrendered. The Germans took control of the area.
Following a nonstop barrage of poison gas shells on June 23, 1916, 60,000 German soldiers attacked along a 6-kilometer front. Fleury was taken. Despite this, Germany’s efforts to capture Verdun persisted in failing, producing disappointing results despite the enormous effort.
The German army’s final offensive began in the Souville sector on July 12, 1916. There was no success. The enemy’s greatest advance during the Battle of Verdun occurred here. This was yet another setback for Kronprinz Wilhelm of Prussia’s troops, who had been told to stick to defensive measures.
Douaumont after the battle.
After months of planning the “artillery fire” phase, the French forces successfully retook Fort Douaumont from the Germans on October 24, 1916, effectively ending the Battle of Verdun.
Battle of Verdun at a Glance
What was the Battle of Verdun?
The Battle of Verdun was a major battle fought between German and French forces during World War I. It was one of the longest and deadliest battles of the war and took place in and around the city of Verdun in northeastern France.
What was the significance of the Battle of Verdun?
The Battle of Verdun is considered significant because it became a symbol of the tenacity and resilience of the French forces. It also represented a turning point in the war, with both sides suffering heavy casualties and the battle ultimately resulting in a stalemate.
What were the objectives of the German offensive?
The German objective was to capture the strategic city of Verdun and inflict heavy casualties on the French army, hoping to break their morale and force them to divert resources from other parts of the front.
What was Falkenhayn’s strategy in the Battle of Verdun?
German General Erich von Falkenhayn’s strategy was to engage the French in a battle of attrition at Verdun, hoping to bleed the French army and force them to commit significant resources to defend the area. His intention was to wear down French morale and create a favorable situation for German victory elsewhere
What role did trench warfare play in the Battle of Verdun?
Trench warfare was a defining characteristic of the Battle of Verdun. Both sides constructed extensive networks of trenches, which served as defensive lines and provided protection from enemy fire. The battle involved fierce fighting over small sections of land between the opposing trench systems.
Bibliography:
Martin, W. (2001). Verdun 1916. London: Osprey. ISBN 978-1-85532-993-5.
Windrow, M. (2004). The Last Valley: The Battle of Dien Bien Phu. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-84671-0.
Horne, A. (2007) [1962]. The Price of Glory: Verdun 1916 (pbk. repr. Penguin ed.). London. ISBN 978-0-14-193752-6.
From July to November of 1916, the Allies and the Germans fought in the Somme region of northern France in the bloody and protracted Battle of the Somme. The British first engaged some 40 tanks on September 15 at Flers, and the ensuing bloodbath was a turning point in the war. But this initial major Franco-British offensive, led by General Foch and Douglas Haig, did not result in any significant Allied advances on the Western Front (contrary to the expectations of the general staff). Joffre called off the offensive on November 18, 1916, due to bad weather, the exhaustion of the troops, and the small amount of territory gained.
What was the goal of the Battle of the Somme?
According to the command, the lack of resources was to blame for the failure of the Allied offensives in 1915. Generals believed they could win with heavy artillery preparations, which would clear the way for the advance of the troops as production of guns and shells increased. On December 6, 7, and 8, 1915, the Allies convened at Chantilly, in the French Grand Quartier Général under the command of General Joffre, with this goal in mind.
Each of the major players in World War I—the French, the British, the Italians, and the Russians—had the same idea: to launch an offensive at the same time on multiple fronts. The Russians would launch a general attack in the east; the Italians would launch an attack on the Isonzo; and the French and British would launch a massive offensive on the Somme at the end of spring or the beginning of summer 1916. At the same time, the Germans, influenced by Falkenhyan, decided to “bleed the French army dry” by leading an assault on Verdun.
The Battle of Verdun altered the original plan
Due to the unexpected start of the Battle of Verdun on February 21, 1916, plans were severely hampered. While the Somme offensive was planned as a joint French and British effort in which both sides would play an equal role, the French demanded in February that the British contribute more to the offensive through the head of the French Military Mission to the British Army. The attack’s front was also drastically shortened, from 70 to 40 kilometers, with the British portion reaching 28 kilometers; the Battle of the Somme would henceforth be fought primarily by the British.
The area of Albert, which the Allies control, and the surrounding area of Péronne (controlled by the Germans), would be where the operation would take place. There was a lot of room for interpretation in the objectives, which Jean-Jacques Becker claims were as much about wearing down the German army as they were about finding the decisive battle that would lead to final victory.
Harmful attack, but not much accomplished
Several days of intensive artillery preparation culminated in an assault on German defenses by French and British armies on July 1, 1916. Although the French VIth saw some success in the south, the British army suffered catastrophic losses, with 10,000 dead and 60,000 wounded by July 1. The attackers were met with partially intact defenses and German machine gun fire despite the extensive preemptive bombardment.
The battle, which spanned a significant amount of time, can be broken down into three distinct parts: the initial offensive, which occurred from July 1 to 20, the long stagnation that occurred from July 20 to September 3, and the slight advancement that occurred from September 3 to November 18. The British lost 420,000 men, including over 100,000 dead, and the French lost 200,000 men, including over 100,000 dead, for an advance of only a few kilometers. Over 500,000 German soldiers died in the conflict.
The British Army deployed tanks (Mark IV) for the first time on September 15, 1916, at Flers. Many of them were unable to reach the front lines, but others made remarkable progress. In spite of this, there weren’t enough of them, and they were too sluggish and unreliable.
Its many flaws, especially its slowness (barely 6 km/h on the road), gave it an effect that was more psychological than real, with most of the examples involved in the fighting being destroyed or captured. This was also true of the French and German tanks that appeared a few months later. A few months later, tanks finally became a game-changer.
By the end of 1916, it appeared that the Somme offensive had failed because the enemy lines were not breached. With Germany’s continued occupation of northeastern France, the balance of power remained in the hands of the central powers. Worse, it appeared that neither side could win the war decisively.
Battle of the Somme; a turning point
The Battle of the Somme was a turning point in the Great War for a number of reasons. While the Battle of Verdun is not prominent in German accounts of the war, the Battle of the Somme is. While fighting on French territory, German soldiers saw themselves as defending their homeland from the British invaders and took a defensive position in underground shelters.
The French were discouraged after the failure of the Somme, and this fed a weariness that began at the end of 1916 and was expressed more forcefully in 1917. The volunteers, who made up the bulk of the troops sent and were decimated on July 1, 1916, were replaced by conscripts, whose formation had begun at the start of 1916, and the Somme marked the beginning of the end for the volunteer army.
The French and British worked together exceptionally well on the Somme, marking a turning point in the war. The French and British armies had to employ liaison officers to facilitate better communication between the two sides as liaison tactics began to be put into practice. The Somme campaign failed and cost a lot of lives, but it showed Allied commanders that they needed to work together better and train harder to defeat the Germans. It’s true that the Allies were able to learn from this massive material battle, especially with regards to the use of artillery, which ultimately led to their victory in 1918 despite the terrible weather and serious tactical errors.
Memory of the Battle of the Somme
British people’s recollections of World War I will always include the bloody Battle of the Somme. The first day of the offensive was the bloodiest day in British history, and many accounts detail the carnage that ensued. When the Scottish lieutenant and his two men finally reached the German lines, the man in charge is rumored to have exclaimed, “My God, where are the rest of the boys?”
Also quickly remembered was the Somme Battle. The Thiepval (Somme) Memorial, by Edwin Lutyens, was built between 1928 and 1932 at the behest of the British government. The monument, which stands at 45 meters tall and is shaped like a triumphal arch, honors the 73,367 British and South African soldiers who lost their lives on the Somme. Nearly 160,000 people visit the memorial annually, and it is located next to a military cemetery that adheres to British standards, meaning that all names are engraved on uniform steles regardless of the person’s rank or grade.
In addition, the “circuit of remembrance” of the Battle of the Somme has been developed, making it possible to see the scars left by the Great War on the landscape and to see the most significant memorials to the conflict: Somme commemorations have recently taken place at the Ulster Tower (Irish memorial) and the ANZAC memorial (Australian and New Zealand memorial).
TIMELINE OF THE BATTLE OF THE SOMME
The British failed on July 1st, 1916
The Allies began their assault early in the morning after several days of artillery preparation were delayed, in part, by bad weather. The British, carrying more than 30 kilos of equipment, moved at a snail’s pace because their command didn’t want them to disperse or think about the decimated German forces from the previous days’ bombardments. The majority of British casualties were the result of German machine gun fire.
July-August 1916: The slow progression
The British command wanted to halt the attack on the Somme front after the disastrous results of the July 1st offensive, but Marshal Joffre, commander-in-chief of the French armies, refused. During the subsequent two months of attacks and counterattacks, both sides made only minimal gains (at Langeval Wood for the British and Flaucourt Plateau for the French, respectively) and suffered significant casualties.
Movement of German Troops
However, the German general staff was concerned that the front lines on the Somme had been breached. As a result, in the month of July, the decision was made to pull thirteen divisions back from the Verdun front and two from the Ypres sector. This relieved some of the stress on the Allies at Verdun. In the weeks that followed, other divisions were scheduled to be deactivated as well. The German writer Paul Zech, who survived Verdun and was sent as reinforcement to the Somme front, testifies in a letter, “Here, everything is brought to its extreme: hatred, dehumanization, horror, and blood (…).” I don’t know anymore what can happen to us.
September-October 1916: intensification of the allied offensives
Several German positions were quickly taken despite the persistent rain and the battlefield’s transformation into a quagmire. On September 9, the British recovered Ginchy, in particular. On September 15th, they deployed their first tanks, which they dubbed “tanks” Mark I, with mixed results due to their clumsiness, but which did allow them to seize a number of positions (Courcelette, Martinpuich…). The French were successful in capturing large portions of territory from the Germans and capturing thousands of prisoners. On September 25th, the British and the French launched a combined offensive that would continue until September 28th. They allowed the Allies to retake Combles and Thiepval and strengthen their positions, but their strength waned in October.
November 1916: Against all odds, the end of the battle
However, despite some Allied victories in November, the fighting appeared to stall. The weather turned bad in the second half of the month, bringing icy rain, blizzards, and snow to the soldiers and effectively halting any offensives. This, oddly enough, was the catalyst for the end of the Battle of the Somme, as on November 21, General Haig, commanding the British army, decided to end the offensive. On the 11th of December, 1916, General Foch, who was in command of the French army on the Somme, did the same thing. On December 18, French Army Chief of Staff Marshal Joffre declared an end to the Somme offensive. The primary goals of Bapaume and Péronne were not accomplished by this war of attrition, which resembled Verdun.
Western Europe, but also Eastern Europe and the Balkans, was ground zero for World War I (known as the First World War, Great War, or WW1), which raged from July 28, 1914, to November 11, 1918. It quickly gained the label “world war” because of the participation of the majority of the world’s leading powers at the time. Many historians call it “The Great War” because they believed it would be the final conflict in their country. World War I was fought between central empires like Germany, the Ottoman Empire, and Austria-Hungary and the Allies like France, the United Kingdom, Russia, and the United States. It was characterized by the mobilization of so many soldiers, trench warfare, and the introduction of new weapons like airplanes, tanks, and gas, and it resulted in the deaths of 18 million people (military and civilian alike). When the Allies won the war, a lot of the old empires fell apart and were replaced by new countries.
How did World War I start?
It all started with an assassination attempt on June 28th, 1914, which triggered a major crisis across Europe. Sarajevo was the scene of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Habsburg, heir to the throne of the Austria-Hungary (Austro-Hungarian Empire), by a Bosnian Serb student. The latter group was advocating for Serbia to annex Bosnia. On July 28, 1914, the Austria-Hungary Empire used this as justification for an attack on Serbia.
The Serbs wanted to recover Bosnia, which had been annexed by Austria-Hungary, so that they could gain access to the Adriatic Sea and unite all the Slavs of the Balkans under a single kingdom. It was the catalyst for the political maneuvering that ultimately led to World War I. On July 30, Russia began mobilizing its military forces to aid Serbia. Austria-Hungary’s ally, Germany, went to war with Russia and then France. Thereafter, the United Kingdom declares its allegiance to France. Germany invaded Belgium on August 4, 1914. Next up was the Ardennes Offensive.
What were the causes of World War I?
Examining a world map from the start of 1914 was essential for comprehending the factors that led to the outbreak of World War I. Many people lived in what was then known as the Austro-Hungarian Empire (Austrians, Hungarians, Czechs, Romanians, Poles, Serbs, etc.). The Russian Empire, Prussia, and Austria-Hungary all had a piece of Poland. There was a change in Turkey’s name to the Ottoman Empire. At the end of the war in 1870–1871, Germany had taken Alsace and a portion of Lorraine from France. Tense diplomatic relations were a result of territorial disputes between multiple countries and empires.
Who were the actors in World War I?
At the outset of World War I, in 1914, two alliances squared off against one another:
The United States, Japan, Portugal, Belgium, Italy, Romania, Greece, Brazil, and many other countries backed the Triple Entente, which was made up of the United Kingdom, France, and the Russian Empire.
The Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria supported the Triple Alliance, which consisted of the German, Austria-Hungary, and Italian Empires, and which joined the Triple Entente in 1915.
All these nations quickly went to war with one another because of the complex web of alliances that existed between them.
Verdun and the other battles of 1914–1918
French soldiers attacking from their trench
During World War I, battles were fought simultaneously on numerous fronts. A front line was forming on the western border of France and Italy. From the Baltic to the Black Sea in the East, the Russian Empire was at odds with the Triple Alliance. A third great front was present in the Balkans. However, the World War I was felt on every continent, particularly in Africa and the Middle East, and on every ocean. There were three distinct eras of World War I on the Western Front. The months of August through November of 1914 were characterized by constant troop and supply shifts. These rapid advances in a war of positions from the end of 1914 to March 1918 will be halted, however, by the use of new, very deadly weapons (heavy artillery, shells, etc.). As a result, the fighting evolves into a trench war. In March of 1918, tanks and planes began arriving in large numbers, marking the beginning of maneuver warfare.
In light of these three main epochs, the following is a list of the most significant battles fought on the Western Front during World War I:
The First Battle of the Marne killed 250,000 people between September 5 and September 12, 1914.
The Dardanelles campaign, which lasted from February 1915 to January 1916, claimed the lives of 250,000.
The Battle of Verdun took place from February 21 to December 31, 1916, and caused 700,000 deaths.
From July 1st to November 18th, 1916, the Battle of the Somme kills 1.2 million people.
The Battle of the Chemin des Dames took place from April 16 to May 9, 1917, and resulted in 180,000 French deaths.
On July 18, 1918, the Second Battle of the Marne occurred, killing 200,000 people.
Was World War I a total war?
One could say that World War I was a total war because it affected every aspect of life in the countries that were involved.
Military mobilization: The European conflict exploded onto the world stage with the involvement of the colonial empires (France, Britain, and Russia), the United States, and Japan. Each nation sent a sizable number of its men to the battlefield.
Economic mobilization: The war effort receives significant contributions from all belligerent nations’ industrial output. The French government had also begun issuing loans to the general public. Civilian life was also affected. Male farmhands and factory workers have been replaced by female counterparts. Rationing was the norm because food supplies were more difficult to distribute.
How did World War I end?
In 1917, American troops arrived on the Western Front. While Germany and Austria-Hungary continued to fight on the Eastern Front, Russia, caught up in communist revolutions since March 1917, withdrew its forces. When the Germans tried to push through to the West in 1918, the Entente powers made a breakthrough instead. Unsettled by the uprising, Germany requested an armistice, which was signed with representatives of the new German Republic on November 11, 1918, in Rethondes, France.
How many people died in the World War I?
One of the deadliest wars ever was World War I, which claimed more lives than World War II. A total of 18 million people, including 10 million soldiers, lost their lives as a result. The French military suffered a loss of 1.4 million men and women. Two million German soldiers were killed in action. Keep in mind the 21 million wounded, especially the “gueules cassées,” or amputated or disfigured soldiers. Europeans began to feel the effects of the Spanish flu in April 1918, which continued through the summer of 1919. The physical resilience of the population had been depleted by years of fighting. More than 2 million people in Europe would have died if this virus had spread.
The results of World War I
Many lives were lost and many bodies were broken during World War I. The affected nations were unsettled and saddled with debt. There was a lot of damage as a result. Not least, it had a geographic impact:
The French states of Alsace and Lorraine were reclaimed by the French government.
Austria and Hungary emerged from the fragmentation of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. New nations were created from the remaining parts of the empire: Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Poland, etc.
The Ottoman territory was split up, occupied, and ultimately lost. In 1923, Turkey came into being.
After the German Empire fell, a new country called the German Republic was formed, but it quickly lost land to Poland in the form of Alsace-Lorraine and the “Danzig corridor.”
Finnish, Belarusian, Ukrainian, Lithuanian, Latvian, and Estonian nationalists successfully pushed for independence from the Russian Empire, which had also become a Republic.
The Treaty of Versailles, signed on June 28, 1919, exacted a steep price from Germany. The brand-spanking-new German Republic was taxed heavily. Its colonies were destroyed, and its military was whittled down to nothing. Adolf Hitler would later use German resentment of the “diktat” of Versailles to his advantage during the 1930s.
TIMELINE OF WORLD WAR I
May 25, 1882: Birth of the Triple Alliance
It was in 1882 that the Triple Alliance (or Triplice) between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy was formed for defensive purposes. Thus, Germany was bolstered in the face of an antagonistic France that had not been friendly since the war of 1870, and Austria-Hungary found allies in the face of threats posed by Russian expansionist policies in the Balkans. The Italians, for their part, craved power above all else so that they could better counter France’s colonial agenda. All of them took part in cutting diplomatic ties with France. The signing of this treaty was crucial in setting the stage for World War I. It was broken in May 1915 when Italy sided with the opposing camp.
French and Russian military officials signed an agreement on August 18, 1892
A diplomatic and military agreement between France and Russia allowed them to end their diplomatic isolation from the Triplice. This treaty not only formalizes a military partnership but also sets out the parameters for the Empire to take out a loan from Russia. The relationship between the two countries and Britain got better over time, which led to the Triple Entente and made things more tense before World War I.
April 8, 1904: Signature of the Entente Cordiale
The European situation was becoming increasingly tense, and the Triple Alliance posed a threat of an imbalance of power among the other countries, so the United Kingdom and France were able to reach an agreement to end their colonial disputes. Thus, the two powers initiated a rapprochement in four articles covering topics such as fishing in Newfoundland, control of Egypt for one country and Morocco for the other, and the formation of what would be called the “Triple Entente,” a military alliance with Russia.
March 13, 1905: Reinforcement of the Blockade of Germany
A decree issued by France stipulated that all goods originating from or destined for Germany would be intercepted, further solidifying the country’s policy of economic warfare and blockade against the country. The German declaration of war in the English Channel and the waters near France and the United Kingdom on February 4 prompted the signing of this treaty. When the French got similar orders from the British on February 9, they worked together with them to make a plan.
The Triple Entente was founded on August 31, 1907
France and the United Kingdom had been informally discussing military cooperation for a year before Britain signed an agreement with Russia. This deal not only allowed the three countries to connect indirectly, but it also defined the spheres of influence of each nation in Afghanistan and Iran. After that point, France’s allies included the Russian Empire, the British Empire, and finally France itself. This agreement was crucial in light of the war that broke out seven years later.
July 1, 1911: Episode of the Gunboat “Panther”
Colonial rivalries sparked a severe crisis at a pivotal time in the buildup to World War I. As an official measure, Germany dispatched the gunboat “Panther” to the port of Agadir. A message was sent to France, which had backed Sultan Moulay Hafiz against a Berber uprising by sending an armed ship. Their sights were set on Morocco, and Germany did not take kindly to France’s efforts to increase its military presence and, by extension, its influence there. The strength of the Entente Cordiale was underlined by the United Kingdom’s intervention on behalf of France, and everyone made preparations for war. Eventually, Germany caved into economic pressures and retracted its position in the fall.
On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand was murdered in Sarajevo
While in Sarajevo, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie of Hoenberg, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, were murdered by 19-year-old Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip. The attack ignited Europe, which was then split between the Triple Alliance (Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Italy) and the Triple Entente (Russia, France, and Great Britain). World War I began after Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28. Over the course of four years, 18 million lives will be lost.
The 28th of July, 1914, saw the declaration of war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo prompted Austria-Hungary to declare war on Serbia a month later. As the chain of alliances widens, the conflict will become more widespread: on the one hand, the Triple Entente (Russia, France, and Great Britain); on the other, the Triple Alliance (America, Japan, and Germany) (Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Italy).
First Day of War: August 1, 1914
The Germans declared war on Russia, and the French ordered general mobilization four days after Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia in response to the assassination of the Archduke of Austria in Sarajevo. The invasion of neutral Belgium by German troops began on August 4, following Germany’s August 3 declaration of war against France. All of Europe’s major powers expect the war to be brief.
German forces invaded Belgium on August 4, 1914
Even though Belgium claimed to be neutral, German troops invaded under the Schlieffen plan. When France and Russia joined forces, this strategy was born. To avoid a frontal assault, the Germans planned to avoid the “risky” French zones. Even though the army led by King Albert I put up a fierce fight, much of the country was still occupied. The Canton territories of Eupen, Malmedy, and Saint-Virth were formally recognized as part of Belgium after World War I thanks to the Treaty of Versailles. The country of Belgium now had a mandate over the country of Ruanda-Urundi (later Rwanda-Burundi). Conflict will eventually force it to abandon its neutral stance.
The First Battle of the Bulge began on this day in 1914
In spite of their best efforts, French forces were unable to halt the advance of the German army. Movement was a core principle for both sides, and the battles were planned in accordance with each camp’s underlying theory. In the so-called “battle of the borders,” the French were initially defeated and forced to retreat. This led to their defeat in the Ardennes, a battle they would later go on to win in the Marne.
August 30, 1914, Russian defeat at Tannenberg
A month had passed since the war began. When the French asked the Russians to open a front in the East, they did so in order to get Germany to split its forces. The Germans were able to attack and push the Russians back at Tannenberg in East Prussia because they intercepted Russian messages. In addition to capturing 500 cannons, the Germans also managed to capture over 92,000 Russian soldiers.
The Triple Entente was formally established on September 3, 1914
By bolstering their military pacts, France, the United Kingdom, and Russia provide the Triple Entente with a solid political foundation. They’ve agreed to forego signing any bilateral accords.
The French won the Battle of the Marne on September 12, 1914
We’re now a month into this war. In the face of the German offensive, French General Joffre and British General Maunoury, leading the Franco-British forces, were forced to continually withdraw from the Belgian border. Joffre made the decision to launch a counterattack and had new troops brought in from Paris in taxis (the cabs of the Marne). There was a decisive defeat for the Germans, and they were forced to retreat. The French army managed to escape.
October 5, 1914: First air combat
In World War I, a German Aviatik piloted by Lieutenant Von Zangen was shot down near Reims by a French Voisin III piloted by Sergeant Frantz and Corporal Quénault. As far as we know, this was the first aerial battle ever fought. Prior to the outbreak of the first international conflict, it was common practice to use military aircraft to take photographs of the locations of the combatants. They served as informants but had no weapons.
17 October 1914: The locks stop the German advance on the Yser front
By opening the locks and flooding the plain, the Belgian army was able to cut off the Germans’ access to the sea. Even though they were outnumbered, the Belgians were able to stop the enemy from moving forward and set up a strong barrier thanks to this planned flooding. This was done after their victories in the Marne.
The Germans won the Battle of Coronel on November 1, 1914
A battle broke out off the coast of Chile when two battleships from the esteemed Royal Navy ran into German cruisers. The two British ships were sunk without too much damage by German Vice Admiral Maximilian von Spee. People still talk about how shocking this victory was, and in the Battle of the Falklands Islands, the Royal Navy got its revenge.
On November 5th, 1914, France and Great Britain declared war on Turkey
After Russia went to war with the Ottoman Empire, England and France joined in two days later. On October 28, Turkey joined Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy in World War I as part of their Central Powers.
The Battle of the Falklands began on December 8th, 1914
After the British navy spotted two German ships, they pursued them and fought a German squadron led by Vice Admiral Maximilian Von Spee a few hours later. The United Kingdom successfully defended itself from this attack near the Falkland Islands. The Royal Navy gets its revenge on the vice admiral, but more importantly, the British are able to maintain control over important trade routes.
April 22, 1915: The first use of asphyxiating gas
The Germans introduced a new weapon into the trench warfare in Ypres (Belgium): asphyxiating gas. At first, the Allies’ defense against these gases was limited to goggles and pads. Then they will put on masks for safety. In the years 1915 and 1916, nearly 100,000 soldiers were killed by this poisonous weapon, which had been outlawed by the Hague Declaration of 1899. The Geneva Protocol of 1925 and United Nations Resolution 2603 of 1969 contain more recent provisions regarding gas use.
Landing at Gallipoli, April 24, 1915
Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) at the trenches of Gallipoli during World War I. Taken on June 17, 1915 by Haydar Alganer.
The Allies’ naval expedition through the Dardanelles encountered Ottoman resistance and underwater mines on its way to Constantinople. Seventy-five thousand reinforcements were dropped off at Gallipoli. The Ottomans beefed up their security in anticipation of the Allied invasion. Although reinforcements were sent in August, that month brought no noticeable improvement. Despite a total of 200,000 casualties and 120,000 wounds, the offensive was unsuccessful. Between December and January of 1916, the Allies withdrew.
7 May 1915: A submarine sinks the “Lusitania”
Off the coast of Ireland, the German submarine U-20 torpedoed the British liner Lusitania as it sailed from New York. When the ship sank quickly, 1,198 people, including 128 Americans, lost their lives. American public opinion was already leaning toward supporting military action against the “Central Powers” before this tragedy struck, but it shifted dramatically afterward. Kaiser Wilhelm II ordered a full submarine war to begin again in 1917, prompting President Wilson to declare war on Germany.
On May 23, 1915, Italy and Austria-Hungary went to war
Italy went to war with Austria-Hungary, a country it had been allied with the year before. The agreements signed a month earlier in London with the Triple Entente allowed for this about-face against an ally that it had never taken to its heart. The latter capitalized on Italy’s desire to expand its influence into parts of Austria-Hungary, most notably Istria. At the beginning of the war, Italy was a part of the Triple Alliance but had not yet joined the conflict. Since it considered these allies to be the aggressors, it owed them nothing.
October 6, 1915: Austria-Hungary invades Serbia
More than a year after the Austro-Hungarian Empire declared war on Serbia, that country began to feel the effects of the conflict that had engulfed Europe. Austria-Hungary didn’t actually invade Serbia until fourteen months after it declared war on the country. In one day, Belgrade will be no more.
On October 12th, 1915, Edith Cavell was brutally murdered
Edith Louisa Cavell, an English nurse, was shot to death by German troops in Belgium. She faced accusations that she aided the Allied forces in reaching Holland to resume fighting there. The occupied Belgian territory where a prominent Brussels hospital’s head nurse was employed. Because of what she did, 170 men made it to the Netherlands in a matter of months. There was no denial on her part when she was taken into custody. Rather, she was completely forthright with Germany about everything.
Paris was attacked by a German zeppelin on January 29, 1916
Twenty-six people were killed and thirty-two were injured when a German zeppelin dropped bombs on the neighborhoods of Belleville and Ménilmontant. However, it went down on the return trip. It was decided to switch to a combination of cannon (the Grosse Bertha) and aerial bombing because the previous strategy was too expensive and ineffective.
In 1916, on February 21, the Battle of Verdun began
At 7:30 a.m., German infantrymen, led by Chief of Staff Erich von Falkenhayn, attacked the Verdun forts and trenches. For a distance of nearly 15 kilometers and for nearly 9 hours, German artillery pounded the three French divisions present. Hill 304 lost 7 meters of elevation due to the heavy artillery fire. German forces launched an initial push to the south bank of the Meuse, capturing a number of positions. Philippe Pétain, the French army’s general, oversaw the country’s response. Ten months from December 15th, 1916, would pass before the Verdun battle would be declared over. More than 700,000 people lost their lives, making this one of the deadliest battles of World War I.
On February 25, 1916, Pétain assumed command of the French forces at Verdun
Four days after the German offensive began, General Philippe Pétain was put in charge of defending Verdun. As soon as he took command, he instituted a rotation of men at the front along the Meuse’s banks. He restocked the forts’ arsenal and sent in the air force to scout the opposition. His victory at Verdun earned him the title “Man of Verdun” among the French.
April 10th, 1916: “We’ll get them!” Pétain’s legendary order
Pétain held regular meetings with his troops and communicated with them daily. In his 94th general order, issued on April 10, 1916, he congratulated the French on their victory the day before and urged the French soldiers to be courageous, writing, “We’ll get them!” The newspapers printed these three words on the front page, and they were soon being shouted and sung in the trenches and even in the rear.
Nivelle took over as leader on May 1, 1916
To his dismay, General Pétain was promoted and ordered to abandon Verdun. He was relieved of command and given the role of supervising General Nivelle. In contrast to Verdun, which was criticized for being too defensive, Nivelle was a bold offensive operation that didn’t care about casualties. Pétain will live on in the hearts and minds of the victors of Verdun.
The Battle of Jutland, May 31, 1916
Ships of the German High Seas Fleet, June 1916.
It was off the coast of Denmark that 37 British and 21 German ships engaged in a naval battle known as the Battle of Jutland. Since the British fleet was larger, they attempted to surround the German fleet. The latter, however, avoided it through strategic retreat and ultimately forced the enemy to call off the battle after suffering heavy casualties. The loss of life was staggering, with 3,000 German sailors joining the 6,800 British sailors who perished. The Royal Navy was embarrassed, but the German fleet failed in its attempt to dominate the North Sea because it could not break the British blockade.
The Germans were at Verdun’s gates on June 23, 1916
Very close to Verdun, the Germans launched an attack that von Falkenhayn hoped would prove decisive after they had been hit with phosgene, a toxic gas. Unfortunately, the gas eventually dissipated, and their opponents had managed to reorganize in the meantime. Mangin immediately responded the following day with counterattacks. These attempts also failed, however.
The first day of the Battle of the Somme was July 1, 1916
The British troops began their assault on the enemy after a week of bombarding the German lines. Nearly 20,000 British soldiers were killed that day, and the Allies advanced no more than ten kilometers in ten days, but the battle was only just beginning; it would last until November 18. In just five months, over a million people will have died on the battlefield for nothing.
On July 11, 1916, the German army launched its final offensive at Verdun
A final assault was launched by General von Falkenhayn to take Verdun. The British attack on the Somme was quickly defeating the German forces, and time was running out for him. He was in a good spot, but he needed to make it count. When he met opposition at the fort of Souville, he had to retreat. After losing so many men in the Battle of the Somme, he had to adopt a defensive strategy going forward.
The first tanks showed up on September 15, 1916
It was at Flers in World War I that the British army first deployed tanks (in the Somme). In Villers-Bretonneux, France, on April 26, 1918, tanks fought each other for the first time in a major conflict. In 1918, tanks were pivotal in breaking the front lines.
French victory at Verdun, October 24, 1916
After gaining the upper hand in August, the French launched a massive offensive to retake Vaux and Douaumont. The front was 7 kilometers long and very effective. The Germans were forced to retreat, and the French easily captured Douaumont after losing Thiaumont. However, the French did not reach Vaux until November 3. It was clear that the Germans were outnumbered and would have to withdraw from the conflict, which would eventually lose some of its intensity by the end of the year.
February 1, 1917: Germany strengthens the submarine war
Kaiser Wilhelm II decided to use the isolation of the United Kingdom as a means to weaken it. To cut off the island’s supplies, he declared total submarine warfare. The United States voiced strong objections, severed diplomatic ties, and urged other nations to follow suit. Wilson, realizing he needed the public’s backing to join the war against the Central Empires in April, did just that.
America goes to war with Germany on April 6, 1917
In 1914, the United States declared its neutrality.With their population on the verge of starvation, the Germans resumed full-scale submarine warfare against the British Navy in January 1917. This military action shocked the American public and ultimately led to the United States declaring war on Germany. About two million troops were dispatched to Europe.
April 9, 1917: Founding Canadian Victory at Vimy
3,500 Canadian soldiers stormed Vimy Ridge after two weeks of heavy bombardment of enemy lines. German trenches, barbed wire, and machine guns protected the area. Even though the majority of the day’s objectives were accomplished by nightfall, fighting would continue for another few days. Over and above anything else, this victory became a potent symbol for the burgeoning nation of Canada. The lowering of the flag to half-staff on April 9 became a national day of remembrance as the Peace Tower, a memorial to the fallen of World War I and a symbol of international harmony, was constructed on that date.
April 16, 1917: Defeat of the Chemin des Dames
Nivelle’s primary goal, part of a much larger Allied offensive plan, was to retake the Chemin des Dames. This attack did not go as planned and ultimately ended in deadly failure. Most significantly, it marked the beginning of widespread mutinies in France and heralded Pétain’s ascension to power.
May 1917—Mutinies in the French camp
Many French soldiers refused to attack after the disastrous Chemin des Dames battle and subsequent attacks, leading to the growth of mutinies. After more than two years of war with little to show for it, both sides began to experience a phenomenon characterized primarily by a reluctance to attack rather than a heightened focus on defense. Minor agitations, typically in the rear, are to be expected over the next two months due to the challenging context and the fatigue of the horrors of war. For the sake of example and to restore order, 42 poilus will be shot, based on somewhat arbitrary selections. After the war, they were able to start over and become productive citizens again.
Arabic triumph at Aqaba, July 6, 1917
Because of their desire to create a new front against the Ottoman Empire (which was allied with Germany and Austria-Hungary), the British allied with Arab countries that were working to establish an independent state in the region formerly controlled by the Ottomans. The Ottomans were defeated by the Arabs at the Battle of Aqaba. They were led by Lawrence of Arabia.
Guynemer passed away on September 11th, 1917
The French fighter pilot was killed while piloting his Spad over the Belgian city of Ypres. After being “shot down” seven times, the body of the “ace of aces,” who had 53 victories to his name, was never located.
November 17, 1917: Clemenceau is recalled to the government
It became clear to President Raymond Poincaré of the Third Republic that only Georges Clemenceau could rally the French parliament around the Sacred Union and guide France to victory, so he reinstated Clemenceau as head of government. Clemenceau, also known as the “Tiger,” ended the political unrest by becoming President of the Council and Minister of War.
December 15, 1917—The Armistice of Brest-Litovsk
The revolutions of February (called March by the Gregorian calendar) and October 1917 rocked the Tsarist Russian Empire. As one of their first acts in power, the Bolsheviks ratified the “peace decree” on December 15, 1917, at Brest-Litovsk, which led to an armistice with the Germans and the Austrians (now in Belarus). The Russians ceded several territories during this agreement, and other provinces, including Finland and Ukraine, took advantage of this agreement to declare independence from Russia. Upon Germany’s defeat in 1918, Russia planned to reclaim some of the territory it had given up in 1917.
January 8, 1918: Wilson unveils his plan
In his “Fourteen Points,” President Wilson of the United States lays out his plan for restoring peace and rebuilding Europe. On January 18, 1918, he presented his principles to the United States Congress. These included free economic trade, democracy, disarmament, the right to self-determination of peoples, reshaping borders, etc.
It was on March 3, 1918, that the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed
The fighting on the Eastern Front ended on March 3, 1918, when the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed by the Central Empires (a coalition of the German Empire, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria) and the newly formed Bolshevik Republic of Russia. Russia had no choice but to agree that Poland, Ukraine, and Finland were independent countries.
March 21, 1918: Start of the last German offensive
In France, the Germans began an offensive that would signal a massive series of attacks lasting until July and result in the Allies’ second defeat on the Chemin des Dames that same month. The Empire’s plans, however, were foiled by the arrival of American troops, equipment, and tanks. All of these offensives yielded gains that were sometimes substantial but never game-changing. Instead, they drained the military’s resources and occasionally put them in jeopardy.
March 26, 1918: Foch commands the allied forces
Panic among the Allies was caused by the German offensive on the Somme, which aimed to split the front in two. At the meeting in Doullens, civilian leaders from the Allies put Foch in charge of the Western Front, where he oversaw Douglas Haig for the British and Philippe Pétain for the French.
On April 21st, 1918, the Red Baron was killed in combat
Manfred von Richthofen, better known as the “Red Baron,” was a legendary fighter pilot in the German Air Force. He was a World War I ace who participated in and won 80 air battles before his red plane was shot down over the Somme region on April 21, 1918.
June 26, 1918: Big Bertha bombs Paris
A German army cannon, nicknamed “Big Bertha” after the daughter of industrialist Krupp, wreaked havoc in Paris. The device can launch shells over 100 kilometers away and to an altitude of 30 kilometers.
Decision by the Allies to counterattack, August 8th, 1918
The Battle of Amiens began on August 8, 1918, when French and British forces attacked near Montdidier in the Somme department. On September 8, 1918, the German forces had to retreat behind the defenses they had built between 1916 and 1917 because they were so tired.
November 9, 1918: The Kaiser leaves his empire
The German navy mutinied, and Berlin erupted in rebellion as Germany was about to lose the war. Wilhelm II of Germany abdicates and takes his family to the Netherlands. Scheidemann, the socialist, declares a republic. On the second day, he planned to approach the allies with a request for a ceasefire.
World War I officially ended on November 11, 1918
At the start of November 1918, Germany requested an armistice with the Allies. Years of war and blockade have weakened the country, and now the “German revolution” will bring about a change in political regime. On November 11, 1918, the armistice was signed in a wagon in Rethondes, in the Compiègne forest.
The German fleet was sunk in Scapa Flow on June 21, 1919
The German navy, gathered in the Scottish port of Scapa Flow, refused to surrender its ships to the victors and instead scuttled. The entire German fleet, with the exception of the submarines, was docked here.
The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919
Germany was forced to accept harsh terms when it signed the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. To begin, everyone agreed that the war was entirely Germany’s fault. It was forced to pay astronomical war reparations. Alsace-Lorraine and the “Danzig corridor,” which provided Poland with a sea route, were among the territories it lost. It lost its colonies and was coerced into dominating the Western Hemisphere. At last, Germany was partially demilitarized, and its weapons were removed.
World War I at a Glance
What was World War I?
World War I was a global conflict fought between 1914 and 1918. It involved many countries, primarily in Europe, and was one of the deadliest wars in history. It was triggered by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in 1914.
Who were the Central Powers and the Allied Powers in World War I?
The Central Powers consisted of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. The Allied Powers included France, Britain, Russia (until 1917), and later, the United States and other countries that joined in opposition to the Central Powers.
When did World War I end?
World War I ended on November 11, 1918, with the signing of the armistice between the Allies and Germany. This armistice effectively marked the end of the fighting and led to the subsequent peace negotiations.
What were the Western Front and the Eastern Front in World War I?
The Western Front was the name given to the battle lines in Western Europe, primarily in France and Belgium, where trench warfare was waged between the Allied and Central Powers. The Eastern Front refers to the war fought between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Bulgaria against Russia and its allies in Eastern Europe.
What were the consequences of World War I?
World War I had far-reaching consequences, including the redrawing of national borders, the collapse of empires, the loss of millions of lives, significant political and social changes, and the seeds for future conflicts. It also accelerated technological advancements, particularly in warfare.
Bibliography:
Karp, Walter (1979). The Politics of War (1st ed.). ISBN 978-0-06-012265-2. OCLC 4593327.
Keegan, John (1998). The First World War. Hutchinson. ISBN 978-0-09-180178-6.
Bass, Gary Jonathan (2002). Stay the Hand of Vengeance: The Politics of War Crimes Tribunals. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 424. ISBN 978-0-691-09278-2. OCLC 248021790.
Beckett, Ian (2007). The Great War. Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-1252-8.
Kernek, Sterling (December 1970). “The British Government’s Reactions to President Wilson’s ‘Peace’ Note of December 1916”. The Historical Journal. 13 (4): 721–766. doi:10.1017/S0018246X00009481. JSTOR 2637713. S2CID159979098.
Kitchen, Martin (2000) [1980]. Europe Between the Wars. New York: Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-41869-1. OCLC 247285240.
“It was the most significant upheaval that had ever shaken the Greek people, some of the Barbarians, and almost the whole human race.” Thucydides, an Athenian historian, provides a keen analysis of the origins and developments of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), a conflict that pitted Athens and Sparta against each other for a total of 27 years with support from their respective allies. For his failure to defend Amphipolis in Thrace from the Spartans in 424 BC, he was exiled from Athens as a strategist (military general). Thucydides used the time he spent in exile to compile his work, in which he blamed Athenian imperialism, which had become increasingly powerful since the Greco-Persian Wars of the early 5th century BC.
Athens’ intolerable interference
Pericles leading Athens into its political, economic, and cultural golden age. Pericles advocated for a stronger navy and did much throughout his life to build Athens’ power.
It was true that during the Pentecontaetia period (478-433 BC), the Athenians organized a vast territory in the Aegean that served their economic interests and was maintained by force. Established in 478 BC to continue the fight against the Persians, the Delian League was initially an egalitarian alliance between some 200 Greek cities, which chose Athens as leader with least initial submission at the outset. However, the league and its powerful fleet quickly became instruments in the service of the Athenians’ ambitions, financed by a tribute initially kept on the island of Delos.
The “Athenian empire” established by Cimon and later Pericles included five districts around the Aegean Sea that all used the same drachma coin depicting an owl of Athens (Athena). Even the mildest attempt at secession was violently put down by the Athenians. Samos paid the price in 440 BC when it was forced to hand over its fleet, destroy its walls, and watch as its generals were tortured in the name of the ruthless Pericles who had left his mark on the history.
Sparta delayed its response to Athens until the Peloponnesian League gathered in 432 BC, after a number of local skirmishes had already occurred. Corinth’s game of alliances and pressure, combined with Athens’s meddling and Sparta’s wait-and-see attitude, pushed the Greek world into a violence war that still shock contemporary historians.
Sparta and Athens fought for a decade without either side ever coming out on top. When the “Peace of Nicias” was signed in 421, the pacifists had won.
A third of Athens’ population was wiped out at the start of the war when a typhus epidemic spread from the port of Piraeus. According to historical records, Pericles passed away in 429 BC. All Athenians, urban and rural alike, were gathered behind the city’s fortifications, the “Long Walls,” to create an impregnable island, supplied by sea, which did not help the health situation at the outset of the conflict. The allies of Athens, especially the rebels, suffered from the war’s consequences as well. Mytilene, a city on an island, attempted to secede from the Delian League in a rebellion in 428 BC.
The Athenians responded quickly by placing a siege on the city of Mytilene in an effort to send a message to any potential future defectors. Fortunately, a trial arrived just in time to prevent the execution of all the men and the enslavement of the women and children; overcame with guilt, the Athenian assembly declared that it had changed its mind and commuted the sentence. Mytilene must dismantle its defenses and hand over its navy and some of its land. For those who were against democracy, this about-face demonstrated the system’s vulnerability.
Finally, the fighting continued at various locations until 421 BC, with neither side able to claim victory. Cleon the Athenian and Brasidas the Spartan, the two main war-mongering generals, both died in 422 BC during the clashes in Thrace, contributing to the growing fatigue of the conflict. In 421 BC, the two sides signed the Peace of Nicias for a theoretical period of 50 years.
But the program of peace advocated by Nicias, an old and wise man, was challenged by the ambitions of a young aristocrat in full bloom. The assembly of Athens decided to send a fleet to Sicily in the spring of 415 BC after hearing Alcibiades’ fiery imperialist harangues. The expedition was doomed to fail. The Athenians fought against Selinunte because they wanted to find a breadbasket and expand their influence to the west, both of which could be achieved by conquering Segesta.
Religious scandals rocking Athens
Alcibiades Being Taught by Socrates (1776) by François-André Vincent (Musée Fabre).
Again, the Peloponnesian War got off to a bad start for Athens, a city the gods appeared to have abandoned (and rightly so): two major sacrileges rocked the city in the midst of military preparations. The Athenians discovered to their horror one morning in May or June of 415 BC that their city’s hermes had been mutilated.
These hermes were marble pillars that could be found all over Athens, guarding the city’s crossroads and the entrances to people’s homes. During the course of Athenian justice’s questioning of dozens of witnesses, a second religious scandal was revealed through depositions: slaves claimed that in their masters’ house, young aristocrats were having fun parodying the Eleusis mysteries, a secret initiation rite dedicated to the goddesses Demeter and Persephone, while slightly inebriated.
Alcibiades, who was embroiled in the scandal, defected to the Spartan side rather than return to Athens to explain himself. The staunch defender of war betrayed his country and became its enemy.
Alcibiades was now one of the names mentioned. Although Alcibiades had already left for Sicily with fellow strategists (or strategos) Nicias and Lamachus, he was now required to return to Athens to give an account of his actions and face judgment. But he tricked his escort on the way back and hid out in, Sparta! Alcibiades even betrayed his country by advising the Lacedaemonians to fight for Sicily (the Sicilian Expedition, BC 415-413).
The Sicilian Expedition developed rapidly into the Athenians’ worst nightmare. Several thousand lives were lost, and much of Athens’ fleet was annihilated, due to the events in Sicily, which had weakened the city. Eventually, some of its allies switched sides and joined the Spartans. This was the political climate in which the Athenian democracy was overthrown.
The council of Boule, the model of democracy at the time, was disbanded by the new government of the Four Hundred in 411 BC, making way for an oligarchy limited to a few thousand citizens. This policy of the oligarchs, led by men like Antiphon the Sophist and Theramenes, did not last long in the face of a resurgence of the democratic forces garrisoned near the island of Samos.
A few months later, with the help of General Thrasybulus and Alcibiades, the oligarchic regime fell. Since the latter was already a father through his relationship with Agis II’s queen, he was in a rush to leave Sparta and sought out the Persian monarch at first. The incumbent oligarchs failed to recall Alcibiades to Athens, so he sought out the democratic opposition, who gladly accepted him, seeing in him a useful strategist.
This is where Thucydides’ account ends and the historian Xenophon picks up the rest in his book Hellenica.
Death knell for the Athenian Empire
The Alliances of the Peloponnesian War
The situation in Athens hadn’t improved much despite the return of democracy. In the end, the Spartans realized that they could only defeat Athens for good by taking the battle to the sea. Athens, the great thalassocracy, had to face the Spartan fleet that was formed after Lysander, the Spartan fleet’s general, negotiated with Cyrus the Younger, the Persian army’s commander in Asia Minor. Thus, the fate of Athens was decided at sea: the naval Battle of Aegospotami, which occurred at the end of the Peloponnesian War in 405 BC, sounded the death knell for the empire.
Athens was already feeling the effects of its fleet’s defeat because Lysander, who owned the road to the corn supply, had organized a food blockade. When pressed for food, the Athenians negotiated with the Spartans, who presided over a congress of the Peloponnesian League in 404 BC, where the city of Athena’s fate was hotly debated.
While the Corinthian and Theban peoples would have liked to see Athens wiped off the map entirely, Sparta was firmly against the idea because it threatened its own power and the potential rise of Thebes, which was located further north.
The Athenians, fearful of receiving the same treatment they had meted out to other cities, signed a treaty that spared them at the cost of relinquishing the symbols of their power: the Long Walls, the fleet, and the empire. Once again, the situation worked in favor of the Athenian oligarchy: in 404 BC, the government of the Thirty, backed by Lysander and the Spartans stationed in the city, imposed unprecedented terror. Almost 2,000 people lost their lives during this tragic time in Athens.
However, the Spartan victory did not mean the end of hostilities. The government of the Thirty, a tyrannical and bloodthirsty group, also toppled the Athenian democracy as a result.
Critias, Plato’s cousin, and Theramenes, were the worst of the worst among this group of bloodthirsty oligarchs, and they were pushed to their deaths by their extremist compatriots who viewed them as too moderate. It wasn’t until 403 BC that democratic forces successfully resisted and reinstated the system.
The war cost Athens dearly, with the collapse of its empire and two oligarchic revolutions, but the city entered the 4th century BC with a revived and strengthened regime, which would not experience any further shocks until the arrival of the Macedonians. Surprisingly, it appears that Sparta, the victorious city, was the most traumatized by the fighting.
Lysander takes power in Sparta
During the Battle of Sphacteria in 425 BC, the Athenians attacked from the sea. By Peter Dennis.
The war only made the already fragile Spartan system much more unstable. Sparta was already suffering from a severe population decline after the earthquake of 464 BC, and the loss of its soldiers only added to their distress. The Lacedaemonians’ tradition had always been to die heroically in battle rather than face the social disgrace of defeat, so the Greeks were shocked when 120 surrounded Spartans surrendered to Cleon on the island of Sphacteria in 425 BC (Battle of Sphacteria). The myth was destroyed.
The Spartans’ helot slaves filled in for the missing hoplites as a result of their oliganthropia (“lack of men”). General Brasidas therefore set out in 424 BC with 700 helots to conquer the Thrace city of Amphipolis. For their loyalty, these garrisons stationed at Sparta’s borders were granted limited freedom in exchange for full citizenship.
At the same time, however, Sparta vanished 2,000 helots away out of fear of a rebellion by slaves it had armed, acting as a counterweight that ultimately seals the doom of the freed “Brasidians.” Therefore, Sparta was confronted by both internal social and demographic upheavals and external challenges.
The appearance of Lysander, a Spartan mothax (one who was too poor to be a full citizen), did serve as a symbolic marker of the Peloponnesian War’s conclusion. But he rose to the position of navarch (chief of the fleet), and the initial sympathy of the cities “freed” from the Athenian yoke was attributed to the aura of his victory over Athens.
In a short amount of time, however, Lysander tainted the glory of Lacedaemonia with the blood of his excesses: after installing authoritarian and violent governments in several cities, he was recalled to Sparta out of concern for his behavior.
Throughout Greece, people celebrated his life with festivals called Lysandreia established in Samos; no other living man had ever been given so much recognition. This was too much for the traditionalists in Sparta, who looked down on the general’s autonomy and dislike his foreign policy.
Plutarch claimed that the Spartans were fundamentally corrupted during the Peloponnesian War. He claimed that the influx of Persian gold brought about by the negotiations between Lysander and Cyrus the Younger shook another pillar of the myth: austerity and the refusal of the currency.
Sparta, with fewer than 2,000 citizens and suffering from Lysander’s reputation as a tyrant, enjoyed a bittersweet victory. After its victory over Athens, the city was the site of a failed conspiracy in which a certain Cinadon rallied many people who felt excluded from Sparta’s political and social life. So the city’s reign as a power was brief; in 371 BC, Thebes usurped the throne.
TIMELINE OF PELOPONNESIAN WAR
431 BC – After the Spartans invaded Attica, its citizens fled to Athens for safety. Expedition from Athens to the coast of the Peloponnese.
430 BC – The Athenians were trapped inside the city walls when a plague epidemic broke out. There was a mass death that claimed one-third of the population, including Pericles.
425 BC – In 424 BC, the Athenians won at Pylos and Sphacteria; then the Spartans and Thebans won at Amphipolis and Delion.
421 BC – Exhausted from the war, both sides agreed to a 50-year ceasefire, known as the Peace of Nicias.
415-413 BC – An Athens expedition to Sicily ended in disaster as a result of poor planning. The Athenians had been doomed ever since this defeat.
412 BC – Lysander, a Spartan general, and Cyrus, a Persian prince, formed an alliance that ultimately decided the war.
404 BC – The beleaguered and impoverished city of Athens surrendered after the defeat of the Battle of Aegospotami (405 BC).
War crimes in the Peloponnesian War
Soldiers were also hit hard by the escalation of violence. For instance, the Athenians severed the right hands of their prisoners before the Battle of Aegospotami in 405 BC, and Admiral Philocles had the crew of the two enemy ships thrown overboard. The victorious Spartans exacted their vengeance on Athens at Aegospotami, where they massacred three thousand prisoners, including Philocles.
In 413 BC, after the Athenians were defeated in Sicily, their ally and victorious enemy Sparta imprisoned 7,000 of them in the quarries of Syracuse. There, they subsisted on 500 grams of food and a quarter liter of water each day. Many people perish as a result of exhaustion, illness, and lack of shelter. The combined odor of their decomposing bodies and the feces was intolerable. Those still alive after 70 days were sold into slavery.
Refugee tragedy during Peloponnesian War
Large numbers of people were forced to seek refuge after civil uprisings and sieges. Defeated groups’ members, if they had families, had to leave the city. Also, men who fled for political or criminal reasons were sentenced to death in absentia and had their possessions seized.
The oligarchs fled to the cities of the Peloponnesian League, while the democracies sought refuge in the cities of the Delian League. Afraid for their lives, they went to places of worship, holy forests, or sanctuaries and assumed the posture of the beseeching worshipper. However, their enemies did not always acknowledge the divine shield. While some were able to afford rent, the vast majority ended up living in makeshift camps due to financial constraints.
Human casualties
The Peloponnesian War had caused an unprecedented number of casualties. Milos and Scione were two cities that suffered total male fatalities. When the conflict began, Athens was hit by a plague epidemic that killed nearly a third of the city’s population, causing it to suffer the greatest casualties of any city. More than half of the Athenian male population had been killed by the Peloponnesian War’s end.
Bibliography:
Heftner, Herbert. Der oligarchische Umsturz des Jahres 411 v. Chr. und die Herrschaft der Vierhundert in Athen: Quellenkritische und historische Untersuchungen. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2001 (ISBN 3-631-37970-6).
Hutchinson, Godfrey. Attrition: Aspects of Command in the Peloponnesian War. Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK: Tempus Publishing, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 1-86227-323-5).
The Landmark Thucydides: A Comprehensive Guide to the Peloponnesian War, edited by Robert B. Strassler. New York: The Free Press, 1996 (hardcover, ISBN 0-684-82815-4); 1998 (paperback, ISBN 0-684-82790-5).
Roberts, Jennifer T. The Plague of War: Athens, Sparta, and the Struggle for Ancient Greece. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017 (hardcover, ISBN 978-0-19-999664-3
Apartheid was implemented in a South Africa that already had a long history of racial discrimination, beginning with the country’s colonization by the Dutch in the 17th century and its subsequent status as a British dominion in 1910. Since its inception in 1948, this policy’s overarching goal had been the maintenance of white supremacy, even as it ostensibly promoted national progress and the preservation of diverse cultural traditions. Apartheid drew international condemnation because it intensified existing forms of racial segregation at a time when decolonization was widespread. Ultimately, the regime fell victim to the country’s political and social upheavals as well as the development of new ideas. In 1991, it finally ended because of protests led by people like Nelson Mandela.
Why were the nationalists rising to power?
The “Color Bar” (a discriminatory color barrier for blacks) was established in response to the escalation of racial tensions that followed the Anglo-Boer Wars and the formation of the Union of South Africa in 1910.
Whites, who made up a tiny minority of the territory’s population, formed the government and then aggressively fought to keep all of their privileges and privileges alone, despite the fact that the majority of the people living there were people of color (primarily black Bantus, half-castes, and Asians).
The African National Congress (ANC) was established in 1912 amid growing awareness of the majority population’s plight. The government of Louis Botha, however, was determined to round up the black population and place them in reserves, and this Bantu organization couldn’t stop it.
General Smuts succeeded Botha as Prime Minister and South African Party leader after Botha’s death in 1919. James Hertzog, who was born into a Boer family and was committed to maintaining racial segregation, became prime minister in 1924 after a coalition of Nationalists and Labour won power. However, South Africa’s government was once again altered by the difficulties of the 1929 crisis. Eventually, in 1934, Hertzog’s National Party merged with Smuts’ to form the United Party.
How did apartheid start?
This merger was roundly rejected by a number of Afrikaners (also known as Boers) from the old National Party, who instead chose to form their own nationalist party under the leadership of Minister Malan.
At the outbreak of World War II, Hertzog also handed over the reins as prime minister to Smuts. Shortly after, the South African Union declared war on Germany, and the first Nazi influences took root in the nationalist movements.
Malan, whose National Party had grown in strength by the late 1940s, proposed an electoral platform based on the development of the territory through racial separation.
He coined the term “apartheid,” from the Afrikaans word for “separation,” to describe this policy. He had already spent decades implementing racist policies before he was elected in May 1948. He promptly began carrying out his schemes.
How was the protection of white supremacy born?
From 1949 on, a set of laws were enacted to ensure that South Africa’s various racial and cultural minorities would be kept completely apart. First, there was a prohibition on interracial marriage.
Whites, blacks, and people of other colors were officially separated out as separate categories beginning in 1950. Then the “Group Areas Act” would be in effect, creating distinct territories for each community to call home.
The policies may have prioritized the cultural advancement of non-white ethnic groups, but apartheid’s end goal was to preserve white supremacy. This was evidenced by all the laws that have been passed since then, including those that require black people to carry passports, those that require segregation in public spaces and businesses, those that reform education, and those that enact less favorable labor laws for black workers.
After Malan left in 1954, racial segregation only grew worse. The black Bantu people were given their own designated territories beginning in 1959. These “Bantustans,” as they were known, were supposed to develop into sovereign nations. However, these regions, which would have made up only 13% of the country, were far too economically impoverished to function independently.
It was precisely because land was given to blacks in order to establish so-called independent states that they were denied membership in the South African Union. As an added bonus, it stoked ethnic tensions among the Bantu, which ultimately helped to suppress black nationalism.
How did revolts and oppositions unfold during apartheid?
Protests were predictable under such a regime, and the Sharpeville demonstration in March 1960, which was violently suppressed, was evidence of this (Sharpeville massacre). As a result of this tragedy, the government outlawed the African National Congress (ANC) and the Pan-African Congress (PAC), two black movements that opposed apartheid.
As a result, the ANC was compelled to operate clandestinely and, inspired by Nelson Mandela, made the decision to resort to violence. But in 1962 he was apprehended, and in 1964 he was given a life sentence.
Protests against apartheid were not confined within South Africa or limited to the country’s black population. Many white people, especially the British and the Catholics, were strongly opposed to it, and there was international effort to exert pressure.
In response to the complaints of other Commonwealth nations, Prime Minister Verwoerd had the South African Union declare independence, eventually becoming the Republic of South Africa. In 1962, the UN voted to impose new sanctions, which had no noticeable impact.
However, in the 1970s, black nationalism flourished and the government was weakened as a result of Mozambique and Angola’s independence. High school students in Soweto staged a demonstration in June 1976, and the government’s violent response shocked the world.
Prime Minister Vorster, who was roundly criticized, resigned in the wake of this incident. The new leader, Pieter Willem Botha, made some minor adjustments to apartheid after he took office.
How was apartheid abolished?
So, while continuing a policy of excluding blacks, Pieter Botha repealed some segregationist laws on the use of public places, the internal passport, and access to employment. In 1984, he made room in Parliament for Métis and Asians without making any concessions to the Black community.
The rationale for this shift was crystal clear: to show that the government meant business in the face of a Black majority. If anything, this reform only served to infuriate the opposition more. As the black population increased its number of revolts and strikes, the government’s support for apartheid was weakened.
The Republic of South Africa was in such political and social disarray that a state of emergency had to be declared. After international investors and partners began increasing economic sanctions against the country beginning in 1985, the Republic of South Africa saw no other option but to end apartheid.
Frederik de Klerk succeeded Pieter Botha and promised to end all forms of apartheid once he took office. Nelson Mandela was freed, and the ANC was back in the lawful fold.
Apartheid had been finally eliminated after more than 40 years. Everyone in South Africa carried the weight of the country’s history of racial segregation with them. As a result, for the first time ever, a member of the black majority led the country as president, ushering in a period of national and international reconciliation.
Thus, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission was established to shed light on the wrongs committed by all sides. However, social inequalities needed to be combated after racial inequalities were addressed.
TIMELINE OF APARTHEID
June 5, 1918-Foundation of the Afrikaner Broederbond
Johannesburg, South Africa was the site of the establishment of the Afrikaner Broederbond on June 5th, 1918. As it turned out, the Afrikaner Broederbond (AB) was a covert organization with the goal of strengthening and unifying the Afrikaner community.
White South Africans of European (primarily Dutch, French, German, and Scandinavian) ancestry were known as Afrikaners. The apartheid movement, which sought to enforce racial and ethnic segregation, found some of its inspiration in this organization.
Nelson Mandela was born on July 18, 1918
The Union of South Africa was still a young country when Nelson Mandela was born there on July 18, 1918. When he was younger, he was both a sports fan and a law student with aspirations of a legal career. He joined the African National Congress in 1943 because of his interest in politics.
Nelson Mandela rose to power in South Africa as president in 1994 after leading the charge against apartheid and racial segregation. Nelson Mandela was honored with the Nobel Peace Prize a year prior for his efforts.
May 26, 1948: Daniel Malan’s Nationalist Party wins
The rise of apartheid was inextricably linked to the success of the Nationalist Party led by Daniel Malan, a pastor at the Dutch Reformed Church at the time. South Africa’s then-Prime Minister, Daniel Malan, used his parliamentary majority to implement his policy of racial segregation. Racial segregation laws and policies began to be implemented.
1949-Ban on mixed marriages in South Africa
A law outlawing interracial marriage was passed as part of the apartheid framework. The goal of this new policy was to classify the various ethnic groups living there. A formal prohibition on intersex acts was added to the law at a later date.
1950-The different South African groups defined by apartheid
To better categorize the people who call the South African Union home, a new law called the “Population Registration Act” had been passed. There were thus four distinct groups: blacks (comprised of nine distinct ethnic groups), mestizos, Indians, and whites (of European descent).
March 21, 1960-Sharpeville Massacre
There were frequent demonstrations in Sharpeville over the “Pass Law Act,” which mandated that everyone must carry a passport at all times. The police cracked down hard on protesters despite backing from the African National Congress and the Pan-African Congress.
More than 60 demonstrators lost their lives, and nearly 180 others were injured. The incident increased the level of violence in other protests and drawn the ire of people around the world.
November 6, 1962-UN sanctions South Africa
Since the violence during the protests and throughout the country had only increased, the United Nations had issued a formal condemnation of the apartheid policy. After that, the European group urged other nations to cut off all diplomatic and commercial ties with South Africa. This punishment, however, had little effect. In South Africa, apartheid was still being actively enforced by the government.
June 12, 1964-Mandela is sentenced to life
Including Nelson Mandela, seven other ANC members given life sentences for treason. Nelson Mandela turned down an offer of freedom in exchange for giving up violence against apartheid. He checked in at Robben Island Prison with inmate number 46664 and began serving his time there. Living conditions for Nelson Mandela were just as harsh as they were for everyone else.
September 1989-de Klerk, President of the Republic of South Africa
South Africa’s first democratically elected president, Frederik de Klerk took office in September 1989. This marked the start of a period in which the apartheid regime was abandoned, spurred on by factors including the growing demands of the black population and South Africa’s economic isolation on the international stage. However, apartheid was not officially ended until June 1991, nearly two years later.
February 11, 1990-Nelson Mandela released
Nelson Mandela was released from Paarl Prison after serving 27 years of his sentence while Frederik de Klerk was president. He had fought against the apartheid regime and been convicted of treason in 1964, spending the rest of his life in prison.
Since his imprisonment, he had come to represent the struggle for black liberation in South Africa. Following his and de Klerk’s receipt of the Nobel Peace Prize in December 1993, he was elected president of the Republic of South Africa in April 1994.
Apartheid ended in June 1991
Frederik de Klerk, in his capacity as President of the Republic of South Africa, finally put an end to apartheid. The various political parties in South Africa began negotiations to form a new government.
The African National Congress (ANC), spearheaded by Nelson Mandela, took part in these talks and ultimately succeeded in having a multiracial and democratic government imposed on the country.
October 15, 1993-Nobel Peace Prize for Mandela and de Klerk
For their efforts in ending apartheid and racial segregation, Nelson Mandela and Frederik de Klerk were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in the same year, 1993. Nelson Mandela had been celebrated for his dedication to democracy and longstanding status as the world’s most renowned political prisoner.
Mandela was sworn in as president on April 27th, 1994
Nelson Mandela was elected President of South Africa just four years after he was released from prison and thirty years after his conviction. Frederik De Klerk, a strong supporter of Nelson Mandela’s release, was appointed Vice President, a position he held until 1996. Nelson Mandela fulfilled his promise to limit his presidency to a single term. Thabo Mbeki took over after him in 1999.
References
Muller, C. F. J. (1975). Five hundred years: a history of South Africa. Academica. p. 430.
Mountain, Alan (2003). The first people of the Cape: a look at their history and the impact of colonialism on the Cape’s indigenous people. New Africa Books. p. 72.
Berridge, G.R. (1992). South Africa, the Colonial Powers and African Defence: The Rise and Fall of the White Entente, 1948–60. Basingstoke: Palgrave Books. pp. 1–16, 163–164. ISBN 978-0333563519.
Lulat, Y.G.M. (1992). United States Relations with South Africa: A Critical Overview from the Colonial Period to the Present. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Incorporated. pp. 143–146. ISBN 978-0820479071.
Campbell, Kurt (1986). Soviet Policy Towards South Africa. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. pp. 129–131. ISBN 978-1349081677.
Joyce, Peter (2007). The making of a nation: South Africa’s road to freedom. Zebra. p. 118.
Suzman, Helen (1993). In no uncertain terms: a South African memoir. Knopf. p. 35
Keppel-Jones, Arthur (1975). South Africa: a short history. Hutchinson. p. 132.
One of the most well-known conflicts from antiquity was the Battle of Marathon. Conflict escalated between the Greeks and Persians during the First Persian War (Greco-Persian Wars). The Persian king Darius I sent an army to Greece in 490 BC with the goal of conquering Athens. The Persians, fresh off their conquest of the Aegean islands, landed not far from the city. The Athenians, with help from the Plataeans, managed to thwart the invaders without calling in the Spartan reserves. Athens’ hegemonic position in Greece was bolstered by this victory.
What were the causes of the Battle of Marathon?
Darius I of Persia
The Achaemenid Empire (Persian Empire), founded by King Darius I and thriving by the end of the sixth century BCE, was also known as the Persian Empire. The Persian Empire dominated the entire Middle Eastern region and even pushed further westward.
A number of Greek cities in Ionia, which was located on the west coast of modern-day Turkey, as well as the kingdoms of Thrace and Macedon, fell under Persian rule. The Greeks viewed the Persians as haughty savages who were obsessed with wealth and luxury and worshiped their king as if he were divine. The political and cultural distance between the two was too great for the Greeks to accept Persian rule.
First Persian War broke out when Ionia rebelled against its occupiers in 499 BC. In 494 BC, the Persians captured Miletus and ultimately defeated the rebels, who had military support from Athens and Eretria. Greek islands like Lesbos and Tenedos were also taken. Darius I of Persia had issued an ultimatum to Athens and Sparta.
He dispatched envoys to them, some of whom met violent ends. Darius sent a punishing expedition to mainland Greece in 490 BC because he was fed up with the Greeks’ stubbornness and wanted to punish Athens for aiding the Ionian rebels. As they advanced westward across the Aegean Sea, the Persians sacked the city of Eretria and deported many of its citizens to the region of Lower Mesopotamia.
When and where did the Battle of Marathon take place?
Hippias, a former Athenian tyrant, aids Darius in his campaign. Exiled twenty years prior, Hippias yearned for vengeance and the chance to reclaim power in Athens. He suggests that Darius set down near Marathon, about 38 kilometers from Athens. The plan was to distract the Athenians long enough so that their city would be defenseless.
The Persians arrived in Marathon around September 12th, 490 BC. The Athenians marched out to meet the enemy under the direction of their strategist Miltiades, but they refrained from attacking right away. From a distance of 1,500 meters, both armies stared at each other across the battlefield.
There are between 9,000 and 10,000 hoplites in the Greek army, plus another 1,000 Plataean soldiers and an untold number of freed slaves. To the contrary, the Persian expeditionary force was vastly outnumbered. Greek historians estimate that the Persian army strength was between 200,000 and 600,000. Historians of the modern era place their total male population somewhere between 20,000 and 100,000. Artaphernes, Darius’s nephew, led the Persian army, while Datis helmed the navy.
Who won the Battle of Marathon?
The Persian cavalry disembarked on September 17th, 490 B.C., and a portion of the fleet sailed toward Athens’ port of Phalerus. The remaining troops made their way on foot into the city. Therefore, the Greeks must first stop the invaders from getting closer to the city before returning there to defend it from the Persian fleet. They anticipate reinforcements from Sparta, where Pheidippides had gone to sound the alarm.
The Greek army, despite being outnumbered, launches the initial assault. It’s likely that the defenders took advantage of the retreating Persian cavalry. The gear of Greek hoplites was top-notch. They have a sword, a long spear, and a very strong shield, and they wear a cuirass, a helmet, and leggings for protection. The Greeks deploy the phalanx formation, where they form a wall with their shields and charge their enemies from behind.
The enemy was defenseless against this level of heavy infantry. When pitted against Greek weapons, Persians have no chance in a fistfight. The Athenians charge forward without ducking for cover from incoming arrows. Persians are taken by surprise and are unable to hold off the Greek charge, so they run for the water in an attempt to reach their ships. The elite Persian forces in the center of the line fought valiantly for some time before being caught in a pincer movement and rendered useless.
The Greeks only lost around 200 men, while the Persians lost 6,400. Seven ships from the Persian fleet were taken. The Athenians returned to defend their city from the remaining Persian fleet after this victory. They marched for eight hours straight and eventually made it to their destination. Seeing that their plan had failed, the Persians abandoned any hope of landing. Just a few days later, reinforcements from Sparta arrive, but it’s too late to save Athens.
Who was the first marathon runner?
As soon as the Athenians learned of the Persian landing, they dispatched a messenger to Sparta to ask for help. A remarkable feat was accomplished by the messenger Pheidippides, who travels the 250 kilometers from Athens to Sparta in just 36 hours. However, the Spartans at the time were in the midst of the Karneia, celebrations in honor of Apollo, and so they were unable to send troops for ten days. An alternate account had the Greek general Miltiades sending a man named Eucles to Athens to announce the Greek victory at Marathon. Fatigue took its toll on the messenger shortly after he delivered the news.
An academic named Michel Bréal was moved by these feats to include a marathon competition in the Olympic Games when they were held in Athens in 1896. This roughly 40-kilometer footrace begins at the historic Marathon site and concludes at Athens’s Panathenaic Stadium. In 1896, Spyrdon Lois of Greece won a 38-kilometer race in Athens by a margin of over two hours and fifty seconds. Ever since then, there have been dozens of marathons in cities all over the globe. Additionally, since 1983, the Spartathlon had been held in memory of Pheidippides as a 246-kilometer long-distance race between Marathon and Sparta.
The results of the Battle of Marathon
After defeating the Persian army without assistance from the Spartans, Athens gained a lot of respect. In 478 BC, to combat the persistent Persian threat, it established the Delian League. The victory at Marathon was cited often by the arrogant city to prove why it was superior to all the other cities.
The significance of this victory for Athens cannot be overstated when discussing its political significance. The city had been saved thanks to the sacrifice of the hoplites, citizen-soldiers who are willing to give their lives for their city. But Athenian imperialism would eventually run into resistance from Sparta 40 years later, sparking the Peloponnesian War. Because of this triumph, the First Persian War was also over.
The Persians do not see the Battle of Marathon as a major loss. While Athens might have been unbeatable, the Persians were successful in seizing control of the islands in the Aegean Sea. After putting down a revolt in Egypt, Darius I planned another expedition. The king passed away in 486 BC, never getting to lead his army into battle against Greece. During the Second Persian War (486 BC), his son Xerxes I was in charge of it. The war culminates in the peace of Callias, but not before the heroic sacrifice of Leonidas and the Spartans at Battle of Thermopylae and the devastating naval battle at Salamis.
Bibliograpy:
Krentz, Peter. The Battle of Marathon. Yale University Press, 2010
Lanning, Michael L. (April 2005). “28”. The Battle 100: The Stories Behind History’s Most Influential Battles. Sourcebooks. pp. 95–97. ISBN 978-1402202636.
Davis, Paul K. (June 2001). “Marathon”. 100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195143669.
From around 1715 until 1789, Europe saw a cultural upheaval known as the Age of Enlightenment, which is best characterized as a literary and intellectual revolution. The Enlightenment thinkers sought to ensure that all individuals had equal opportunities to pursue truth, liberty, and happiness. They criticized established religion, fought against absolute monarchy, and spoke out against social injustice. Equal rights advocates opposed slavery as well. While Montesquieu focused on the separation of powers, Voltaire took on religious fundamentalism and judicial injustice, while Rousseau emphasized popular sovereignty. Diderot spent twenty years creating a universal Encyclopédie.
What was the historical context of the Enlightenment?
Historically, the Enlightenment began with the death of King Louis XIV in 1715. This way of thinking flourished as a result of a hospitable intellectual atmosphere. The failure of monarchs to develop the State was drawing increasing criticism of the monarchy. The middle class expanded their influence. It aimed at the inequality and privilege enjoyed by the nobility. Additionally, religion was mocked. Also happening in the 18th century were groundbreaking innovations (like the steam engine) and extensive travel. The development of philosophy was influenced by scientific progress and major discoveries. Colonization and trade both prospered as a result. The continent of Europe became more accessible to the rest of the globe.
What was the literary movement of the Enlightenment?
From 1715 through 1789, this literary movement fought against obscurantism (darkness) and for universal access to information (the Enlightenment). It professed tolerance and secular development as its god. The Enlightenment’s thinkers and authors set out to prove, among other things, that happiness—or at least the pursuit of it—ought to be everyone’s top priority. They challenged the people of their day to think for themselves, reject dogma, and cultivate a healthy dose of skepticism. They were also active in the battle against religious bigotry. Just before the French Revolution, these ideas were rehashed in the Cahiers (lists of grievances).
What were the means of diffusion of the ideas of the Enlightenment?
Voltaire
Salons, publications (despite censorship), and a few “enlightened despots” throughout Europe all contributed to spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment’s thinkers. Those who wanted to convey their ideas did not shy away from extensive travel, and this included many philosophers. Both Voltaire and Diderot served Catherine II of Russia; Voltaire with Frederick II in Prussia and Diderot in Russia. In North America, the concepts of the Enlightenment were put to the test with the creation of the Declaration of Independence (1776) and the Constitution of the United States (1787). During the Revolution, these ideas were utilized to draft the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789).
Who were the main philosophers of the Enlightenment?
Isaac Newton (who established the law of universal gravitation), John Locke, and David Hume are just a few of the English thinkers that helped pave the way for the Enlightenment’s literary and intellectual movement. French Enlightenment thinkers who made significant contributions to the cause include:
Montesquieu, an advocate of the doctrine of the separation of powers (executive, legislative and judicial).
Voltaire, who spoke out against injustice in the court system.
The authors of the Encyclopédie, Denis Diderot and Jean Le Rond d’Alembert, set out to democratize knowledge.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in his book The Social Contract, explained the idea of popular sovereignty.
Immanuel Kant and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe both engaged in the Enlightenment movement in Germany.
How did Voltaire participate in the Enlightenment?
François-Marie Arouet, more often known as Voltaire, was a major thinker and writer during the Enlightenment. His goal was to condemn bigotry of all kinds, especially religious extremism, and he spoke out against unfair trials. After the public outcry over the Calas tragedy (a Protestant was unjustly accused of murdering his son), he was inspired to write the Treatise on Tolerance, one of his most influential writings.
He made social critiques of his time and place in the philosophical story Candide. As a result of his publications, Voltaire spent time in the infamous Bastille jail (after an argument with the Chevalier de Rohan, and after having openly criticized the Regent). Most of his works were banned from publication.
How was slavery perceived by the philosophers of the Enlightenment?
One of the primary goals of Enlightenment thinkers was the eventual elimination of slavery. They advocated for an end to injustice and equality for all men. Slavery and the rule of law were two concepts Rousseau deemed to be incompatible with one another in his landmark work, The Social Contract. Voltaire, in his book Candide or Optimism, included a chapter called “The Negro of Surinam,” in which he criticized the treatment of slaves. In his History of the Two Indies – Book XI, Diderot criticized the institution of slavery.
Why did the Enlightenment challenge religion?
All of the conventional wisdom about religion was called into question by the Enlightenment. Religions came under fire from philosophers because they were seen to place more emphasis on faith than reason. Voltaire condemned the intolerance that could result in the killing of individuals who did not practice Catholicism, which was a particular focus of the attacks (Jean Calas murder). Philosophers were generally of the opinion that God exists (Voltaire said that he is the great watchmaker of the universe). However, they adamantly opposed to any religious practices.
TIMELINE OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT
Voltaire was imprisoned on May 16, 1717
After publishing satirical descriptions of the Regent and his daughter, the Duchess of Berry, Philippe d’Orléans had the youthful François-Marie Arouet, then 23 years old, locked up in the Bastille on his orders. After eleven months, he was still locked up. In jail, he adopted the pen name Voltaire and started work on his masterpiece, Oedipus.
October 1747: The “Encyclopédie” project is launched
Diderot’s ambition to compile all of humanity’s knowledge led to the publication of the first encyclopedia. Diderot and d’Alembert, the project’s directors, gathered several writers, including Montesquieu, Buffon, and Voltaire, to work on the encyclopedia together.
It took 20 years from 1751, when the first two volumes were published, until 1851, when the last volume of the Encyclopédie was released. Because Diderot intended to make education accessible to everyone, including the illiterate, he included several drawings throughout the book.
1748: Montesquieu publishes “The Spirit of Laws”
The Spirit of Laws (De l’esprit des loix), 1st edn. 1748.
A discussion of the separation of powers and other topics important to political philosophy were presented in this work (monarchy, despotism, democracy). This is why Montesquieu was so against absolute monarchy and advocated for the separation of powers seen in the English system. The Spirit of the Laws was published in Geneva without the author’s identity, perhaps to circumvent censorship. There are a total of 31 books.
July 24, 1749: Diderot is imprisoned in Vincennes
Diderot wrote “Letter on the Blind for the use of those who can see” (“Lettre sur les aveugles à l’usage de ceux qui voient”) in 1749, in which he argued that each person’s view of the world is unique due to their individual sensitivity. Because of his atheistic outlook, he ended up spending three months in a cell in Vincennes. Jean-Jacques Rousseau paid him a number of visits.
February 7, 1752: The Encyclopédie is censored
First two volumes of Diderot’s Encyclopédie appeared in print in 1752. The King’s Council, however, found fault with them because they encouraged rebellion and independence and included sections that sought to undermine royal authority.
The first two volumes were consequently deemed unsuitable for public consumption by the Council of State. Malesherbes (who oversaw the censorship) was instrumental in allowing publishing to restart in 1753.
March 1755: Publication of the “Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men”
Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s vision of humanity and his thoughts on its potential for improvement were the subject of this article. He went on to blame the idea of private property for all forms of inequality and injustice. When this speech was published, Rousseau was religiously condemned by the Catholic Church for denying the reality of original sin.
September 3, 1759 – Pope Clement XIII condemns Diderot’s Encyclopédie
Unfortunately, the church did not approve of the first two volumes of the Encyclopédie before they were released. They both challenged the veracity of certain religious miracles and competed with the Dictionnaire de Trévoux, which the Jesuits were printing at the same time. The encyclopedists, encouraged by Malesherbes, proceeded to issue volumes until the seventh was issued, at which point Pope Clement XIII ordered the destruction of the whole work.
1761-Rousseau tries to publish his “Social Contract”
Rousseau’s life was marked by a raging dispute that began with the publication of the Social Contract in the same year as Emile or, On Education. The philosopher, in fact, adopted a free and equitable approach to the idea of popular sovereignty. Officials in Geneva demanded that copies of the Social Contract be destroyed in 1762.
1762: First draft of “Rameau’s Nephew”
In the Rameau’s Nephew, Diderot’s philosophical debate “Moi” and “Lui,” the nephew of musician Rameau, were the protagonists. Two main characters discussed atheism, materialism, and the similarities and contrasts between humans and other animals, among other topics. In this tale, Diderot explored morality from several angles, including those of education, music, and society.
August 1769: Diderot writes “D’Alembert’s Dream”
There were three conversations in this intellectual work, “le Rêve de d’Alembert”. The first, “Entretien entre D’Alembert et Diderot,” was where the writer laid out his materialist beliefs for everyone to see. “D’Alembert’s Dream,” the sequel, was where Diderot fully articulated his philosophy about the nature of dreaming, reality, myth, and illusion. In the third, titled “Suite de l’entretien entre D’Alembert et Diderot,” the authors discussed ethical dilemmas. It wasn’t until 1830, after the author’s death, that the book saw print.
1772 – Publication of the “Supplément au voyage de Bougainville” (Addendum to the Journey of Bougainville)
Denis Diderot’s philosophic novel was a sequel to “Voyage autour du monde” from the previous year. The two protagonists, A and B, have an open debate regarding various parts of the journey. There was a focus on the contrast between the liberalism of Tahitian values and the stultifying norms of the Enlightenment.
August 25, 1776-Death of David Hume, Scottish philosopher
David Hume was born in 1711 and died on August 25, 1776; he was a Scottish philosopher, economist, and historian. He was one of the leading intellectuals of the so-called “Scottish Enlightenment.” He was an early advocate of using scientific experimentation to better understand and cure mental disorders, and is generally regarded as one of the most skeptical thinkers in history. He had a key influence on Kant, analytical philosophy, and phenomenology, in contrast to Descartes.
May 30, 1778-Death of Voltaire, French writer and philosopher
Voltaire, or François Marie Arouet, was a French philosopher and author who lived from 1694 until his death on May 30, 1778. He was a prominent member of the philosophical party, which advocated for a more enlightened and tolerant form of monarchy and served as a symbol of the Enlightenment. Throughout his life, he sought the favor of many kings, only to find himself alternatively imprisoned in the Bastille and exiled to England due to his shifting ties with these rulers. His massive body of work includes such classics as “Zadig,” “Candide,” and “Treatise on Tolerance.”
July 2, 1778 – Death of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, French writer and philosopher
Some of the most important Enlightenment ideas came from Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who was born in 1712 and died on July 2, 1778. He wrote extensively on human nature, social organization, and educational theory, and his ideas had a significant impact on the French revolutionaries. The author of canonical works including “Discourse on Inequality,” “Julie or the New Heloise,” and “On the Social Contract,” and in 1794, his remains were moved to the Pantheon by the revolutionaries.
Food safety rules are usually called into question in the wake of health problems in the meat sector, such as mad cow disease, hand-foot-and-mouth disease, and avian flu. Nonetheless, this kind of inquiry is not novel. In fact, the West has been monitoring and regulating food, particularly meat, since the Middle Ages due to concerns about the presence of unhealthy and corrupt meat. Media coverage of meat crises sometimes draws parallels to the “medieval” era, but what about the real hygiene standards of the actual Middle Ages?
Laws to Regulate Butchery in the Middle Ages
Avoiding the potential dangers associated with consuming meat was a top priority for the ruling classes of the medieval western world. But even though these threats were often misdiagnosed or not taken seriously in other ways, they caused a lot of worry and anxiety.
A medieval baker punished for breaking the rules.
A complex and fruitful legal system was the end result of this. Lords, municipalities, and even the monarch himself, on rare occasions, issued decrees to maintain public peace and safety. Rather than being only suggestions, they were actual “laws” that had to be discussed (sometimes bitterly) and came with enforcement mechanisms like checks and balances and penalties for breaking them.
Most medieval texts on meat distribution were written between 1200 and 1500 AD.
The Charter of Mirepoix, enacted in 1303 AD, is a prime example of the kind of meat regulation that was common in the Middle Ages. The fact that it was signed in front of the city lord, notaries, law professors, city officials, and all the butchers of the city shows that King Philip IV of France knew about the legal, economic, and political issues surrounding food.
This charter was not even exceptional. Most medieval texts on meat distribution were written between 1200 and 1500 AD. In the urban centers of southern France and Italy, it was mostly the work of municipal leaders to standardize the sale of meat. Legal matters were taken up by medieval guilds in the northern hemisphere, such as the Parisian butcher’s shop, whose bylaws were enforced upon all butchers in the city.
From the 13th century forward, medieval European society placed a greater emphasis on food law, which was formed in a disjointed and ad hoc fashion by a variety of means, including conventions, ordinances, capitulations, charters, laws, etc. Sometimes, the enforcement of this legislation was harsh.
Animal Products That Were Forbidden
While Christians have not been bound by the dietary taboos that Jews and Muslims observe, there are still times when it’s best to steer clear of animal products for the sake of public health. People in the Middle Ages often consulted Greek and Roman historians like Hippocrates and Galen to help them figure this out.
In the Middle Ages, animals were the target of two legal restrictions. The first involved goats, which had more to do with making dairy products than anything else. Goat meat was devalued in the cities because, according to Hippocrates, it was thought to spread illnesses like fever and cholera. Despite health concerns, the selling of kids (baby goats) was sometimes allowed. And this was justified by the prevailing desire for its flavor.
Horse meat was the second kind of meat that was never allowed in the Middle Ages. The Church viewed its consumption as a primitive and paganic act, but the common man saw the animal as a work buddy helping to plow the fields or even as a confidant. Therefore, the practice of eating horse meat gained a bad reputation during the era.
So, butchers could sell sheep, cattle, and pork meat from their shops as long as the meat was “excellent, useful, and not sick,” according to Middle Ages meat consumption charters.
Since medical advancement was so slow during this period, any and all prohibitions could be instituted at the first sign of a disease. Disease transmission from animals to humans was a major issue for medieval man when it came to the safety of food sources. People went to great lengths to prevent illnesses like leprosy (from Leptospira bacteria).
Medieval Practices for Slaughter and Sales
The slaughtering of animals was subject to some of the most stringent hygienic regulations in the Middle Ages with regard to meat. Among the various regulations, one that stands out is the requirement that animals enter the city on foot and go through sanitary control before being butchered.
As early as 1450, butchers in the Italian city of Verona were compelled to kill animals in their shops, albeit they were typically not permitted to do so in their homes and had to instead utilize public slaughterhouses. The administration further worked on improving the regulation by creating a physical barrier between the slaughterhouse and the market. The animals had to get to these places on their own, which gave the buyer confidence that they were in good health.
Each animal was charged as it entered the city, with the tax system providing additional financial support for sanitary regulations. The animals were then given a thorough internal and external checkup to make sure they were healthy before being put to death. After that, butchers could still slaughter animals and sell them, but they had to follow more rules.
The sale of any perishable item required special attention, and the meat was no exception. Due to the impossibility of storing goods and the rigidity of sales windows, butchers operated on a just-in-time, demand-driven model. These deadlines were often two or three days, or at the very latest, a day and a half, after the animal was slaughtered.
Butchers were allowed to store freshly slaughtered meat for two days in the winter and one and a half days in the summer. Moreover, beef was not the only product that was subject to tight standards at the moment of sale; bread, milk, fish, and shellfish were all subject to similar rules. It was against the law for pork butchers and sausage makers to sell cooked meat. This was done to stop the sale of leftovers and the spread of disease.
After Everything Is Said and Done
So, is it fair to compare any contemporary meat scandals to the butchery standards of the Middle Ages? The laws regarding the sale and consumption of meat in the Middle Ages were impressive, but there could be a significant discrepancy between theory and practice, leaving historians to wonder whether these standards were ever really respected by the medieval butchers. But the reality is that maintaining hygienic standards seems to have been a priority for medieval civilization, a concern that echoes the persistent fiction of a meat-related phobia in contemporary culture.
The Peace of Westphalia (Treaties of Westphalia) are a set of three foundational documents that signal the conclusion of the Thirty Years’ War and the Eighty Years’ War, respectively, between European nations. On January 30, 1648, the first of many agreements was signed. The Treaties of Osnabrück and the Second Treaty of Münster, signed on October 24, 1648, marked the conclusion of the talks. The diplomatic ties between nations were altered as a result of this historical event. Major shifts in territorial control also occurred.
What events led to the Peace of Westphalia?
As part of the Thirty Years’ War, Protestant German nations opposed the Holy Roman Empire and its allies. Between four and seven million people perished, while another 130,000-160,000 went missing.
During the Eighty Years’ War, the Spanish Monarchy and the independent United Provinces of the Netherlands were at war with one another.
The root reasons of both wars were complex, including religion, politics, and territory. These conflicts encompassed almost every major European state and monarchy. France, Austria, Hungary, and even Norway were especially crucial examples. Before the Treaties of Westphalia, Europe was dominated by two powerful states: the French and Swedish monarchies. After the treaties were ratified, the two later groups benefited the most. It was mostly because of political and religious repercussions that caused this.
How were the Peace Treaties of Westphalia negotiated and drafted?
Münster, Germany was the site of the first talks. They happened toward the end of 1644. They moved to Osnabrück, Germany the next year. A number of problems emerged throughout these efforts at reconciliation, and not only because of religious differences. Separatism of certain regions, such as the Netherlands’ United Provinces, was one of them.
In addition to political interests and geographical sovereignty, there were additional obstacles that prevented a universal signing. Most of Europe’s countries were represented, excluding Russia, the Ottoman Empire, and England. The Treaties of Westphalia formalized the first large-scale union of European nations and established the foundation for the mutual respect that has since characterized international relations in the region. Furthermore, Western Christian ideals were cast aside in favor of state supremacy.
Which articles did the Peace of Westphalia contain?
The Peace of Westphalia consisted of three texts:
The Treaty of Münster, which was signed on January 30, 1648, ended the war between the United Provinces and the Spanish Empire. This country recognized the United Provinces’ independence and kept some of the Spanish Netherlands’ land. A high international court of justice was also called for in the text. In 1675, it was broken up. The treaty also tried to speed up decision-making, which was needed to keep fines from being put in place.
As for the second document of the Treaty of Münster, it was signed on October 1648. It served as a reminder of the peace treaty between the French monarchy and the Holy Roman Empire. The latter gave up the province of the Three Bishoprics as well as the regions of Alsace and several fortresses in Lorraine like Moyenvic. The German princes maintained their lands and continued to be subject to the legislation of the Holy Roman Empire, notwithstanding Alsace’s allegiance.
The Treaty of Osnabrück was confirmed between the Holy Roman Empire and the Kingdom of Sweden on 24 October 1648, four months after it was first signed on 4 September 1648. It was the final paragraph of the Treaties of Westphalia and puts a definitive end to the Thirty Years’ War.
Peace of Westphalia established what norms for international relations?
The Peace of Westphalia laid the groundwork for the contemporary political structure of Europe. It was the first time when the leading politicians and nations of Europe came together. Decentralization was the implication.
As a result, leaders or their agents were given more leeway in making decisions and carrying out administrative duties. By signing the eponymous treaties, each state was able to gain the legitimacy and acceptance of its peers, a necessary step in establishing a “Westphalian” system. The discussion of religion was shelved in order to make room for equal rights. The old order, which had made Christianity in the West a unifying symbol, was not on the forefront anymore.
The Treaties of Westphalia represented a major shift for nations and kingdoms in international relations. Norms were established to guarantee neutral discussions, uninfluenced by any dominant political or religious system, such as a monarchy or the Christian faith. There was less wiggle space for the monarchs, and the idea of the people began to gain traction.
How did the Holy Roman Empire restructure in the German case?
Because to the Treaties of Westphalia, the Holy Roman Empire had to be restructured from the ground up. After that, it was split up into 350 individual German states, which boosted the authority of the regional leaders (the princes) and weakened the Habsburg dynasty. “Territorial supremacy” describes this situation well. It extended to theological, temporal, and civil affairs. The Imperial Diet (governmental body) was tasked with resolving any and all potential disputes and alliances, as well as handling any other matters of state. It is important to understand that the imperial cities were also subject to this arrangement.
What effects did the Peace of Westphalia have on religion?
The Lutheran, Calvinist, and Catholic faiths were all acknowledged as legitimate by the Peace of Westphalia. Protestants, like everyone else, were guaranteed the right to worship freely. More so, Lutherans were given the same rights as Calvinists. There were at least 24 Protestants in the Imperial Chamber of fifty, and ecclesiastical authority was abolished. That is to say, the Treaties of Westphalia made it illegal to meddle with people’s religious practices. This was a historic first for international relations in general. No nation’s religious affiliation was held against it as a whole.
HIGHLIGHTS OF PEACE OF WESTPHALIA
August 20, 1648 – Last battle of the Thirty Years’ War
Archduke Leopold-Guillaume of Habsburg had taken the town of Lens three days before to the conflict. The Thirty Years’ War ended with this last combat. On August 20, 1648, it opposed the kingdom of France against the Spanish Monarchy. More than 4,500 people were killed or injured in the conflict. There were almost 5,000 Spanish prisoners of war taken by the victorious Kingdom of France.
January 30, 1648: The independence of the United Provinces is recognized in the Treaty of Münster
The peace of Münster, the first of the Westphalian treaties to be signed, formalized the Spanish monarchy’s recognition of the independence of the United Provinces of the Netherlands. The Thirty Years’ War between the two sides ended as a result of this. This new nation was now politically autonomous on the European scale, apart from the Spanish Netherlands.
Treaties of Westphalia were released to the public on October 24, 1648
On October 24, 1648, the Treaties of Westphalia were published after the signing of the second Treaty of Münster and the Treaty of Osnabrück. They declared a shift in European geopolitics and the establishment of more egalitarian international relations that put religion to one side. The agreements also limited the desires of nations and monarchies to expand their territories.
The Thirty Years’ War corresponds to a series of religious and political conflicts that unfolded in Europe from May 23, 1618, to October 24, 1648. It witnessed the clash of two factions: the Catholic Habsburgs of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, and the Protestant princes of the German states within the Holy Roman Empire. Most European nations participated in this war, resulting in significant human casualties, estimated at between 4 and 7 million deaths.
The Peace of Westphalia, signed in October 1648, marks the conclusion of the Thirty Years’ War. Germany officially divided its religious and political powers, with France emerging as a dominant force in European relations, while Spain underwent a perilous decline.
Why Did the Thirty Years’ War Take Place?
Martin Luther in 1528 by Lucas Cranach the Elder.
The Protestant Reformation has its origins in the “95 Theses,” drafted by Martin Luther in 1517. Protestantism then spread to Prussia and the Northern countries; Germanic princes converted. In 1555, the signing of the Peace of Augsburg confirmed that two religions could coexist in Germany: Lutherans and Catholics.
The Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, considered his failure to protect Catholicism and withdrew from political life in 1556. His brother, Ferdinand I, inherited the Empire, and his son inherited the Kingdom of Spain. For years, the ideas of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation spread across Europe.
However, on May 23, 1618, Bohemian Protestants revolted against their new Catholic king. The recently elected king has decided to Catholicize his kingdom, leading to a dispute where representatives of the Catholic empire are thrown out of windows. This event, known as the Defenestration of Prague, marks the beginning of the Thirty Years’ War.
In 1619, Emperor Matthias I died, and his cousin, Ferdinand II, who was also the King of Bohemia, was elected to lead the Holy Roman Empire. Dissatisfied, the Bohemians elect a new king, and the Elector Palatine, Frederick V. Ferdinand II, intervenes to crush the rebellion.
Who Fought in the Thirty Years’ War?
Battle of White Mountain. Artist: Peter Snayers (1592–1667)
The religious conflict of the Thirty Years’ War began in Germany, stemming from the Bohemian uprising. The Protestant princes of the Evangelical Union (including the Elector Palatine, the Duke of Neuburg, and the Duke of Wurttemberg, among others) rose against the Catholic Holy League (including the Emperor, the Kingdom of Spain, Saxony, Poland, Bavaria, etc.). The Bohemian army was crushed in the Battle of White Mountain on November 8, 1620.
In late 1624, the King of Denmark supported the Protestants, but his army faced defeat, leading to the signing of the Peace of Lübeck in 1629. In the same year, the King of Sweden intervened in solidarity with the Lutherans, but he died in 1632 during the Battle of Lützen.
Emperor Ferdinand II secured the Peace of Prague on May 30, 1635, returning to the status quo of the Peace of Augsburg. Louis XIII‘s France, surrounded by the Habsburgs, saw advantages in weakening the empire. France entered the war in 1635 alongside Sweden, after covert involvement for years.
The Spanish were defeated by Grand Condé in the Battle of Rocroi on May 19, 1643. The war persisted until 1648, concluding with the Battle of Lens, a French victory against the Habsburgs of the Netherlands.
Alsace and Lorraine During the Thirty Years’ War
Alsace and Lorraine were among the regions most severely affected by the Thirty Years’ War. They were devastated by the passage of several armies, including Swedish, Spanish, and French troops.
Confusion is fueled by residents turning to banditry to escape poverty. Different nations employ mercenaries, which are sometimes challenging to control. The price of wheat reaches unprecedented heights, forcing residents to subsist on roots and herbs. Twenty years of famine, epidemics, and exodus have led to a decrease of half or even three-quarters of the population in these regions.
Did Massacres Take Place During the Thirty Years’ War?
The Thirty Years’ War resulted in between 4 and 7 million casualties, comprising both military personnel and civilians. Various armies engaged in atrocities, such as massacres, rapes, and tortures, often driven by a desire for revenge. An illustrative incident is the sack of Magdeburg in 1631, where Catholic League troops brutally killed 25,000 out of the city’s 30,000 inhabitants.
In 1635, the women of a village sought refuge atop a mountain, subsequently choosing suicide upon the approach of Swedish forces, leading to the naming of the mountain in the Vosges as the “Planche des Belles Filles.” Mercenaries, when faced with negligible or non-existent pay, resorted to self-remuneration through the perpetration of similar atrocities.
Aftermath of Thirty Years’ War
Peace of Münster (Gerard ter Borch, Münster, 1648).
After the treaties of Westphalia, signed on October 24, 1648, Germany was the most affected country, and some of its provinces (Saxony, Palatinate, Alsace, Lorraine) lost up to half of their population. It was not less than one in five inhabitants that disappeared in this war-torn Central Europe. Sweden, France, and Spain also struggled economically to recover, even though France gained new territories (Metz, Toul, Verdun, part of Alsace, Belfort, Artois, and Roussillon) and became a hegemonic power.
Meanwhile, Sweden solidified its power in the Baltic and acquired several territories. Denmark lost its status as a major power. The Holy Roman Empire was divided into numerous small independent states, and a new religious peace was established. Bohemia remains the hereditary territory of the Habsburgs. Switzerland and the United Provinces (Netherlands) gained their independence.
The power of the Kingdom of Spain, on the other hand, began to decline, along with the supremacy of the Habsburgs. France continued the war against Spain until the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. Peace was restored with the marriage of Louis XIV and Maria Theresa of Spain.
Timeline of Thirty Years’ War
May 23, 1618: The Defenestration of Prague
A group of Czech Protestants goes to the royal castle in Prague, attacks the king’s representatives, and throws two of his lieutenants out of the window. The unrest stems from the issue of the succession of King Mathias, who designated the Duke Ferdinand of Styria as an uncompromising Catholic. The two thrown-out individuals land in a pile of manure and escape unharmed, but this event marks the beginning of the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648).
November 8, 1620: Battle of White Mountain
Bohemian Protestants are crushed by the German troops of the Walloon Count Jean de Tilly, west of Prague. The Protestant revolt had risen against Emperor Ferdinand II of Habsburg, who aimed to curtail the freedom of the insurgents. Following this battle, the sovereign would impose severe repression against the Protestants and annex the region until 1918.
1621: The Dutch Republic Resumes War with Spain
The Prince of Orange, Maurice of Nassau, seizes the opportunity presented by the end of the twelve-year truce signed in 1609 to reignite the conflict against Spain. In this context, the Dutch Republic would join France in the Thirty Years’ War. Maurice of Nassau would not participate for long, as he died in 1625. His brother, Frederick Henry of Nassau, would take up the mantle and contribute to the recognition of the independence of the Dutch Republic by Spain in 1648.
March 31, 1621: Death of Philip III of Spain
After being ill for several years, Philip III, King of Spain, Portugal, and the Algarves, died on March 31, 1621, from dehydration. While the sovereign complained about the heat, there was no one by his side to extinguish the fireplace. His son Philip IV succeeded him. Particularly devout, Philip IV spent his reign in prayer and expended a significant part of the royal fortune on the extravagances of his court.
March 31, 1621: Start of the Reign of Philip IV of Spain
Following his father Philip III’s death, the Prince of Asturias became the King of Spain, Portugal, and the Two Sicilies on March 31, 1621, under the title of Philip IV. Born in 1605, this king, now known as Philip the Great, used his early years in power to strengthen the Habsburg power in Europe. Until the end of his reign in 1665, Philip IV was a great patron and collector.
July 10, 1621: Death of the Count of Bucquoy
A master of defensive warfare, Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy, was also a lord in the Spanish Netherlands. Born in 1571, he distinguished himself at the beginning of the Thirty Years’ War in the service of the Holy Roman Empire. He achieved many victories but lost his life on July 10, 1621, at the siege of Neuhäusl, or Nové Zàmky in Slovakia, against the troops of the Prince of Transylvania, Gabriel Bethlen.
August 4, 1621: Invasion of Livonia by Sweden
On August 4, 1621, the Livonian region, then part of Poland, was invaded by King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and his armed forces. The two nations had been at war since 1600 due to the claims of the King of Poland, Sigismund III Vassa, to the Swedish throne. Through this forceful invasion, Sweden conquered Livonia, the region around Riga, and Courland.
February 25, 1628: Start of the War of the Mantuan Succession
The Thirty Years’ War unfolded in Europe from 1618 to 1648 and pitted the French against the Habsburgs on the southern front. They vie for the succession of the Duchy of Mantua, north of Italy, after the extinction of the elder branch of the Gonzaga in 1627. In 1628, Louis XIII and Richelieu crossed the Alps and delivered Mantua in 1630. The duchy will go to the Dukes of Nevers, a French branch.
July 7, 1628: Start of the Siege of the City of Stralsund by Wallenstein
Siege of Stralsund (1628)
Following the Defenestration of Prague in 1618, Europe was plunged into the Thirty Years’ War. The Duke of Friedland, Albrecht Wallenstein, the supreme commander of the armies of the Holy Roman Empire, created an army of 50,000 men in 1623. After some notable actions, he began the siege of the Hanseatic city of Stralsund, a German city in Mecklenburg-Pomerania. Wallenstein will be forced to lift it after eleven weeks due to a lack of reinforcements.
May 22, 1629: Signing of the Treaty of Lübeck
The Treaty of Lübeck was signed in the city of the same name, located in northern Germany, on May 22, 1629. The parties involved were the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II and the King of Denmark, Christian IV. The Peace of Lübeck followed the invasion of Danish lands by Catholic armies.
According to the terms of the peace, Denmark was compelled to refrain from interfering in the wars of the Holy Roman Empire; prisoners from each side were to be released; and both parties also waived the damages caused by the conflict.
September 25, 1629: Signing of the Treaty of Altmark
The Treaty of Altmark was signed following the defeat of the Swedes against Imperial and Polish-Lithuanian forces at Honigfelde, near Stuhm, where Gustavus Adolphus narrowly escaped capture. The truce was signed for six years under the diplomatic influence of Richelieu.
The Swedes now occupied the entire Baltic coastline. On September 25, 1629, Poland ceded several ports in East Prussia, including Königsberg, and the customs revenues of Danzig to the Livonian region along the Dvina. In exchange, Sweden returned the Duchy of Prussia, excluding the coastal territory.
July 6, 1630: Sweden Enters the Thirty Years’ War
In the midst of the Thirty Years’ War, King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden negotiated the Treaty of Barwald with France, securing diplomatic and military support in the Baltic region. After several victorious battles against Poland and the Baltic provinces, he landed in Pomerania on July 6, 1630, and deployed his army, the Hakkapélites. He consolidated his positions for almost a year and achieved another victory against the Catholic League’s army, notably at the Battle of Breitenfeld in 1631. His army advanced to the Danube.
November 1630: Beginning of the Siege of Magdeburg
The Holy Roman Empire’s army began the Siege of Magdeburg, the capital of Saxony-Anhalt. This Protestant city was a key player in the Hanseatic League, dominating European trade at the time. Despite its strong fortifications, Magdeburg resisted Catholic forces until the arrival of King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who had been achieving military victories since entering the conflict.
Nevertheless, the city fell in 1631 to the Imperial army, resulting in the massacre of its inhabitants and the complete destruction of the city, an event so brutal that the term “Magdeburgization (Sack of Magdeburg)” became synonymous with total destruction.
December 1, 1630: George I Rákóczi Becomes Voivode of Transylvania
George I Rákóczi, son of Sigismund II Rákóczi, became the Prince of Transylvania, known as “voivode,” on December 1, 1630. Although the throne was supposed to go to his brother Stephen III Bethlen, the support of Catherine of Brandenburg, a powerful woman in the nobility, worked in George’s favor. He married Zsuzsanna Lorántffy, who bore him two sons to succeed him.
During the Thirty Years’ War, the voivode sided with the Protestants, fighting alongside France and Sweden against the Holy Roman Empire. He preserved religious freedom in western Hungary and maintained Transylvania’s independence.
January 23, 1631: Signing of the Treaty of Barwald between France and Sweden
In 1631, King Louis XIII of France decided to support King Gustave Adolphe II of Sweden in his struggle against the Holy Roman Empire. This marked France’s entry into the Thirty Years’ War against the Habsburgs. On January 23, the two sovereigns signed the Treaty of Barwald, establishing a political, military, and commercial alliance.
Cardinal Richelieu was able to equip the rapidly expanding royal navy because of the materials the Swedes provided. Sweden also committed to leading an army of 30,000 soldiers and 6,000 knights in Germany. In return, France incurred a debt of 1.5 million livres tournois per year to Sweden. This treaty lasted until the restoration of peace.
April 6, 1631: End of the War of the Mantuan Succession—Treaty of Cherasco
The War of the Mantuan Succession, a peripheral conflict of the Thirty Years’ War, pitted the French against the Habsburgs over the possession of Mantua after the extinction of the Gonzaga line and the vacancy of the duchy. After several battles, the conflicts of the Thirty Years’ War forced the belligerents to focus on matters other than Mantua. Pope Urban VIII intervened and sent a mediator, Jules Mazarin, who later became Cardinal Mazarin.
The Treaty of Cherasco was signed on April 6, 1631. The disputed territory was divided between the opposing parties, and France received a strategically important fortress, Pinerolo, providing access to the plain of the Italian river Po.
September 17, 1631: Protestant Victory at the Battle of Breitenfeld
The Battle of Breitenfeld marked the first significant victory for the Protestants under Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden against the Catholics under General Tilly during the Thirty Years’ War. The two armies clashed on September 17, 1631, near Breitenfeld, north of Leipzig. Despite seven charges by the light cavalry of Count Pappenheim, the squadrons of cavalry interspersed with musket-armed infantry under Gustavus Adolphus eventually routed the Catholic army.
This victory led other Protestant states to join Sweden, demonstrating that the well-equipped and pike-heavy Imperial armies could be defeated by mobile troops and the power of firearms.
April 19, 1632: Death of King Sigismund III Vasa of Poland and Sweden
After the death of Stephen Bathory I, Sigismund III of the Vasa dynasty was elected King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania in 1587, despite the claims of Maximilian III of Austria. Sigismund was also to succeed his father on the throne of Sweden and was crowned in Uppsala in 1594, with the condition that the country could remain Protestant.
He then returned to Poland and sought an alliance with the Habsburgs to lead the Central European powers in a war against the Turks. During his absence, his uncle worked to gain power in Sweden, and after a short succession war, Sigismund had to relinquish the throne and leave Sweden, paving the way for several Polish-Swedish wars.
From 1605 to 1618, he led his army into Russia, gaining several territories in the Smolensk region. When the Thirty Years’ War broke out in 1618, he sided with the Catholics. His son, Ladislaus IV, succeeded him in this struggle.
April 30, 1632: Death of General Tilly, Commander-in-Chief of the Holy Roman Empire’s Armies
Jean t’Serclaes, Count of Tilly, served as the Commander-in-Chief of the armies of the Catholic League and the Holy Roman Empire during the Thirty Years’ War. Born in 1559, he was raised in the Catholic faith and by the Jesuits.
He won significant battles, such as the Battle of Stadtlohn against Christian of Brunswick in 1623 and the Battle of Lutter in 1626 against Christian IV of Denmark, who later signed the Peace of Lübeck. In August 1630, he was appointed Commander-in-Chief after the dismissal of Wallenstein.
He was responsible for the sack and near-destruction of Magdeburg, which he besieged in 1631 against Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and later suffered defeat against the Swedes at Breitenfeld. While attempting to oppose their advance towards Munich, he was wounded at the Battle of Rain am Lech and died on April 30, 1632.
November 6, 1632: Death of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden at the Battle of Lützen
Near Leipzig in Saxony-Anhalt, Generalissimo Wallenstein’s army of the Holy Roman Empire faced Protestant armies under Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, during the Thirty Years’ War. The Battle of Lützen would be one of the most significant, as the King of Sweden met his death. Upon learning of the approach of the Swedes, Wallenstein sent a message to General Pappenheim, asking him to join with his troops.
Pappenheim’s forces immediately departed, but they were 40 kilometers away from Wallenstein. The next day, the battle favored the Swedes, but Pappenheim arrived with reinforcements of 3,000 cavalry. He succumbed during the first charge, and shortly after noon, King Gustavus Adolphus was also fatally wounded during another charge. However, this did not prevent the Protestants from continuing and winning the battle, ultimately securing the protection of Saxony from the Emperor.
November 6, 1632: Accession to the Throne of Queen Christina of Sweden
King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden was mortally wounded at the Battle of Lützen on November 16, 1632. Foresighted and having only one daughter, he had ensured that she could succeed him by abolishing the exclusively male succession in 1627.
Christina of Sweden, barely 6 years old, thus ascended to the throne. She remained under the tutelage of Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna until her majority in 1644. Queen Christina then dismissed her guardian and advocated for lasting peace after the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. This treaty, which granted Sweden numerous territories, made Sweden the leading power in the Nordic region.
She abdicated in 1654 and secretly converted to Catholicism before being welcomed in Italy, where Pope Alexander VII gave her communion.
November 8, 1632: Election of Ladislaus IV Vasa to the Throne of Poland and the Beginning of His Reign
Ladislaus IV, the only son of Sigismund III of Poland and a member of the Vasa dynasty, was elected King of Poland by the Diet, the assembly of Polish nobles, on November 8, 1632. At 15 years old, while his father fought the Russian army and took Moscow, Ladislaus was proclaimed Tsar by a small faction of the boyars, but the Russians rejected this nomination and revolted against the 3,000 Polish soldiers stationed at the Kremlin.
Although defeated, Ladislaus claimed the title of Tsar of Russia until 1634. He also fought against the Ottomans in 1621 and then against the Swedes from 1626 to 1629, establishing himself as a defender of Catholicism. He even dreamed of leading a crusade to regain the Balkans, then under Ottoman rule.
On November 8, 1632, the Diet elected Ladislaus as King of Poland. He proclaimed Poland neutral during the Thirty Years’ War, although he later married Archduchess Cecilia Renata of the Habsburgs.
December 1, 1633: Death of the Spanish Infanta, Archduchess of Austria, and Governor of the Spanish Netherlands
Born in 1566, Isabella Clara Eugenia of Austria, from the Habsburg dynasty, was the daughter of King Philip II of Spain and the granddaughter of King Henry II of France. She could claim the throne of Spain, as well as that of France and the Duchy of Brittany. Faced with opposition, she received the throne of the Netherlands in dowry through her marriage to Albert of Austria, the son of Emperor Maximilian II.
Her court included renowned artists like Rubens and Brueghel. The couple managed to establish peace between the Protestant Netherlands and Catholic Spain, fostering economic prosperity. Albert died in 1621, and Isabella died on December 1, 1633, after ensuring a period of calm. In 1648, the Treaty of Westphalia marked the end of the Thirty Years’ War, and the Netherlands would be definitively separated from the Spanish crown.
1634: Beginning of the Ten Years’ War in Franche-Comté
While the Thirty Years’ War raged in Europe, the territory of Franche-Comté was peaceful and under Spanish rule. King Philip II of Spain died in 1598, leaving the Netherlands and Franche-Comté to his daughter, Infanta Isabella of Spain, and her husband Albert of Austria. Isabella renewed the neutrality pact concerning Franche-Comté with France in 1611, a pact to be respected until at least 1640.
After Isabella and her husband passed away, Franche-Comté’s fate fell into the hands of Philip IV of Spain. As the Holy Roman Empire achieved several victories, Cardinal Richelieu pointed out to King Louis XIII of France that Burgundy and Franche-Comté would be easy to conquer. Concerned about the Catholic advance, Louis XIII broke the neutrality pact in 1634 and sent an army of 25,000 led by the Prince of Condé.
The Ten Years’ War had begun and would only end in 1644 after France ceased hostilities in exchange for 40,000 ecus.
February 25, 1634: Assassination of General Wallenstein After Being Accused by Emperor Ferdinand II
During the Thirty Years’ War, Commander Wallenstein assembled a large army of nearly 50,000 men to fight on behalf of Emperor Ferdinand II. After some dazzling victories, he retired to Bohemia, near Pilsen, to reflect on his actions with astrologers and doctors. It is acknowledged that he negotiated with enemy powers to be placed on the throne of Bohemia, thereby threatening the emperor’s succession by his son Ferdinand III.
Wallenstein believed that his army would not dare to turn against him. However, an edict accusing him of high treason was published in Prague on February 18, 1634, and Wallenstein fled to Eger to seek protection from the Swedish army stationed there. A regiment of Irish and Scottish dragoons was dispatched, assassinating him on the night of February 25. Wallenstein was replaced by his lieutenants, Piccolomini and Gallas. He remains the true founder of the Austrian army and the unprecedented war tax that facilitated its creation.
5 September 1634: Battle of Nördlingen and Victory of Emperor Ferdinand III of Hungary over the Swedes and Lutherans
Battle of Nördlingen (1634)
The Battle of Lützen on April 19, 1632, marked the victorious death of the Swedish king, Gustavus Adolphus. Despite this Protestant triumph, securing Saxony-Anhalt, the Imperial Spanish army occupied and threatened to advance into Saxony by capturing Regensburg. In response, the Protestants under Gustaf Horn planned a night attack to retake the city.
However, poor troop management resulted in artillery and supply wagons being ahead of the infantry, allowing the enemy forces to prepare. During the Battle of Nördlingen on the night of September 5 to 6, 1634, the Protestant army suffered a significant loss of 12,000 to 14,000 men, and Gustaf Horn was captured.
This marked the first defeat for the Swedes in the Thirty Years’ War, prompting France to openly enter the war against the Holy Roman Empire.
11 October 1634: Schleswig-Holstein Flood in the North Sea caused by the Burchardi Storm
Amid the aftermath of a 1603 plague epidemic and the ongoing Thirty Years’ War, the Schleswig-Holstein region in present-day Germany faced challenges. The North Sea had been turbulent for years, with icebergs damaging coastal dikes in 1625. On the night of October 11 to 12, 1634, the Burchardi Storm generated a storm surge that engulfed a significant part of Strand Island.
This storm surge, or mandränke, caused the deaths of 8,000 to 15,000 people, including two-thirds of Strand’s population. The disappearance of Strand gave rise to new islands: Nordstrand, Pellworm, Halligen Südfall, and Nordstrandischmoor.
16 May 1635: France enters the Thirty Years’ War
France, 17 years into the Thirty Years’ War, declared war on Spain, which had intervened to support the Catholic forces in the Empire. Fearing encirclement by the Catholic Habsburg alliance, France allies with the Protestant armies of the North.
30 May 1635: Signing of the Peace of Prague
The Peace of Prague, signed on May 30, 1635, between Emperor Ferdinand II of the Holy Roman Empire and Elector John George I of Saxony, representing Protestant states in Saxony-Anhalt, ended the civil war aspect of the Thirty Years’ War. The treaty recognized the electoral dignity of Bavaria, and John George I permanently gained Lusatia, a territory northeast of Germany. However, fighting continued with the Swedes and then the French until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.
22 June 1636: Battle of Tornavento and victory of the Franco-Savoyards over the Spanish
In 1636, during the Thirty Years’ War, Cardinal Richelieu convinced Duke Victor Amadeus I of Savoy to launch an offensive on the Spanish Duchy of Milan. A French army crosses the Ticino River but encounters the Spanish army at Tornavento before their Savoyard allies arrive. On June 22, the Spanish attack and the Savoyard army arrived just in time to reverse the outcome.
The Franco-Savoyard army stays for a few days to pillage surrounding villages but ultimately withdraws from Milanese territory. This invasion of Lombardy marks a failure.
2 July 1636: Philip IV of Spain sends his generals to besiege La Capelle in Picardy
Count Jean de Werth, notable in the Battle of Nördlingen, becomes a general in the Holy Roman Empire’s army alongside General Piccolomini. In 1635 and 1636, they were sent to Lorraine, Picardy, and Luxembourg, pillaging the Lower Meuse in July 1636. They besiege the town of La Capelle on July 2, 1636. The invasion sparks a nascent French patriotic spirit, leading to an army of 50,000 that forces Jean de Werth and Piccolomini to retreat.
4 October 1636: Battle of Wittstock and Swedish victory over the Emperor
The Thirty Years’ War pits the Holy Roman Empire against the Protestant Swedes and their allies for control of northern Germany. In 1636, both armies were positioned on either side of the Elbe River. Swedish General Johan Banér crosses his army and meets the Imperial forces near the Scharfenberg hills south of Wittstock.
The Saxon troops are less experienced, and the Swedish artillery is superior. Johan Banér’s army wins the battle, but it has no strategic consequences as Brandenburg refuses to join the Swedes. As a new Imperial army under the command of Matthias Gallas forces the Swedes to retreat to their previous position, they make an unsuccessful attempt to siege Leipzig.
6 October 1636: Victory at Szalonta of Transylvanian Prince George I Rákóczi over the Turks
George I Rákóczi, Prince of Transylvania from 1630 to 1648, ascended to the throne with the support of Catherine of Brandenburg. His first military victory was at Szalonta, where he defeated the Turks on October 6, 1636. George I Rákóczi later intervened in the Thirty Years’ War on the side of the Protestants.
15 February 1637: Death of Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II of Habsburg
Born in 1578, Ferdinand II of Habsburg was raised by Jesuits as a devout Catholic and opponent of Protestantism. His actions provoked the Thirty Years’ War by angering Protestant nobles in Bohemia. He, along with General Tilly, defeated the Protestant army at the Battle of White Mountain in 1620, making Bohemia a territory of the empire.
The Swedes, led by King Gustavus Adolphus II, entered the conflict and defeated them at the Battle of Breitenfeld. Ferdinand II’s reign was consumed by the war, resulting in the demographic and economic ruin of Germany. His son, Ferdinand III of Habsburg, succeeded him upon his death on February 15, 1637.
15 February 1637: Beginning of the Reign of Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand III
The son of Emperor Ferdinand II and Marie Anne of Bavaria, Ferdinand III of Habsburg, was born on July 13, 1608. He became King of Hungary in 1625 and King of Bohemia in 1627 but had to wait until Ferdinand II’s death in 1637 to become the “King of the Romans,” i.e., Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.
During the Thirty Years’ War, he gained fame for his victory over the Swedish Protestants at the Battle of Nördlingen. However, in the following years, he couldn’t fight simultaneously against the Swedes and their French allies. In 1648, he was compelled to sign the Peace of Westphalia, Münster, and Osnabrück, marking the actual end of the Holy Roman Empire’s dominance in Europe.
28 September 1637: Battle of Leucate and French Victory Over the Spanish
Situated south of Narbonne, the Leucate castle served as a stronghold and an observation point for five centuries. During the Thirty Years’ War, the French and Spanish Imperial armies faced off at the castle. The Spanish besieged it, but on September 28, 1637, the French achieved victory, forcing the Spanish to retreat across the border. Following the signing of the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, Louis XIV later demolished the castle.
7 October 1637: Death of Victor Amadeus I, Duke of Savoy and Prince of Piedmont
Born in 1587, Victor Amadeus I was the Duke of Savoy and Prince of Piedmont. He married Christine of France in 1619, and they had seven children. Victor Amadeus faced defeat early in his rule, losing the fortress of Pinerolo and part of Montferrat. Convinced of his royal status, he adopted the title of King of Cyprus, a historical claim of his ancestors. He finally achieved victory at the Battles of Tornavento in 1636 and Mombaldone in 1637 but died a few days later in Vercelli on October 7, 1637.
1 December 1640: Portugal Regains Its Independence
The Portuguese nobility revolted against Spanish rule, restoring the country’s independence. They placed one of their own, John of Braganza, on the throne, who took the name John IV. This followed the death of King Sebastian of Portugal in 1578 and the ascension of Philip II of Habsburg to the Spanish throne.
14 September 1641: The Treaty of Péronne
The Treaty of Péronne, signed on September 14, 1641, between King Louis XIII of France and Honoré II Grimaldi of Monaco, ended the Spanish protectorate and reintegrated the Principality of Monaco into the French sphere. In exchange for the return of Monaco, Louis XIII confiscated Honoré II’s assets in Spain.
9 September 1642: Louis XIII Captures Perpignan from the Spanish
Louis XIII’s army heads to Roussillon to reclaim the region during the Reaper’s War. To retake the Spanish-held city of Perpignan, French forces besieged the area. The siege, from November 4, 1641, to September 9, 1642, ended with the governor’s decision to surrender, as only 500 survivors remained in the city. Louis XIII passed away a few months later.
19 May 1643: Grand Condé Victorious at Rocroi
The French, under the command of the Duke of Enghien, later known as Grand Condé, defeated the Spanish at Rocroi in the Ardennes in a resounding victory during the Thirty Years’ War. The 22-year-old duke displayed military genius, marking France’s return to the international stage after a century of defeats and civil wars.
31 July 1644: Reconquest of Lerida
In 1642, nearly all Catalan cities were under French control. King Philip IV of Spain aimed to reclaim Lleida and launched an offensive on the adjacent plain. However, the French organized and assembled a significant army to oppose him. The Spanish suffered heavy losses and had to wait two years before reconquering Lleida.
18 December 1644: Majority of Queen Christina of Sweden
Queen Christina of Sweden, ascending to the throne due to her father securing the abolition of male exclusivity, took power at the age of 18 on December 18, 1644. She ousted Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna to promote peace and halt conflicts with Denmark.
6 March 1645: Battle of Jankau
On March 6, 1645, the Swedes, en route to Prague, prevailed over Imperial forces in southern Bohemia at the Battle of Jankau. Considered one of the deadliest battles of the Thirty Years’ War, the Imperial cavalry was annihilated, allowing the victorious Swedes to subsequently attack Vienna, leading to a second battle in August of the same year.
3 August 1645: Battle of Nördlingen
The Battle of Nördlingen, part of the Thirty Years’ War, pitted the Holy Roman Empire’s troops against the French. The General Von Mercy-led opposition confronted the Duke of Enghien-led French army. Both sides suffered significant losses, but the death of General Von Mercy concluded the battle, with his troops retreating to the village, resulting in a French victory.
13 August 1645: The Treaty of Brömsebro
The Peace of Brömsebro concluded on August 13, 1645, ending a conflict (the Torstenson War) within the Thirty Years’ War involving Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. Besides concluding the conflict, the treaty included the cancellation of toll taxes for Swedish ships and territorial concessions by Denmark and Norway.
May 1646: First Siege of Lleida
In May 1646, the French, led by Henri de Lorraine-Harcourt, initiated the siege of Lleida, a Spanish city. Only two years had passed since the Spanish had regained the city, and they were determined to defend it vigorously. The siege lasted approximately six months, culminating in the French forces retreating to the nearby town of Balaguer without baggage or artillery.
7 September 1646: Siege of Dunkirk
When Louis II de Bourbon-Condé, Duke of Enghien, took sole command of the Flanders army, he envisioned a brilliant action: the siege of Dunkirk, which the Spanish held for over eighty years. His army, reinforced by Poles and Ukrainians on land and the Dutch at sea, besieged Dunkirk. As the Spanish failed to gain English support, the gates of Dunkirk opened on October 11, 1646.
17 June 1647: End of the Siege of Lleida
On May 12, 1647, the siege of Lleida commenced with the arrival of Louis II de Bourbon-Condé, known as Le Grand Condé. Mazarin, seeking to distance him from France, promised him victory where Henri de Lorraine-Harcourt had failed the previous year: Lleida. Le Grand Condé eagerly accepted the challenge. Immense losses and desertions led to the siege being lifted on June 17, 1647.
20 August 1648: Last Battle of the Thirty Years’ War
On August 20, 1648, the Battle of Lens took place, named after the capture of the city of Lens by Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Habsburg on August 17, 1648. Disappointed by the defeat at the Siege of Lleida, Grand Condé motivated his troops with the motto, “We must conquer or die.” The result was a victory against the Spanish.
8 September 1648: The Independence of the United Provinces is Recognized in the Treaty of Münster
As part of the signing of the Peace of Westphalia treaties, concluding the Thirty Years’ War, the independence of the United Provinces was acknowledged by Spain in the Treaty of Münster. The conflicts between the United Provinces and Spain, which had been ongoing since the revolt of William I of Nassau against the Duke of Alba, have come to an end.
24 October 1648: Publication of the Peace of Westphalia Treaties
Both Catholics and Protestants signed the Peace of Westphalia treaties. The Catholics in Münster on September 8 and the Protestants in Osnabrück on August 6. This marks the conclusion of the Thirty Years’ War. France gained a portion of Alsace, Sweden and Germany acquired territories, while the Netherlands and Switzerland achieved their independence.
Thirty Years’ War at a Glance
What Was the Thirty Years’ War?
The Thirty Years’ War was a protracted conflict fought primarily in Europe from 1618 to 1648. It was primarily a religious war involving Catholic and Protestant states and resulted in significant political and territorial changes.
What Were the Main Causes of the Thirty Years’ War?
The main causes of the war included religious tensions between Catholic and Protestant states, conflicts over political power and territorial control, and a struggle for dominance among European powers.
Which Countries Were Involved in the Thirty Years’ War?
The war involved various European powers, including the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, France, Sweden, Denmark, and the Netherlands. Many smaller states and principalities also played a role in the conflict.
How Did the Protestant Reformation Contribute to the War?
The Protestant Reformation, which had begun in the early 16th century, created deep religious divisions in Europe. Conflicts between Catholic and Protestant states intensified, leading to tensions and sparking the outbreak of the war.
What Was the Significance of the Peace of Westphalia?
The Peace of Westphalia, signed in 1648, marked the end of the Thirty Years’ War. It established a new framework for European diplomacy, recognized the independence and sovereignty of individual states, and granted religious freedom to Protestants.
Bireley, Robert (1976). “The Peace of Prague (1635) and the Counterreformation in Germany”. The Journal of Modern History. 48 (1): 31–69. doi:10.1086/241519. S2CID 143376778.
The European Economic Community was created on March 25, 1957, when officials from the Federal Republic of Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg signed the Treaty of Rome (EEC). This pact, which grew out of work begun inside the ECSC (European Coal and Steel Community, created in 1951), was a significant symbolic step forward in Europe’s integration.
To promote economic cooperation among its member nations, the Treaty of Rome, signed in 1957, established the European Economic Community (EEC). As a result of its incorporation into the foundation of the newly established European Union in 1993, it was rebranded as the European Community (EC).
The Beginnings of the European Economic Community (1957)
In 1951, the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), a European Community body in charge of Europe’s coal and steel sectors, was established. This marked the beginning of the integration of Europe. After the European Defense Community plan fell through, Jean Monnet and Robert Schumann pushed for the formation of a customs union, the European Economic Community (EEC). The plan called for a Parliamentary Assembly (the forerunner to the present European Parliament), a Court of Justice, the Commission (the supranational executive), and the Council of Ministers (the intergovernmental council).
When the new organization was formed, its stated purpose was nothing less than the full economic integration of its member nations into a single market. Free trade between member states (including the elimination of customs duties and the establishment of a common external tariff), free movement of factors of production (capital and labor), free competition, and freedom of enterprise are all stated goals of the European Community Treaty, which was signed in Rome in 1957.
The signature page on the original Treaty of Rome. Credit: Zinneke at CC BY-SA 3.0
To defend the Community’s agriculture against cheap imports and to secure the income of farmers, industrial programs, transport policies, etc., the treaty created a common agricultural policy (CAP) in 1962, which set guaranteed common prices for agricultural and livestock output. Current EU policies are still determined by the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU).
Introducing Europe’s New Institutions
As of January 14, 1958, the pact was legally binding. Many of the EEC’s institutions took their cues from the ECSC, and there were even some overlaps between the two organizations. The ECSC’s “high authority” has been transferred to the Commission, the organization responsible for formulating policies and protecting both the ECSC’s treaties and the interests of the Community.
The decision-making authority rests with the Council of Ministers (the meeting of ministers from each member country for a certain sector, such as agriculture), an intergovernmental rather than supranational organization. The European Economic Community (EEC), the European Community (ECSC), and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) share a number of institutions, including the European Court of Justice (the judicial body) and the Assembly (later called the European Parliament, where citizens of Europe are represented and which holds some legislative power). An additional treaty was negotiated in 1965 with the intention of combining the Commission and the Council of Ministers with the ECSC and Euratom. This treaty entered into effect on January 1, 1967.
On September 20, 1976, the representatives of the governments of the Member States enacted a law instituting universal suffrage for the election of the European Parliament, as stipulated in the Treaty of Rome. In 1979, the first vote was held using this method.
From the EEC to the European Union
Most people would point to the Single European Act, which was signed on February 28, 1986 and entered into effect on July 1, 1987, as the first significant amendment to the treaties. Actually, it’s not just one act, but two: one to amend existing Community legislation (on an institutional level, this is the addition of a court of first instance to the European Court of Justice), and another to establish political cooperation in foreign policy.
There is little doubt that the institutional framework we have in place now safeguards national vulnerabilities while also allowing the concept of a supranational body to gain traction. It was this tension between governments and supranational organizations that would form the backbone of arguments over the EEC’s future development, ultimately leading to the formation of the European Union as we know it today (Maastricht Treaty, 1992).
After a failed vote in 2005, Europe currently has a unified currency, the Euro, and a Central Bank, but it does not have a constitution. The present operation of the European Union, which currently consists of 27 countries, is governed by the Treaty of Lisbon, which was signed in 2007.
