Grenadiers and Dragons, Cuirassiers and Chasseurs, Hussars and Lancers: Napoleon’s cavalry wrote its history in golden letters on the standards of its regiments. From the charge of the Chasseurs at Austerlitz to that of the Polish Light Horse at Somosierra, from the audacity of Joachim Murat charging with eighty squadrons at Eylau to the tragic heroism of Marshal Ney seeking death while charging the British squares at Waterloo, thousands of cavalrymen ended their careers in mass graves at the far reaches of Europe. Here’s a look back at these men whose horses’ hooves struck the cobblestones of the grandest capitals of Europe during the First Empire.
The Cavalry: An Inheritance from the Ancien Régime
Although prestigious, the cavalry represented only a small portion of the army. It was less affected than the infantry by the massive recruitments during the Revolutionary period, which seemingly helped it preserve a strong core of experienced non-commissioned officers (and officers, for those who did not choose exile) from the royal army. The higher pay compared to the infantry may also have contributed to loyalty. The cavalry maintained a certain esprit de corps, a form of elitism, that made them look down on other arms, such as the infantry, whom they saw as mere “stone-pushers.” However, this animosity was mutual.
Regardless, the republican cavalry, aside from a few uniform elements, closely resembled the royal cavalry in both unit types and tactics employed. The First Empire, while not radically changing tactics, increased the number of troops and incorporated new units tied to Napoleon’s campaigns (Mamelukes) or allied nations (Dutch and Polish Lancers). In terms of numbers, while the republican cavalry made up only 1/10th of the Army of Italy and 1/12th of the Army of Germany, it would reach 1/5th of the imperial army—up to 100,000 cavalrymen.
In 1800, Napoleon decreed that each cavalry regiment would consist of five squadrons, each composed of two companies of 80 men, including one elite company entrusted with sensitive missions. The number of men per company theoretically varied by the type of cavalry and practically varied based on losses and the ability to recruit men and horses. In 1806, a heavy cavalry regiment was supposed to have 820 riders.
Recruitment and Horse Acquisition
Recruitment of men followed the same pattern as the infantry: conscription and a lottery, but also by directly drawing from departmental Reserve companies. However, the cavalry required conscripts of taller stature. Men who already knew how to ride, or had some familiarity with horses, were preferred, as they would need to take care of their mounts during service. Generally, though, these skills were learned after being assigned to a cavalry regiment.
Conscripts were taught basic riding skills, just enough to lead a charge, but not much more. The goal was not to produce expert riders or epic virtuosos, as cavalry techniques prioritized mass effects over individual displays. As a result, the young conscript began his training with the “school of the dismounted cavalryman,” where he learned the basics of weapon handling, just as any infantryman would.
It was only after this that he was familiarized with the horse, riding it bareback, and leaping onto it without stirrups. The early training involved basic maneuvers under an instructor’s supervision, gradually progressing to the use of a saddle and stirrups, and learning to wield weapons while mounted, first alone and then in small groups. Eventually, he was trained in jumping obstacles, both individually and in groups.
Naturally, this is all theoretical, as only peacetime and periods of rest allowed for such thorough training. In times of war, conscripts were trained as best as possible. In 1806, Napoleon ordered, “As soon as there are 10 equipped and armed horses at their depot, 10 conscripts will depart to join their regiment. They will train in rear positions.” Unsurprisingly, the following year, he lamented, “Our cavalry is not well-trained; they don’t know how to ride well enough.”
Horse acquisition was organized based on remount units created during the Consulate, which were designed to supply horses through direct purchases or contracts. Like men, horses had to meet a minimum height requirement, which varied according to the type of cavalry they were destined for: 1.56 to 1.59 meters at the withers for Cuirassiers and Carabiniers, 1.53 to 1.57 meters for the Dragoons’ horses, and just over 1.49 meters for light cavalry (figures relative to the average height of men in the early 19th century, which was lower than today). Like men, horses also received combat training: they learned to walk, trot, charge in groups, and most importantly, to not fear the sound of gunfire.
To do this, horses were accustomed to gunfire by being fed in the stables while a few volleys were fired. Gradually, they associated the sound with something positive. The shots were fired increasingly closer to the stables, and eventually, mock cavalry charges were organized, where horses and their riders charged toward foot soldiers acting as enemy infantry, who fired blanks at their attackers. However, like the men, the lack of time during wars often meant the horses could not be trained as thoroughly. On the first real charge, the enemy wouldn’t be firing blanks. A lack of training for the men and/or horses sometimes resulted in complete routs.
The Campaign of 1812: A Disaster for the Cavalry
The disastrous Russian campaign in 1812 was truly the graveyard of the imperial cavalry. Of the 80,000 saddle horses and 50,000 draft horses, only 3,000 survived the campaign. Napoleon Bonaparte was never able to find enough experienced men or, more crucially, horses, to field a sufficient cavalry force during the campaigns of 1813 and 1814 in Saxony and France. Without cavalry, he could no longer pursue the enemy to secure his victories, and there’s no doubt that the lack of horses played a significant role in his defeat in 1814.
As for the 1815 defeat at Waterloo, many attribute it to the inadequacy of the imperial cavalry—this time in its command. Ney replaced Murat at the head of the cavalry, and while Murat was a poor strategist and had betrayed Napoleon, he remained a great tactician and a brilliant leader of men, a virtuoso of cavalry who might have changed the course of history by breaking Wellington’s squares.
The Hussars of Napoleon
In this brief synthesis article, we will not delve deeply into every type of unit that served under the First Empire, nor will we offer a detailed description of uniforms, specifics of the Imperial Guard, or a chronicle of military feats. The aim is primarily to succinctly present the three main types of cavalry: light cavalry, line cavalry, and heavy cavalry.
Light cavalry is composed of Chasseurs and Hussars, a highly versatile arm. Lassalle did not hesitate to say that a Hussar must be good at everything. In 1804, there were no fewer than 24 regiments of Chasseurs, made up of French natives as well as “new French” like the Piedmontese Hussars, former Belgian Chevau-légers, or former Tuscan Dragoons.
Hussars, in particular, were the most popular soldiers of the Empire. With their colorful uniforms and boastful spirit, they had a reputation for being daredevils, womanizers, and duelists—a way of venting their frustrations about an uncertain future. Lassalle himself once declared that any Hussar who wasn’t dead by age 30 was worthless. There were up to 14 regiments of these saber-wielders under the Empire.
Light cavalry was primarily used for reconnaissance missions. Each army corps had cavalry to scout ahead and avoid accidentally encountering enemy forces. Light cavalry scoured the terrain, located the enemy, estimated its strength, and reported back. But light cavalry was not just for observation; it attacked the enemy, harassed them, charging isolated groups and convoys. Light cavalry was equipped with a curved saber, allowing them to cut down anything within reach.
Key Engagements
- Battle of Austerlitz (1805): Hussars played a key role in scouting and harassing the Austro-Russian forces.
- Battle of Leipzig (1813): As Napoleon’s forces retreated, hussars helped cover the withdrawal of the main army and protect the flanks.
Dragoons and Lancers
Line cavalry, on the other hand, consisted of Dragoons and Chevau-légers Lancers. Dragoons were versatile units with the unique ability to fight both on horseback and on foot. They could serve as standard cavalry (armed with a straight saber, called a latte) or use their horses to quickly deploy as infantry at a specific point on the battlefield—precursors to mechanized infantry, in a way. For this reason, Dragoons carried bayonets for use with their muskets during dismounted service. Naturally, they were also trained in infantry maneuvers. At certain times (1805–1806), some Dragoon regiments had no horses.
At its peak, the Empire had 30 Dragoon regiments, some of which were later converted into Chevau-légers regiments. The Chevau-légers (who also carried the light cavalry’s curved saber) only entered the Grande Armée starting in 1807, when Napoleon incorporated a regiment of Polish Chevau-légers into his guard. These were the ones who famously opened the Somosierra Pass, armed with sabers, not lances as often depicted. The lance was adopted later, allowing them to fight on equal terms with the Russian army’s Cossacks. More importantly, it had a strong psychological impact on enemy infantry. This was necessary to justify the cumbersome nature of the weapon to the cavalry.
In Napoleon Bonaparte’s mind, these Lancers were to not only ensure communication between armies and perform escort missions, but also to accompany heavy cavalry charges and act as flankers: “When the cuirassiers charge infantry columns, the Chevau-légers must be placed at the rear or flanks to pass through the gaps between regiments and fall upon the infantry when they are routed; or, if dealing with cavalry, pursue the cavalry and strike them from behind with their swords.” Ultimately, line cavalry was used for both reconnaissance missions, like light cavalry, and fighting in line formations. In fact, Dragoons were sometimes part of the cavalry reserve alongside the heavy cavalry.
Famous Units
Napoleon’s 13th Dragoon Regiment was particularly famous, as it participated in many of the key battles of the Napoleonic Wars, including Austerlitz, Friedland, and Wagram. Dragoons were also instrumental during Napoleon’s Russian campaign.
The Cuirassiers: Napoleon’s Heavy Cavalry
Heavy cavalry was composed of Carabiniers and Cuirassiers, easily recognizable by the cuirasses (armor) worn by the riders (at least by the end of the Empire; Carabiniers did not wear cuirasses initially). Carabiniers were already an elite corps during the Revolution, respected for their effectiveness. The Jacobins didn’t dare retaliate when, after their cry of “Vive la Montagne!” the Carabiniers responded with, “Damn the Montagne! Long live the Plain for the cavalry!”
Nonetheless, for this unit, which he used for both war and ceremonial purposes, Napoleon demanded good behavior and politeness, which is why it was typically composed of cavalrymen from good families. In 1804, Napoleon equipped them with the same rifle used by the Dragoons. Cuirassiers formed the quintessential heavy cavalry, particularly celebrated in the battles of Eylau and Friedland, but also seen in the tragic charges at Waterloo.
Their heavy equipment made them ill-suited for reconnaissance missions like light cavalry; their main role was in line combat, where their momentum could overwhelm enemy forces. Unlike light cavalry, this charge-specialized cavalry was not armed with a curved saber but a straight one, like the Dragoons, though with a steel scabbard, whereas the Dragoons had leather scabbards.
The Imperial Guard offered an even more varied range of light, line, and heavy troops, including units similar to those of the rest of the army (e.g., the Empress’s Dragoons, the Guard Chasseurs on horseback, Polish and Dutch Lancers), as well as special units like the Mamelukes, Horse Grenadiers, Honor Guards, Lithuanian Tartars, and Scouts—renowned for their prestige, but whose operational use did not differ significantly from that of the other cavalry units.
Famous Units
The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Cuirassier Regiments were among the most famous, participating in key battles like Waterloo and Borodino, where their charges were pivotal in several engagements.
Cavalry in Combat
Cavalry tactics evolved little under the Empire, remaining similar to those of the Ancien Régime, continuing the model inspired by King Frederick II of Prussia and King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. Their principles viewed cavalry primarily as a moving mass. In other words, the focus was not on weaponry or individual swordsmanship, but on the effect produced by a massive and well-coordinated charge in tight ranks. The primary formation for the Imperial cavalry was the squadron in battle formation, positioned in two tightly packed rows, knee-to-knee. A cavalry squadron formed a line about 40 meters long and 6 meters deep (with about 2.5 meters between the two rows).
The entire squadron was bordered by officers and non-commissioned officers, and the two platoons had brigadiers (equivalent to corporals in infantry) on their flanks to check alignments. The major difference from the infantry was that officers were positioned in front of the first line, directly exposed to enemy fire, and expected to lead by example. The theoretical absence of infantry officers in front of their first line was not due to a lack of courage, but rather because, unlike cavalry, infantrymen performed volleys of fire, making it unwise for officers to position themselves between the front line and the target.
Formation changes, from columns to lines, were carried out as in the infantry: by platoons. While there were many cavalry maneuvers, officers would usually opt for the simplest ones during battle to avoid confusion.
The cavalry charge was the decisive element, the forceful impact intended to break through the enemy line or surprise them on the flanks or rear. The charge was prepared by checking the horses’ straps and giving the men a drink. It was also said that exposing cavalrymen to enemy fire before charging could give them a motive for revenge—a grim option. A cavalry charge could sometimes turn the tide of a battle, as seen at Marengo or the Borodino.
However, the cavalry charge was not a frenzied gallop over long distances to smash into defenseless infantry, as often portrayed in movies. In reality, charges were performed at a trot, with acceleration only happening in the final meters. Thus, when the time for the charge came, in complete silence, these orders were heard:
“Prepare to charge!”
“Swords drawn!”
“Trot… March!”
Only when nearing the enemy would this order be heard, echoed by all officers and non-commissioned officers:
“Gallop… March!”
Finally, at about 100 meters from the enemy:
“Charge!”
Sometimes the entire charge was carried out at a trot, allowing the squadron to maintain alignment and mass effect without losing power. For an infantryman, it was just as difficult to stop a horse trotting as one galloping. This was even more true when two cavalry squadrons faced off. General Jomini wrote:
One must be careful not to believe that impetuosity is always decisive in a cavalry-on-cavalry clash. When the enemy comes at you at a fast trot, it is unwise to rush at them at a gallop, as you will arrive disorganized against a compact, tightly-packed mass that will cut through your scattered squadrons… Lassalle, one of the most skilled generals, once said, upon seeing the enemy cavalry charging at a gallop: ‘Those men are lost!’ and indeed, those squadrons were thrown back at a slow trot.
After the charge, the withdrawal had to be done in good order and quickly, to avoid becoming bogged down amidst the enemy infantry.
In the melee, a cavalryman could fend off pressing enemies with his pistol(s). However, due to the difficulty of reloading quickly, most of the combat was done with the saber. Regarding saber combat, De Brack wrote:
Where should you strike? At neck height, because it is in a cavalryman’s nature to lower his head when threatened, allowing you to hit his face; if your strike misses, it will hit the shoulder and forearm, putting the man out of action. How should you strike? First, ensure you grip the hilt of your saber tightly so the blade doesn’t turn in your hand, causing it to strike with the flat side rather than the edge. Then, slash in a sawing motion so the blow cuts deeper. Every edge is a more or less fine saw, which only produces its effect by moving horizontally across the object it attacks. To achieve this effect when striking, pull your hand back; that is the secret of the Mamelukes’ fearsome saber strikes.
These cavalry charges were made in line, always in tight ranks. Skirmishing deployments were distrusted for the reasons mentioned earlier: a skirmishing squadron would always be at a disadvantage against one in tight ranks. However, some charges were made in skirmishing order against specific targets like artillery batteries (it was better not to be tightly packed when facing cannon fire), convoys, or enemy infantry deployed as skirmishers. Part of a squadron could also be deployed as skirmishers, advancing dispersed and firing (with musketoons or pistols). The goal was primarily to provoke the enemy.
By applying these combat techniques, the cavalry of the Grande Armée routed Austrians, Prussians, Russians, Spaniards, English, and many others across Europe. This cavalry broke enemy lines during battles, pursued retreating armies, protected army corps like bees around a hive, and sacrificed itself on multiple occasions to delay a pressing enemy during retreats. Napoleon made a habit of using his cavalry in large masses, gathering them in reserve under the command of capable leaders like Bessières or Murat, and deploying them at the critical moment as a wedge to break through the enemy front.
From History to Legend
The cavalry of the Grande Armée astonished its contemporaries. Victor Hugo, who later became both a poet and a political enemy of Napoleon III, remained captivated throughout his life by the cavalry of Napoleon I. This included the riders who accompanied his father, like that “hussar he loved above all, for his great bravery and his tall stature” (from “After the Battle,” The Legend of the Ages, 1850).
In My Childhood, he wrote:
“My envy admired, and the swift hussar,
Adorning his fearless chest with sheaves of gold,
And the white plumes of the agile lancers,
And the dragoons, blending on their Gothic helmets
The spotted tiger fur with the black manes of steeds.”
Even in The Expiation, Hugo gave a place of honor to the Imperial Guard cavalry charging at Waterloo in a tragic apotheosis:
“’Forward! Send in the Guard!’ he cried.
And lancers, grenadiers in linen gaiters,
Dragoons that Rome would have taken for legionnaires,
Cuirassiers, gunners who dragged thunder,
Wearing black bearskin caps or polished helmets,
sabres drawn—
All, those from Friedland and Rivoli,
Understanding they were about to die in this spectacle,
Saluted their god, standing in the storm.
Their mouths, in one voice, shouted: Long live the Emperor!
Then, slowly, music leading, without fury,
Calm, smiling at English grapeshot,
The Imperial Guard entered the inferno.
Alas! Napoleon, leaning over his guard,
Watched, and as soon as they broke through
Under the dark cannons spewing sulfur,
He saw, one by one, into that horrible abyss,
Those regiments of granite and steel melt away
Like wax in the breath of a blaze.”
For centuries to come, this glory of the cavalry—made of epic rides, overturned enemies, sumptuous uniforms, tavern tables overflowing with food, and glittering sabers—would be remembered. These memories overshadowed the charges broken by grapeshot, halted by bayonets, men and horses disemboweled in the same mud, barely better buried in simple graves.
In the French army, the cavalry still prides itself on the victories of the Imperial troops. It is even said that the tradition of calling non-commissioned officers “Mon Lieutenant” comes from this period. The story goes that during the Battle of Austerlitz, a squadron led only by a sergeant distinguished itself and caught Napoleon’s attention. Seeing this fearless man, Napoleon supposedly asked, “Who is that valiant lieutenant?” to which he was told it was only a sergeant. The Emperor is said to have replied, “From now on, we shall call them lieutenant!” However, no historical sources seem to confirm the Napoleonic origin of this modern cavalry custom.
