Spanning from 1337 to 1453, the Hundred Years’ War is, in reality, a series of periods marked by conflict and peace. This clash between two powerful kingdoms, France and England, arose from a succession crisis. Upon the death of the French king Charles IV in 1328, selecting a successor proved challenging. With no male heir, the Capetian dynasty ends with him, and the crown falls to his cousin, Philip VI of Valois. However, there were several other claimants to the French throne, including Edward III Plantagenet, the deceased monarch’s nephew and the sovereign of England. Despite his legitimacy, he was excluded from the succession, prompting him to declare war against Philip VI in 1337.
The conflict, confined to the continent, ravaged France for 116 years. Following English victories at Battle of Crécy (1346) and Battle of Poitiers (1356), the English gained the upper hand. In the Treaty of Brétigny (1360), the King of France was compelled to cede numerous territories. From 1369 to 1380, Charles V of France reconquered part of his kingdom. The civil war between the Armagnacs and Bourguignons, starting in 1407, once again weakened the French monarchy.
The English king regained the advantage, winning the Battle of Agincourt (1415). The Treaty of Troyes (1420), in which the French king designated the English king as his heir, was signed. Just when the war seemed lost, the French rebounded under the leadership of Joan of Arc and through numerous uprisings against the occupier. The conflict came to an end at the Battle of Castillon, which Charles VII of France won in 1453. Compelled to sign the Treaty of Picquigny (1475), the English were thus “driven out of France,” losing all their territories.
What Were the Causes of the Hundred Years’ War?
The Hundred Years’ War originated from intense tensions between France and England over various territories, including the Duchy of Guyenne (Aquitaine), which had been under English control since the marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine to the King of England. Additionally, in 1328, Charles IV died without a male heir, leading to Philip VI of France ascending to the throne. As the nephew of the deceased monarch, Edward III asserted his rights to the French crown, tracing his lineage through his mother to King Philip IV of France.
To prevent the Kingdom of France from falling into the hands of the King of England, French jurists invoked an ancient Frankish custom known as the Salic Law. According to this legal code, women and their descendants were excluded from the succession to the French throne. Edward III was definitively excluded from the succession.
Nevertheless, he persisted in claiming his rights to the crown and declared himself the King of France and England. The Hundred Years’ War truly began in 1337, when Philippe VI seized Guyenne. Edward III then landed on the continent to confront the King of France.
When Did the Hundred Years’ War Take Place?
The Hundred Years’ War began on May 24, 1337, when Philip VI took control of Guyenne with the intention of punishing the King of England for his claims. Edward III was indeed the vassal of the King of France for the Duchy of Guyenne. On October 7, 1337, Edward of England openly defied the King of France and claimed “his” crown.
In July 1339, Philip VI’s troops unsuccessfully besieged Bordeaux, the capital of English Aquitaine. This marked the start of over a century of conflicts between the two royal families. After the intervention of Joan of Arc, the tide of the Hundred Years’ War turned in favor of France. It concluded in 1453 with the Battle of Castillon. On August 29, 1475, the Treaty of Picquigny definitively ended this century-long conflict.
How Long Did the Hundred Years’ War Last?
The Hundred Years’ War spanned from 1337 to 1453, actually lasting 116 years. Over several generations, the two major powers, France and England, contested for control over the French kingdom. Numerous confrontations occurred during this century, such as the renowned battles of Crécy, Agincourt, and Castillon, along with periods of peace.
This era was also marked by internal conflicts in France, including the War of the Breton Succession, the Great Jacquerie, or the civil war between the Armagnacs and Burgundians. Similar conflicts unfolded in England, where the House of Lancaster seized power. In total, ten English and French sovereigns were successively involved in the conflict.
How Did Joan of Arc Impact the Hundred Years’ War?
In the early 15th century, following the Battle of Agincourt, Charles VI, the mad king, retained only half of France. A civil war between the Burgundians and the Armagnacs tore the nation apart. This tumultuous period allowed the English king to reaffirm his claims to the French kingdom. Through the Treaty of Troyes (1420), he became the heir to Charles VI. However, around 1425, a young girl claimed to hear voices and received a divine mission: to free France from an English invasion and place Charles VII on the throne of France.
Convinced of her chosen status, Joan of Arc enlisted in the dauphin’s army. She quickly achieved a series of resounding victories, becoming an inspiring icon for the soldiers. Before being captured by the English at Compiègne in 1430, Joan of Arc witnessed the coronation of Charles VII in Reims.
This “divine” intervention allowed the French to turn the tide against England. Paris was recaptured in 1436, and the Battle of Castillon in 1453 marked the end of the Hundred Years’ War.
What Were the Results of the Hundred Years’ War?
The repercussions, particularly economic and geopolitical, of the Hundred Years’ War are considerable. Defeated at the Battle of Castillon in 1453, England lost its French possessions, with the exception of Calais. The Plantagenet dynasty emerged weakened from the conflict and became embroiled in a bloody civil war, the War of the Roses (1455–1485). France, on the other hand, reclaimed Guyenne and Normandy, but famine and epidemics like the Black Death decimated its population.
A new tax, the taille, was instituted to support the country’s expenses. The Hundred Years’ War also witnessed significant military developments, whether in terms of military strategy, weapons (artillery, bows, pikes, etc.), or the types of combatants. The conflict ultimately contributes to the construction of strong national identities in both countries.
Timeline of the Hundred Years’ War
February 1, 1328: Death of Charles IV the Fair
The King of France, Charles IV the Fair, died at Vincennes without a male heir. His wife, Jeanne d’Evreux, was pregnant, but she would give birth to a daughter. The throne of France passed to his nephew, Philippe de Valois, who will take the name Philippe VI. Charles IV was the last of the direct Capetians. Upon his death, the crown goes to the Valois branch of the Capetians.
May 24, 1337: Start of the Hundred Years’ War
Refusing to pay homage to the King of France for his Duchy of Guyenne, Edward III of England also claimed the French throne. He was, in fact, the grandson of Philip the Fair through his mother. Philippe VI of France had no choice but to confiscate Guyenne from his disloyal vassal in 1337.
October 7, 1337: Edward III Claims the Throne of France
After the seizure of Guyenne by Philippe VI, Edward III of England publicly challenged the legitimacy of his cousin’s claim to the throne on October 7, 1337, at Westminster Abbey. After years of tension, the situation escalates between the two age-old enemies. This marks the beginning of a century of conflicts between the Valois and Plantagenet dynasties.
December 28, 1337: Revolution in the County of Flanders
The County of Flanders, a principality of the Kingdom of France heavily involved in the conflicts between France and England during the Hundred Years’ War, experienced a revolution on December 28, 1337. The King of England, using economic leverage, encouraged the inhabitants of Ghent, the capital of the county, to revolt against the French. They self-managed until 1345 and supported neutrality in the Franco-English conflict under Jacob van Artevelde’s leadership.
January 23, 1340: Edward III of England Claims the Title of King of France in Ghent
Upon the death of King Charles IV of France in 1328, the throne should have passed to the last living descendant of Philip the Fair, King Edward III of England. However, he was ousted in favor of his distant cousin, Philip VI of Valois. In 1337, Edward III of England declared himself the legitimate heir to the French throne, triggering the Hundred Years’ War. On January 23, 1340, he claimed the title of King of France in Ghent, following the revolution in the County of Flanders.
June 23, 1340: The Naval Battle of Sluys
On June 24, 1340, the Battle of Sluys, the first naval battle of the Hundred Years’ War, took place between the ships of King Edward III of England, claiming the French crown, and the fleet of King Philip VI of France. This battle, in the North Sea near Belgium, was won by the English forces, while the French armada was annihilated. Several thousand men perished in the battle, most by drowning.
September 25, 1340: The Truce of Esplechin-sur-Escaut
Despite winning the Battle of Sluys in June 1340, King Edward III of England found himself in a difficult position. Financially drained, he can no longer pay his allies, and his troops face serious setbacks in other theaters of operation. Taking advantage of his absence, the Scots launched a revolt against the English forces. Compelled, the sovereign signed a temporary truce with the King of France, the Truce of Esplechin-sur-Escaut, on September 25, 1340.
September 7, 1341: Philip VI Supports Charles de Blois for the Succession of the Duchy of Brittany
At the beginning of the Hundred Years’ War, another succession war erupted in Brittany between Charles de Blois, a supporter of King Philip VI of France, and Jean de Montfort, a supporter of King Edward III of England. Philip VI of Valois naturally supported Charles de Blois, formalizing this position with a decree from the Court of Peers in Conflans on September 7, 1341.
September 26, 1345: Death of Jean de Montfort
Jean de Montfort, a claimant to the Duchy of Brittany from 1341 to 1345 during the War of the Breton Succession, amidst the Hundred Years’ War, was an ally of King Edward III against King Philip VI of Valois. Captured by the army of John the Good in late 1341, he was imprisoned in Paris for nearly four years. In March 1345, he manages to escape and resumes the fight, but he falls ill and dies on September 26, 1345.
August 26, 1346: French Defeat at Crécy
Devastating the provinces near the English Channel, the troops of Edward III clashed with those of Philip VI. Led by the two sovereigns, the French and English hosts faced each other on August 26, 1346, during the famous Battle of Crécy-en-Ponthieu (Picardy). A bloody confrontation ensued, in which the French army was decimated. Archery plays a crucial role in defeating both the cavalry and infantry.
September 4, 1346: Beginning of the Siege of Calais
During the Hundred Years’ War, King Philip VI of France and King Edward III of England vied for the French crown. In 1346, Edward III launched a military campaign on French soil. English troops landed in Normandy in July, then moved north and reached Calais on September 4, 1346. This marked the start of the Siege of Calais, lasting 11 months until the English victory. The city remained under British rule for two centuries.
October 17, 1346: David II of Scotland Invades England
On October 17, 1346, David II of Scotland invaded England to defend the interests of France, as per the terms of the Auld Alliance. This “old alliance” between Scotland and France stipulated that if one state were attacked by England, the other state must invade England in turn. Under this treaty, Scottish troops crossed the border but were defeated in the Battle of Neville’s Cross. King David II of Scotland was captured and imprisoned for 11 years.
June 18, 1347: The Battle of La Roche-Derrien
The Battle of La Roche-Derrien was one of the early battles of the War of the Breton Succession, part of the Hundred Years’ War, between French and English forces vying for the French crown. France lost this battle, and English troops captured Charles de Blois, the claimant to the Duchy of Brittany, supported by King Philip VI of Valois. He would only be released in 1356, after nine years of captivity.
August 3, 1347: Calais Surrenders to the King of England
The English army was occupying Calais ten years after the Hundred Years’ War started. Following their overwhelming victory at Crécy, Edward III sought to strengthen his control over Northern France. He then launched his troops on the city in September 1346. After eleven months of siege, plagued by hunger and without hope of reinforcements, the city surrendered on August 3, 1347. Calais would only return to French hands two centuries later. In 1895, Rodin would sculpt “The Burghers of Calais,” depicting the surrender of the city.
1348: Foundation of the Order of the Garter
The Order of the Garter was a British chivalric order founded in 1348 by King Edward III of England, in the midst of the Hundred Years’ War. This order brought together 25 knights around the sovereign, known as “companions,” and was intended to support Edward III in his claim to the French throne. The Order of the Garter still exists today, and being part of it was a great honor, according to the customs of British royalty.
August 22, 1350: Death of Philip VI of France
Philippe de Valois, King of France since 1328, died on August 22, 1350. His accession to the throne resulted from a political choice to exclude the legitimate heir, King Edward III of England. The reign of Philip VI of France was marked by the early stages of the Hundred Years’ War, the War of the Breton Succession, and the arrival of the Black Death in France. At his death, he left to his son John II of France a disorganized and coveted kingdom.
September 26, 1350: Coronation of John II of France
King Philip de Valois died on August 22, 1350, and his son John II of France, known as “John the Good” succeeded him. He will be crowned and anointed a month later, on September 26. Facing the distrust of the population due to the severe defeats of the Hundred Years’ War and the conspiracies of Charles II of Navarre, a pretender to the throne, he ruled in isolation, surrounded only by his closest advisers.
March 25, 1351: Battle of the Thirty
In Ploërmel, during the War of the Breton Succession, 30 Bretons loyal to Charles de Blois faced off against 30 English soldiers from the army of Jean de Montfort following a challenge. The French, led by Beaumanoir, emerged victorious. The account of this unique battle would later be chronicled by the French historian Froissart.
January 6, 1352: Establishment of the Order of the Star
Modeled after the English Order of the Garter, King John II le Bon of France created the first French chivalric order, the Order of the Star. The inauguration ceremony took place in Saint-Ouen.
August 14, 1352: Battle of Mauron
During the War of Succession in Brittany, the Battle of Mauron on August 14, 1352, pitted Anglo-Breton forces supporting Jean de Montfort against Franco-Breton forces supporting Charles de Blois. The fortified city of Mauron held a strategic position for controlling Brittany. Despite being outnumbered, the troops of Jean de Montfort, aided by English archers, emerged victorious.
February 22, 1354: Treaty of Mantes
The Treaty of Mantes, signed on February 22, 1354, between John II of France and Charles II of Navarre, aimed to secure the French kingdom against Navarre’s alignment with England during the ongoing Hundred Years’ War. The treaty favored Charles II of Navarre, granting him ownership of numerous territories in France.
September 10, 1355: Treaty of Valognes
In 1354, John II of France and Charles II of Navarre signed a peace treaty in Mantes to secure Navarre’s support for France during the Hundred Years’ War. However, this initial treaty was short-lived, as the King of Navarre quickly allied with England. In an effort to change his stance, the King of France proposed a new treaty, the Treaty of Valognes, even more generous than the previous one.
September 19, 1356: Battle of Poitiers
The French army suffered a crushing defeat by English archers in the second major battle of the Hundred Years’ War after Crécy. King John II the Good and his son, Philippe le Hardi, were captured. The Black Prince, the eldest son of Edward III of England, escorted them to Bordeaux.
March 23, 1357: Truce of Bordeaux
On March 23, 1357, the truce of Bordeaux was signed between France and England. Lasting for one year, it marked the fourth truce since the start of the Hundred Years’ War. Negotiations between the captive John II the Good and the Black Prince failed due to the opposition of Edward III. While the truce was signed, the King of France remained imprisoned in England for three years.
June 9, 1358: Battle of Mello of the Great Jacquerie
The Great Jacquerie, a peasant uprising during the Hundred Years’ War against the nobility, was suppressed on June 9, 1358, by Charles le Mauvais. In the Battle of Mello, knights killed 7,000 peasants, committing a massacre in retaliation. Apart from the leader, Guillaume Carle, killed by treachery, records mention the execution of 20,000 rebels in two weeks.
July 31, 1358: Death of Étienne Marcel
Étienne Marcel, provost of the merchants of Paris under Jean Le Bon, died in Paris on July 31, 1358. Leading the reformist movement for a controlled monarchy in 1357, he opposed the Dauphin’s power, particularly in the various estates-general of the Hundred Years’ War, where he represented the Third Estate. He was assassinated by the bourgeois, fearing that his opposition to the Dauphin would lead to the surrender of Paris to the English.
March 10, 1360: Treaty of Guillon
On March 10, 1360, Philippe de Rouvres, Duke of Burgundy, and King Edward III of England signed the Treaty of Guillon, also known as the “Treaty of the Golden Sheep.” The defeated Burgundians agreed to pay 200,000 gold deniers, with the payment guaranteed by voluntary hostages and the free movement of the English in their territory. In return, the duchy was liberated from English troops, which marched toward Paris.
May 8, 1360: Franco-English Peace of Brétigny
During the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453), preliminary peace treaty terms between the kings of France and England were signed in Brétigny (Eure-et-Loir) on May 8, 1360. King John II the Good, captured by the English in 1356, ceded territories in the north between Calais and Ponthieu and in the south, Aquitaine. King Edward III received the ransom of 4 to 3 million écus and renounced his claim to the throne of France. The conflict between the two countries would resume nine years later.
April 6, 1362: Battle of the Mercenaries at Brignais
The Battle of Brignais on April 6, 1362, pitted mercenary companies against the French royal army. Mercenaries, unpaid during the truce of the Hundred Years’ War, ravaged the countryside, angering the king. The Tard-Venus, one of these companies, defeated the royal army south of Lyon, killing several barons, including Jacques de Bourbon. While this defeat caused panic in the kingdom, the lack of unity among the mercenaries and campaigns in Spain and Hungary, where they were sent, ended their movement.
July 19, 1362: Foundation of the Principality of Aquitaine
On July 19, 1362, Edward III, King of England, established Guyenne as the Principality of Aquitaine, placing his son Edward at its helm. The Prince of Wales, known as the Black Prince, ruled over a territory acquired by the English in 1360 through the Treaty of Brétigny. The principalities of Aquitaine would be reconquered between 1369 and 1372 by the Duke of Anjou, brother of King Charles V.
April 8, 1364: Death of John the Good
The King of France died in London at the age of 45. The sovereign had gone to negotiate the Brétigny agreements with King Edward III of England. His death dashed hopes for peace, as the French and English had been at war for over two decades. John II the Good’s son, Charles V le Sage, was proclaimed King of France.
May 19, 1364: Coronation of Charles V
Charles V of France was crowned king in Reims on May 19, 1364. His reign coincided with the end of the first phase of the Hundred Years’ War, as Charles the Wise reclaimed most of the territories lost to the English and restored the authority of the state. Through policies of apanages and sustainable taxes, he established a permanent army to eliminate reliance on mercenaries and diplomatically isolated the English through alliances with the Gascons. Charles V died in 1380.
September 29, 1364: Battle of Auray
The Battle of Auray on September 29, 1364, concluded the War of Succession in Brittany, a part of the Hundred Years’ War. It pitted the Anglo-Breton army of Jean IV de Montfort against Franco-Breton troops. Charles de Blois perished in the battle, Bertrand du Guesclin was captured, and the French defeat settled the succession conflict. Charles V acknowledged, through the Treaty of Guérande the following year, that Jean IV of Brittany was the duke.
April 3, 1367: Du Guesclin Captured by the Black Prince
Bertrand du Guesclin was captured by the Black Prince during the Battle of Najera in Navarre. The Prince of Wales, known as the Black Prince, imprisoned the future constable in Bordeaux, where French envoys negotiated his release. Du Guesclin was freed on January 17, 1368.
December 3, 1368: Birth of Charles VI
Charles VI of France was born in Paris to Charles V and Jeanne de Bourbon on December 3, 1368. He ascended to the throne at the age of 12, becoming the fourth king of the Capetian House of Valois. Until he reached the majority, his uncles (Louis de Bourbon, Louis 1st of Anjou, Jean de Berry, and Philippe de Bourgogne) would act as regents. Charles VI ruled over the Kingdom of France until his death on October 21, 1422.
March 14, 1369: Battle of Montiel
The Battle of Montiel in Castile-La Mancha, Spain, unfolded during the Hundred Years’ War. It pitted pro-English forces led by Portugal against the supporters of Peter I, known as “the Cruel,” aligned with the kingdoms of France and Castile. The conflict ended with the victory of the pro-English alliance, concluding the first war of Castile. A few days later, it was ultimately Henry II who seized the throne of Castile after killing his half-brother, Peter I.
October 2, 1369: Du Guesclin Appointed Constable
King Charles V the Wise conferred the title of constable upon the knight Bertrand du Guesclin on October 2, 1369. He thus became the supreme commander of the French army. The King of France rewarded him for his services during the war against the English. Du Guesclin remained loyal to the king and fought for the Kingdom of France until he died in 1380.
December 4, 1370: Battle of Pontvallain
The Battle of Pontvallain took place on December 4, 1370, in retaliation for a series of raids, particularly in northern France and Beauce. It saw the English forces led by Robert Knolles and Thomas Granson clash with the French forces of Bertrand du Guesclin, Olivier de Clisson, and Jean de Vienne in the County of Maine. The latter emerged victorious, capturing numerous prisoners.
March 15, 1371: Siege of Bressuire
The French forces, commanded by Bertrand du Guesclin, confronted the English at Bressuire in Poitou as a pivotal engagement within the context of the Hundred Years’ War. This decisive encounter resulted in the French reclaiming both the city and its fortress, along with the entirety of Poitou. The strategic application of a series of sieges, including Bécherel, Guérande, Soubise, and others, bore fruit, culminating in Charles V regaining Aunis and Saintonge by the conclusion of 1373.
June 22, 1372: Battle of La Rochelle
The fleets of the Franco-Castilian alliance engaged the English forces off the coast of La Rochelle on June 22, 1372. This territory had been under English control since the Treaty of Brétigny in 1360. Continuing his preference for siege tactics over open-field battles, Constable Bertrand du Guesclin, leading the Franco-Castilian forces, successfully penetrated the city the following day. Simultaneously, they dismantled the Vauclair castle to construct the Gabut wall.
March 12, 1376: Extension of the Truce of Bruges
The Truce of Bruges (Treaty of Bruges), initially signed on June 27, 1375, lasting for one year during the second phase of the Hundred Years’ War, saw an extension until June 24, 1377. Subsequent negotiations between the advisors of the French and English monarchs were futile due to Edward III’s refusal. His demise on June 21, 1377, marked the resumption of hostilities.
July 16, 1377: Coronation of Richard II of England
Following the death of Edward III, Richard II ascended to the English throne on July 16, 1377, becoming the eighth monarch of the Plantagenet dynasty at the age of 10. However, due to his youth, a regency was established by his uncles, namely John of Gaunt, Edmund of Langley, and Thomas of Woodstock. Richard II retained the throne until September 29, 1399, when he willingly relinquished it to Henry IV of Lancaster.
July 13, 1380: Death of Bertrand du Guesclin
Bertrand Du Guesclin succumbed to illness during the siege of Châteauneuf-de-Randon on July 13, 1380. Engaged in numerous conflicts such as the Hundred Years’ War, War of the Breton Succession, and the First Castilian Civil War in service to Navarre and France, Du Guesclin acquired several titles during his illustrious career, including captain of Pontorson and Mont Saint-Michel, Duke of Longueville in Normandy, King of Grenade, and Duke of Molina.
September 16, 1380: Death of Charles V
Charles V passed away in Beauté-sur-Marne on September 16, 1380, amidst a plague epidemic. Born on January 21, 1338, in Vincennes to John II, known as the Good, and Bonne of Luxembourg, he reigned as the King of France from 1364 until his demise. Charles V, during the Hundred Years’ War, successfully reclaimed most of the lands lost by his predecessors, reinstating the authority of the state. His reign witnessed initiatives in decentralizing power and instituting a new economic order.
November 4, 1380: Coronation of Charles VI
Charles VI was crowned King of France in Reims on November 4, 1380, becoming the fourth king of the Valois branch of the Capetian dynasty. Given his tender age of 12, a collegiate system of government was instituted, and it took until 1388 for him to assume effective control. His rule endured until his death on October 21, 1422, marked by the Armagnac-Burgundian civil war and the ongoing Hundred Years’ War.
August 5, 1392: Charles VI Descends Into Madness
At the age of 24, King Charles VI experienced a bout of madness while traversing the forest of Le Mans with his troops. Convinced he saw enemies surrounding him, he impulsively attacked, resulting in the deaths of six knights. His reign from 1380 to 1422 witnessed 44 episodes of insanity lasting 3–9 months each. This period also saw aristocratic factions, divided between the Duke of Orleans and the Duke of Burgundy, vying for supremacy.
April 28, 1393: Truce of Leulinghem
Signed on April 28, 1393, the Truce of Leulinghem, originally established during the ongoing Hundred Years’ War, was extended for the first time until September 29, 1394. This truce stipulated an obligation not to construct any town or fortress within seven leagues of a town on the opposing side. Initially intended for three years, the truce underwent subsequent extensions.
July 11, 1397: Thomas of Woodstock Accused of Treason and Arrested
On July 11, 1397, Thomas of Woodstock, uncle to Richard II of England, faced accusations of treason and was subsequently arrested. His criticism of the new truce between France and England, coupled with the king’s marriage to Isabella of Valois, daughter of the French King Charles VI, led to his arrest. Less than two months later, Thomas of Woodstock was executed without trial, accused solely of treason.
September 30, 1399: Henry of Lancaster Becomes King of England
On September 30, 1399, after capturing King Richard II, Henry of Lancaster, son of John of Gaunt, declared himself the new King of England as Henry IV. Crowned on October 13 of the same year, Henry IV ruled until 1413, the year of his death. Nicknamed “Henry Bolingbroke” due to his birth at Bolingbroke Castle, he also founded the House of Lancaster.
February 14, 1400: Murder of Former King Richard II of England
Facing public discontent and his increasingly tyrannical behavior, Richard II of England relinquished his crown to Henry Bolingbroke, the future Henry IV, on September 29, 1399. Confined in the Tower of London, Richard II died on February 14, 1400, under suspicious circumstances—likely assassinated or due to deprivation of food by his jailers. His reign, characterized by attempts to mitigate warlike disputes with France, foreshadowed the emergence of an absolute monarchy in England.
February 22, 1403: Birth of Charles VII, Future King of France
Charles VII, born on February 22, 1403, was the fifth son of Charles VI and Isabeau of Bavaria. He became the only dauphin to reach adulthood. Disinherited by his father in favor of the King of England and battered by the Hundred Years’ War, his life took a decisive turn with the intervention of Joan of Arc. Charles VII ultimately concluded the protracted war with England.
April 27, 1404: Death of Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy
Philip the Bold, born in Pontoise in 1342, passed away in Hal (County of Hainaut) on April 27, 1404. Distinguished during the Hundred Years’ War, his boldness at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356 earned him his epithet and the enjoyment of his Burgundian domain. As Duke of Burgundy since 1363 and Count of Flanders, he left the responsibilities of his heritage to his son, John the Fearless (1371–1419), sparking a power struggle with Louis of Orleans and plunging France into civil war with the Armagnacs.
November 23, 1407: Assassination of Louis of Orleans
John the Fearless orchestrated the assassination of Duke Louis of Orleans on November 23, 1407, as he exited the Hôtel Barbette on Vieille-du-Temple Street in Paris. The Duke of Burgundy sought to unite Artois and Flanders with his duchy, but Louis I of Orleans, cousin and son of King Charles V, opposed this endeavor. Eliminating his rival, John the Fearless initiated a bloody civil war between the Armagnacs and the Burgundians, concluding 30 years later with the signing of the Treaty of Arras in 1435.
March 9, 1409: Peace of Chartres, a Ceasefire Between Armagnacs and Burgundians
The Peace of Chartres was signed on March 9, 1409, temporarily halting the civil war between the Armagnacs and Burgundians. Among the 21 articles signed by Lord Jean de Montaigu, close to King Charles VI, Duke John the Fearless (1371–1419) acknowledged the murder of Louis I of Orleans (1407) and extended apologies to his children, Philip and Charles. A reconciliation ceremony was organized on the same day in Chartres Cathedral, where the successors of Orleans forgave the assassin of their father.
March 20, 1413: Death of Henry IV of England
Henry IV of England, born in 1367 in Bolingbroke (Lincolnshire), passed away in Westminster on March 20, 1413. The son of John of Gaunt and grandson of Edward III, he was crowned in 1399, establishing the Lancastrian dynasty. Banished by Richard II, Henry IV successfully quelled feudal opposition, forcing his adversary to abdicate in his favor. During his reign, he brutally suppressed Welsh and Scottish independence revolts. His son, Henry V (1387–1422), succeeded him.
April 9, 1413: Coronation of Henry V of England
On April 9, 1413, Henry V of England (1387–1422) was crowned at Westminster Abbey. Exploiting the turmoil in a France torn apart by civil war, he allied with the Burgundians, led by John the Fearless. Emerging victorious over the Armagnacs at Agincourt (October 25, 1415), he imposed the Treaty of Troyes (1420) after the conquest of Normandy, securing regency and the appanage of the Kingdom of France. He married Charles VI’s daughter, Catherine de Valois, and died of dysentery in Vincennes on August 31 at the age of 35.
August 13, 1415: Henry V’s Landing in Normandy
Allied with the Duke of Burgundy, John the Fearless, the King of England, Henry V, landed in Normandy at Chef-de-Caux (Seine estuary) with a fleet of 1500 ships, heavy artillery, and 30,000 men. This led to the siege of Harfleur (August 18), which fell a month later (September 22). The conquest campaign of France reached its peak with the English victory over the Armagnacs at the Battle of Agincourt (October 25, 1415).
October 25, 1415: Battle of Agincourt
The English forces of King Henry V defeated the French army at Agincourt, north of the Somme. Stuck in the mud, the French nobility’s horses couldn’t counter the English archers. Many knights were captured. Despite numerical superiority (50,000 against 15,000 English), the French were too disorganized. Agincourt stands as one of the deadliest battles of the Middle Ages. Following this victory, Henry V seized control of Normandy.
August 1, 1417: Henry V’s Landing
Henry V of England landed his troops at the mouth of the Touques (now Trouville): 10,000 men and artillery. Immediately, the siege of the castle began, which fell on the 9th. The English advance was unstoppable, and Norman citadels surrendered one after another: Lisieux, Dives, on the 13th; Auvillars, on the 14th; and Eterville, on the 17th. Caen was besieged on August 18. Then Bayeux (September 15), Alençon (October 12), and Falaise (November). Only Mont-Saint-Michel resisted.
September 19, 1417: Capitulation of Caen
After a month-long siege, the castle of Caen surrendered to Henry V’s troops, who made it his headquarters. The Normandy campaign lasted two years until December 1419 and the capture of Château-Gaillard. After the victory over the Armagnacs at Agincourt (1415), Normandy was now under English control. Henry V imposed the Treaty of Troyes (May 21, 1420) on Charles VI the Mad, making him the future king of France and England.
July 29, 1418: Start of the Siege of Rouen by Henry V
The English camped outside Rouen, which fell after six months of a long and arduous siege that claimed 35,000 lives (January 19, 1419), or half of its population. The capture of the capital of the Duchy of Normandy was the highlight of the campaign, opening the route to the Kingdom of France for Henry V of England, who made his lordly castle his residence. It was only in 1449 that Rouen returned to French control under Charles VII’s auspices.
September 16, 1418: The Dauphin Rejects the Bourguignons’ Overture
The Treaty of Saint-Maur was signed between John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, and Isabeau of Bavaria, wife of Charles VI the Mad. In an attempt at reconciliation, this treaty stipulates that the dauphin, future Charles VII (1403–1461), was appointed regent of France due to his father’s insanity but was himself placed under Burgundian guardianship. The young Charles vehemently rejects the text.
July 11, 1419: Peace of Ponceau between John the Fearless and the Dauphin
In 1419, the Oath of Pouilly (or “Peace of Ponceau”) was sworn between John the Fearless and the dauphin, the future Charles VII. Disappointed by his meeting with Henry V of England, the Duke of Burgundy then opts for a rapprochement with the King of France. An appointment was agreed upon on the bridge of Montereau (Yonne), and an encounter was aborted due to the assassination of John the Fearless by close advisers of the Dauphin.
September 10, 1419: Assassination of John the Fearless
A close friend of Dauphin Charles, the heir to the French throne, assassinated John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, in Montereau amid the Hundred Years’ War. Twelve years later, he was convinced to avenge the murder of Louis of Orléans. The murder reignites the conflict between Armagnacs and Burgundians, dividing the already weakened French after the defeat at Agincourt. Charles VI the Mad, Charles’ father, disinherited him in 1420. He will have to wait ten years for a certain Joan of Arc to help him regain the French throne.
May 21, 1420: The Treaty of Troyes
The Duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, and the King of England, Henry V, signed the Treaty of Troyes (Aube), which delivered France to the English. Indeed, by this treaty, Henry V obtained the crown of France as the heir of Charles VI the Mad. The treaty also provided for the marriage of Henry V to Catherine de Valois, daughter of Charles VI, to legitimize this succession. Their son, the future Henry VI of England, was born on December 6, 1421.
The Treaty of Troyes was the result of the French defeat at Agincourt (October 25, 1415) and the division of the kingdom between the Burgundians and the Armagnacs. Charles VI now ruled only the southern half of France; his council and court were itinerant, and his illness prevented him from ruling alone. Charles VII attempted to secure regency, but by this treaty, he was excluded from the succession.
June 2, 1420: Catherine de Valois Becomes Queen Consort of England
Catherine de Valois married Henry V on June 2, 1420, at the church of Saint-Jean-du-Marché in Troyes. From their union, Henry VI, the future King of England, was born in 1421.
December 6, 1421: Birth of Henry VI of England
From the union of Henry V and Catherine de Valois, Henry VI was born at Windsor Castle on December 6 (assassinated in London in 1471), the future King of England. He was quickly called to the throne, reigning first under the guardianship of his uncles, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, and John of Lancaster, Duke of Bedford (for France, until his coronation in 1431). After the War of the Roses, Edward IV deposed him (1461).
August 31, 1422: Premature Death of Henry V, King of England
At the height of his reign, but without being able to wear the crown of France, Henry V of England died at the age of 35 from dysentery at Vincennes Castle. Along with Emperor Sigismund, he deserves credit for ending the Great Western Schism with the election of Martin V. Buried with great pomp at Westminster Abbey, his tragic demise inspired Shakespeare’s eponymous play.
October 21, 1422: Death of the King of France, Charles VI the Mad
Charles VI the Mad died in Paris two months after the King of England, whom he had named as his heir through the Treaty of Troyes. Unable to govern due to increasingly frequent and pronounced bouts of madness, the King of France finally made way for his dauphin, the future Charles VII.
October 30, 1422: Charles VII Confers the Title of King of France
Ignoring the Treaty of Troyes (1420), which disinherits him in favor of Henry V of England, Charles VII proclaimed himself King of France in Mehun-sur-Yèvre (near Bourges), in place of the legitimate successor, the very young Henry VI. However, Charles VII was crowned King of France only in Reims in 1429, thanks to Joan of Arc. Major political reorganizations and commercial growth would characterize his reign.
April 17, 1423: Alliance between the Dukes of Burgundy, Brittany, and the English against Charles VII
In Amiens, the Duke of Bedford, who oversees the regency of the English throne on behalf of the very young Henry VI, signs a triple alliance with the Dukes John V of Brittany and Philip of Burgundy, known as the Treaty of Amiens. Despite the Treaty of Troyes (1420), Charles VII, who had withdrawn to Bourges, plans to reconquer the lands north of the Loire, largely occupied by the English.
July 3, 1423: Birth of Louis XI, Son and Heir of Charles VII
Louis XI, the future king of France, was born in Bourges, from the union of Marie d’Anjou and Charles VII. He was the sixth king of the Valois branch of the Capetians. Louis XI, also known as “the prudent,” inherited in 1461 a kingdom devastated by the Hundred Years’ War and the bloody civil war between Armagnacs and Burgundians. He strengthened royal authority by bringing the major feudal lords of the Kingdom of France under control: Maine, Anjou, Provence, and Burgundy.
July 31, 1423: Defeated by the English, Charles VII Retreats to Bourges
The English army and their Burgundian allies defeated the soldiers of Charles VII in the Battle of Cravant (Yonne). Hostilities in the Hundred Years’ War resumed after the Treaty of Troyes (1420), which disinherits the Dauphin. Occupying the north of the Loire, the numerically superior English force compelled Charles VII to a defensive retreat to the south, which he still governs. He then acquired the nickname “King of Bourges.”
September 26, 1423: French Victory Over the English at La Gravelle
Charles VII’s French forces, led by the knight Ambroise de Loré and Captain Jean VII d’Harcourt, decisively defeated the English under William de la Pole in the Battle of La Brossinière (Mayenne), sometimes called the Battle of La Gravelle. Just as the Hundred Years’ War had resumed, this glorious victory signals the turning point in the conflict and remains a “happy omen” for Charles VII.
August 17, 1424: Charles VII’s Defeat Against the English at Verneuil
The regent of England, the Duke of Bedford, allied with the Burgundians and defeated Charles VII’s French forces in the Battle of Verneuil (Normandy). The “Dauphin’s” army was unable to fend off the onslaught of English archers under John of Lancaster’s command, despite the assistance of a Scottish contingent. Known for its archery duel, the defeat at Verneuil led to the loss of 6,000 French soldiers (out of the 12,000 present).
May 1, 1426: Convocation of the Estates-General by Yolande d’Aragon
The Queen of Sicily, Yolande d’Aragon (1381–1442), stepmother of the young Charles VII, convenes the Estates-General in Saumur. Operating in the interests of the Valois and as a guardian of the prerogatives of her protege, Charles VII, she signed a treaty with the Duke of Brittany, Jean V, urging him to break his alliance with the English, already allies of the Burgundians. She encourages the duke’s brother, Arthur de Richemont, appointed constable in 1425, to support her cause.
February 8, 1427: Arrest of Pierre de Giac, a Former Favorite of Charles VII
The knight and lord Pierre de Giac (born in 1377), a favorite of King Charles VII, was arrested in Issoudun on the orders of Constable Arthur de Richemont and Yolande d’Aragon. Appointed Master of Finances and later head of the council, he was eliminated due to his disastrous policies and growing influence on the young sovereign. Following a summary trial, he was sentenced to be executed by drowning in Dun-le-Roi (Cher).
June 12, 1427: Assassination of the “Camus de Beaulieu,” a Favorite of Charles VII
Jean Vernet, an Auvergnat military man known as the “Camus de Beaulieu” and the new favorite of the King of France Charles VII after the death of Pierre de Giac, was assassinated by Jean de Brosse in Poitiers. Quickly appointed Grand Master of the Stables and then Captain of Poitiers, his influence on the young sovereign irritates his stepmother, Yolande d’Aragon, and the head of the government, Constable de Richemont, leading them to get rid of him. The Grand Chamberlain of France, Georges de la Trémoille, takes his place.
May 1428: Joan of Arc Sets Out to Deliver to France
Having heard voices calling her to deliver France from English oppression and place the Dauphin on the throne, a 17-year-old shepherdess, Joan of Arc, presents herself to Robert de Baudricourt, captain of Vaucouleurs. Popular fervor forces him to grant her safe conduct and an escort to Chinon, where she was to meet the future Charles VII. After being allowed to speak to him, who, suspiciously, had her imprisoned for formality, the “maid” was sent to Orleans, besieged by the English.
October 12, 1428: Beginning of the Siege of Orleans by the English
After securing the surrounding area (August and September), English troops led by Thomas Montaigu, Earl of Salisbury, camped in front of Orleans, the last bastion on the Loire, still ruled by the Dauphin. Seeking to surround the well-fortified city by establishing bastions, the English begin a long siege. Defended by the French garrison of Jean de Dunoy, Orleans held out until May 8, 1429, when Joan of Arc liberated it.
February 12, 1429: French Rout in the “Day of the Herrings”
Eager to replenish supplies, several thousand Orleans residents, led by Jean de Dunois, Count of Longueville, decide to leave their besieged city to intercept a convoy of 300 English carts coming from Chartres, which carried a considerable amount of fish among its provisions. In what became the Battle of Rouvray, known as the “Day of the Herrings,” the French were repelled by the defensive tactics—a circle—of the caravan, protected by 1,500 escort soldiers led by John Falstoff.
April 29, 1429: Joan of Arc Enters Orleans
A major event in the second half of the Hundred Years’ War, the siege of Orleans took place from October 1428 to May 1429. As a stronghold protecting access to the south of France, the city was of crucial importance for both sides. Led by Joan of Arc, the French army broke the blockade and entered Orleans on April 29, 1429. Faced with the arrival of enemy reinforcements, the English finally lifted the siege of the city on May 8, 1429.
June 1429: Charles VII’s Army Launches the Campaign of the Loire Valley
After Orleans, Charles VII’s army seizes Jargeau (June 12), defeating the 5,000 English under Guillaume de la Pole, then Meung-sur-Loire (June 14), Beaugency (June 15-16), and Patay, where Joan of Arc defeats Talbot (June 18). This marks the last of the battles of the Loire Valley campaign (1428–1429), which led to the liberation of the region and represents a turning point in the Hundred Years’ War.
July 9, 1429: Capture of Troyes by Charles VII
Before Châlons and Reims, Troyes opened its doors to Charles VII’s army, thanks to Joan of Arc, after a few days of siege. According to legend, the city, which had sworn allegiance to the King of England, initially refused to surrender its keys. It yields at the mere sight of the “maid,” thus opening the way to Reims, where the Dauphin can be crowned.
July 17, 1429: Coronation of Charles VII
After his victory at Orleans, Charles VII reached Reims Cathedral to be crowned on July 17, 1429. With Joan of Arc by his side, he travels to the “City of Kings,” which was under English control. Entangled in the Hundred Years’ War, still referred to as the “Dauphin,” he finally became the King of France. This coronation strengthens his power and legitimacy among the people. He can now fully dedicate himself to the reconquest of his kingdom.
August 15, 1429: “Statu quo” of Montépilloy Between English and French
The English armies, commanded by the Duke of Bedford, and the French forces of Charles VII, under the leadership of Joan of Arc and her companion, Etienne de Vignolles, known as “La Hire,” meet at the Battle of Montépilloy (near Senlis). Neither victory nor defeat occurs, with neither side, under the scorching sun, abandoning its positions. The encounter ultimately concludes in a stalemate, despite the efforts of the French troops to prompt their adversaries to “move.”
May 23, 1430: Joan of Arc Arrested in Compiègne
Following a series of decisive victories, Joan of Arc led her army in the reconquest of the Parisian basin. The English allies, the Burgundians, besieged the city of Compiègne in April 1430. Joan of Arc came to the aid of the inhabitants but was captured on May 23, 1430. In an attempt to discredit the coronation of Charles VII, the English requested her delivery to their Norman domain.
November 21, 1430: Jean de Luxembourg Hands Over Joan of Arc to the English
Through Jean de Luxembourg, the Burgundians handed over Joan of Arc to the English. He had captured her in Compiègne. She was handed over for a sum of 10,000 pounds. The English entrust her to the Church’s justice, asserting that they would reclaim her if she was not accused of heresy.
January 9, 1431: Start of the Trial of Joan of Arc
The trial of Joan of Arc opened in Rouen on January 9, 1431. An ecclesiastical tribunal that England secretly oversaw judged “The Maid of Orleans.” In the face of the Inquisition, she confessed to hearing voices. Several charges were brought against her, including wearing men’s clothing and refusing submission to the militant Church. She was ultimately found guilty of heresy and witchcraft and sentenced to death.
May 30, 1431: Joan of Arc at the Stake
One year after her capture by the Burgundians in Compiègne, Joan of Arc was taken to the place of her execution. On May 30, 1431, after an unfair trial, she was burned alive at the stake. Charles VII asked for a review of her trial after the French army reclaimed the city. It was declared null a quarter of a century later, on July 7, 1456, and Joan of Arc was rehabilitated.
December 16, 1431: Coronation of Henry VI of England as King of France
Under the Treaty of Troyes (1420), Henry VI of England (1421–1471) was crowned King of France at the age of ten in the Notre-Dame Cathedral of Paris by Cardinal Henry Beaufort. However, due to the Salic Law, which stipulates that his mother, Catherine of Valois, could not transmit the Crown to him as she had no rights of succession, he was deposed from his title in 1453, with Charles VII being reinstated on the throne.
January 1432: Establishment of the University of Caen
Eager to win the favor of its inhabitants, Jean de Lancastre (1389–1435), Duke of Bedford, reigning on behalf of Henry VI of England, decided to establish the University of Caen (Lower Normandy). The teaching structures had been damaged by Henry V during the siege of the city in 1417. Initially limited to the faculties of canon law and civil law, the university did not establish its departments of arts, medicine, and theology until 1437. Charles VII officially recognized the university on July 31, 1450.
May 9, 1435: French Victory Over the English at Gerberoy
As the Hundred Years’ War escalated, the French forces of lords Jean Poton de Xaintrailles (c. 1400-1461) and Etienne de Vignolles (known as “La Hire,” 1390-1443) defeated the 3,000 English troops led by John FitzAlan, Earl of Arundel, in the Battle of Gerberoy (Beauvaisis), also known as “d’Arondel,” in Picardy. It was not until 1451 that Normandy actually came under the control of Charles VII.
September 21, 1435: Treaty of Arras
The signing of the Treaty of Arras in 1435 ended the civil war between the Armagnacs and the Burgundians. Philip III of Burgundy and Charles VII signed a lasting peace that foreshadows the end of the Hundred Years’ War.
April 13, 1436: Capture of Paris by Arthur de Richemond
Led by Constable Arthur III de Richemont (1393–1458), the French army entered Paris, liberating the city from English occupation. In November 1438, Charles VII (1403–1461) was able to reinvest his capital, abandoned in 1418, symbolically restoring his authority. Commissioned by the Count of Angiviller on behalf of Louis XVI, a painting by Jean-Simon Berthélemy commemorates the event: “The Recapture of Paris from the English” (1787).
November 12, 1437: Entry of Charles VII into Paris
King Charles VII triumphantly enters Paris after nineteen years of absence. The capital surrenders on its own, having expelled the English troops. The recapture of Paris was the culmination of the campaign to reconquer the kingdom of France, which began with Orléans in 1429. France was almost entirely liberated from English rule. The Truce of Tours (May 20, 1444) complements the king’s successes.
February 2, 1439: Appointment of Jacques Cœur as Grand Financier of France
Merchant and businessman Jacques Coeur (1400–1456) became the grand financier of the kingdom of France. The primary creditor and banker of Charles VII, who became master of the mints in Bourges in 1435, completely reorganized the country’s finances in a disastrous state. He contributed to the war effort by providing the king with the means necessary to fight the English in France.
November 2, 1439: Charles VII Institutes the Payment of “la taille”
To “drive out” the English from France, the king must rebuild an army. Under the name “taille,” the money needed for the war effort will be collected in the form of a tax from each family in the kingdom. The clergy and the nobility were not affected. Delegates from the Estates General authorized Charles VII to levy the taille annually.
February 1440: Start of the “Praguerie”
Refusing the ordinance of November 2 regarding the reform of the army (Estates General of Orléans, following the excesses of the “écorcheurs”), the great lords and vassals of France rose against King Charles VII. Among them were John II, Duke of Alençon, Charles de Bourbon, or Georges de la Trémoille, and the “Praguerie,” named after the revolt of the Hussites in Bohemia, succeeded in gaining the dauphin, Louis XI, to its cause. However, it was repulsed in Poitou and Bourbonnais and ultimately crushed in Auvergne.
July 24, 1440: Signing of the Treaty of Cusset, Ending the “Praguerie”
The Treaty of Cusset (Auvergne) was signed, ending the “Praguerie,” which saw the great vassals of France rise against Charles VII and Arthur de Richemont (since February 1440). To pacify the kingdom, the king “pensions” the rebellious lords and rewards the loyalty of his faithful. His son, Louis XI, the dauphin, who was convinced to join the revolt against his father by promising him his guardianship, was appointed to govern Dauphiné as a golden exile.
April 28, 1442: Birth of Edward IV, King of England
Edward IV, the future king of England (1461–1470 and 1470–1483), was born in Rouen. Son of Richard of York and head of the House of York, he fought in the fratricidal War of the Roses against Henry VI of Lancaster, whom he managed to depose in 1461. He allied with Charles the Bold, the powerful Duke of Burgundy, against Louis XI, but the latter persuaded him to withdraw (Treaty of Picquigny, 1475). Upon his sudden death in Westminster on April 9, 1483, his son, Edward V, succeeded him.
June 8, 1442: Departure of Charles VII’s Army for the Campaign in Guyenne
Leading the Guyenne expedition with nearly 30,000 men, Charles VII reached Toulouse. Uniting the French nobility around him, including the counts of Armagnac, Foix, and Albret, and securing the support of the great vassals of the south, he marches on Tartas, near Dax, which he takes on June 24 from the English. The latter were powerless and short on reinforcements. The campaign continues favorably at Agen, then at Montauban. During the summer, the royal army will liberate the Landes, Aquitaine, and the entire Languedoc.
May 26, 1445: The First Permanent Army in France
King Charles VII created the Companies of Ordnance on May 26, 1445. This new military formation constituted the first permanent army at the disposal of the King of France. Previously, to wage war, the king called upon his vassals according to the feudal custom of the ban. However, vassals were only obligated to serve for 40 days. The king had to recruit mercenaries, who were expensive and often uncontrollable.
March 16, 1448: Start of the Campaign in Normandy
March 16, 1448, marks the beginning of the campaign in Normandy with the surrender of the city of Le Mans. The Duchy of Brittany and the Kingdom of France opposed the Duchy of Normandy and the Kingdom of England. After a year of fighting from 1448 to 1449, the final victory will be Franco-Breton.
April 28, 1448: Creation of the Corps of Francs-Archers
On April 28, 1448, King Charles VII of France promulgated an ordinance for the creation of a corps of francs-archers in the French troops. This ordinance mandates that an archer must accompany each group of more than fifty households. These francs-archers were generally commoners who were then exempted from paying the taille in exchange for their military engagement in the royal army.
March 23, 1449: François de Surienne Seizes the City of Fougères
On March 23, 1449, in the midst of a truce between France and England, François de Surienne, known as “the Aragonese,” captured the Breton city of Fougères. He had spent more than twenty years of his life in the service of the King of England and was known as an exceptional artilleryman who, before the city of Fougères, had already taken more than thirty cities. His actions caused trouble between France and England, then at war.
July 19, 1449: Capture of Verneuil
On July 19, 1449, Pierre de Brézé, on orders from King Charles VII, entered the city of Verneuil to seize it. This episode, at the end of the Hundred Years’ War between France and England, was part of the reconquest of Normandy by the Kingdom of France. In less than a month, the French succeeded in their goals by forcing the English garrison to surrender.
November 10, 1449: Liberation of the City of Rouen
On November 10, 1449, after more than 30 years of English occupation, the city of Rouen was liberated by King Charles VII, who made a solemn entry into the city. This victory of the King of France was part of a larger list of reconquests of French territories abandoned by the English during the Hundred Years’ War. Other victories will gradually allow King Charles VII to bring this war between France and England to an end.
January 1, 1450: Capture of Harfleur
On January 1, 1450, King Charles VII of France retook the city of Harfleur, held by the English since 1415, following a siege. This liberation of the city of Harfleur was part of the successive victories of King Charles VII over the English in the reconquest of Brittany and Normandy, which gradually brought an end to the Hundred Years’ War between France and England.
April 15, 1450: Battle of Formigny
April 15, 1450, was the date of the Battle of Formigny, a battle linked to the Hundred Years’ War between France and England. Led by Charles de Bourbon and Arthur de Richemont, the Franco-Breton troops managed, through force of combat, to defeat the English. Normandy was then completely recovered by France, partially ending the Hundred Years’ War.
June 12, 1451: Signing of the Surrender Treaty of the City of Bordeaux
On June 12, 1451, the city of Bordeaux was the subject of a surrender treaty concluded between the Kingdom of France, represented by the troops of Charles VII, and the Kingdom of England. In the midst of the Hundred Years’ War between the two countries, the city of Bordeaux was handed over to the French, who occupied it on June 29, before the Englishman John Talbot came to retake it in 1452.
October 2, 1452: Birth of the Future King of England, Richard III
On October 2, 1452, in England, the future king of the realm, Richard III, was born. Brother of King Edward IV, Richard III of England reigned over the British kingdom from 1483 to 1485, the year in which he lost his life in the Battle of Bosworth, an event that would end the War of the Roses. The writer Shakespeare will dedicate a play to him a few years later.
October 23, 1452: Englishman John Talbot Retakes the City of Bordeaux
On October 23, 1452, the city of Bordeaux returned to the hands of the English. After being the subject of a surrender treaty a year earlier, the city of Bordeaux, then occupied by the French troops of Charles VII, was retaken by the Englishman John Talbot in 1452. This struggle between the two countries to hold the city of Bordeaux illustrates the Hundred Years’ War that pitted France against England.
July 17, 1453: The Battle of Castillon
The French army of Charles VII achieved a decisive victory over the English in the Girondin village of Castillon. For some, this battle marks the end of the Hundred Years’ War as the English, following the conflict, abandon their pursuit of the French throne. It also definitively puts an end to the English presence in Guyenne. The reconquest of the Aquitaine region will be complete when the King of France seizes Bordeaux on October 19. The English will then be definitively expelled from the kingdom. The Battle of Castillon also witnessed the death of one of the English leaders of the Hundred Years’ War, John Talbot.
June 28, 1461: Coronation of Edward IV of England
On June 28, 1461, Edward IV was proclaimed King of England. The son of Richard of York and Cecily Neville, he will be the first King of England to belong to the House of York. The beginning of his reign will be marked by the Wars of the Roses, which will pit his own dynasty against the House of Lancaster for many years and through numerous battles. He suddenly passed away on April 9, 1483.
July 22, 1461: Death of King Charles VII of France
Charles VII dies in Mehun-sur-Yèvre on July 22, 1461. Nicknamed the “Victorious” or the “Well-Served,” he brought an end to the Hundred Years’ War in 1453. Disinherited by his father in favor of the King of England, Charles VII had to wait for the intervention of Joan of Arc to reclaim his legitimacy. His son, Louis XI, succeeded him.
August 15, 1461: Coronation of Louis XI
Louis XI, son of Charles VII and Marie of Anjou, was crowned King of France in Reims. Nicknamed “The Prudent,” he reigned by defending the peasants and aligning himself with the people, a stance contrary to the strengthening of his royal authority and against the great feudal lords of the Kingdom of France.
August 29, 1475: The Treaty of Picquigny
The Battle of Castillon (1453) in many aspects signifies the end of the Hundred Years’ War, but it was the Treaty of Picquigny signed in 1475 that definitively concluded the conflict. In 1474, the Duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold, always in search of territories, allied with Edward IV of England. In July 1475, English forces landed, but their Burgundian ally was off warring in other lands. Louis XI took advantage of this situation to have the King of England sign a treaty. Edward IV received significant sums from France. In exchange, he must return to England, end the alliance with the Duke of Burgundy, and legitimize the King of France.
References
- Mortimer, I. (2008). The Fears of Henry IV: The Life of England’s Self-Made King. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 978-1-84413-529-5.
- Lambert, Craig L. (2011). “Edward III’s siege of Calais: A reappraisal”. Journal of Medieval History. 37 (3): 245–256. doi:10.1016/j.jmedhist.2011.05.002. S2CID 159935247.
- Neillands, Robin (2001). The Hundred Years War (revised ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26131-9.
- Postan, M. M. “Some Social Consequences of the Hundred Years’ War”, Economic History Review 12#1/2, 1942, pp. 1–12. online
- Cuttino, G. P., “The Causes of the Hundred Years War”, Speculum 31#3 (1956), pp. 463–477 online
- Ormrod, W. (2001). Edward III. Yale English Monarchs series. London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11910-7.
- Powicke, Michael (1962). Military Obligation in Medieval England. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820695-8.
