Having begun in the Cuzco valley (Peru) more than 800 years ago, the Inca Empire eventually spread to include most of what are now Ecuador, Colombia, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile. Beginning in the 15th century, Inca rulers successfully imposed their will on many peoples and therefore established a unified but culturally varied empire. After more than three centuries of existence and despite the Inca civilization’s strength and riches, the Inca Empire was overthrown by Spanish conquistadors in a matter of months.
Which legend relates to the birth of the Inca Empire?
In contrast to many earlier civilizations, the Incas did not rely heavily on written records to attest to the facts of their people. In truth, the people’s history and culture have always been passed down orally, and there were few written records from before the 15th century. Because of this, the earliest years of Inca culture are sometimes referred to as “legendary.”
Manco Capac (or Manco Cápac) was the first emperor, and he supposedly ruled in the year 1200. When they first arrived in the southern Peruvian Andes, the Incas were a tiny warrior tribe intent on expanding their empire and subjugating the many indigenous communities that lay in its path. However, the valley of Cuzco does not see much extension until the 14th century, under the reign of the seventh Inca emperor. This paves the stage for the real conquests, which began in the XV century.
How did the Inca Empire develop?
When Inca Emperor Viracocha (number eight) ran into trouble with the ambitious Chanca people, his son Yupanqui gathered an army to protect the empire. They just fueled his ambition, and in 1438 he was able to turn the tables and defeat his enemies. The great Inca expansion then began, giving rise to an enormous and enduring empire. Yupanqui declared himself Emperor and changed his name to Pachacutec.
Starting from the city he named the capital, Cuzco, the new ruler conquered land to the south, around Lake Titicaca, and to the west, along the coast, before turning his attention to the north. After his passing, his son, Tupac Yupanqui, carried on the family’s tradition of conquest.
The eleventh emperor, Huayna Capac, presided over the greatest period of growth in the history of the Inca Empire. The region under his control in the latter years of his rule extended beyond the current boundaries of Ecuador, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile, and all the way into Colombia. About eight million people had to be brought together under the banner of a unified Empire after it was necessary to subdue and unify the numerous populations.
How was the Inca Empire organized?
Lacking a certain degree of political cohesion, the Inca Empire would not have survived. Since this was the case, emperors in the 1500s used various means to ensure the conquered populations would remain submissive. To better incorporate the ethnic groups into the system, one of the key procedures was to relocate the people either farther into the land or into previously structured areas.
The Empire was built on agriculture and a theocratic government, and it was divided into four major sections known as “quarters” (hence the name “Tahuantinsuyu”). Moreover, every nation was mandated to worship the Sun God, while native religions were tolerated. In order to achieve linguistic harmony, the various groups must give up their native tongues in favor of Quechua. All of these things, plus a powerful transportation network, were used by the Empire to maintain its unity. This seemingly powerful empire, however, had weak foundations.
What events precipitated the fall of the Inca Empire?
After his death in 1527, Huayna Capac’s sons, Huáscar and Atahualpa, took control of the Inca Empire. The aristocracy in Cuzco crowns the first son, the rightful heir, as emperor, while the second rules the territory’s northern regions. In the same year, Francisco Pizarro first set foot in Peru. He leaves, already planning his return since he was so impressed by all the luxury.
A power struggle between the two Inca brothers came to an end with Atahualpa’s triumph over his brother’s rival for the Inca throne in 1531. It was at this time that Pizarro returned to Peru, with the backing of King Charles V. He arranges to have a chat with the new emperor, and the latter pays him a visit in Cajamarca, showing no sign of mistrust. The Spaniards kidnap Atahualpa and slaughter his bodyguard on the pretense that he refuses to convert to Christianity. The Conquistadors suffocated him on August 29, 1533, after extracting a large ransom from him.
An empire that had existed for centuries and counted eight million people among its population fell in a matter of months to a force of less than two hundred. Even if the last of the Inca’s descendants were to launch a small rebellion, its effects would be limited. The greatest pre-Columbian civilization in history and its associated empire have been completely destroyed.
According to the experts, there was no single explanation for this type of drop. Some have hypothesized that the Incas didn’t fight back because they considered the Whites as heavenly embodiments. Some people attribute the swift loss to the widespread fear spread by weapons and tamed horses. No matter what happens, Peruvians won’t forget their rich heritage for decades. There was evidence of this in the Condorcanqui uprising at the end of the XVIIIth century.
TIMELINE OF THE INCA EMPIRE
1200 – Birth of the Inca Civilization
According to oral mythology passed down by the Inca people to the Spanish, the founder of the Inca Empire was Manco Cápac. He was said to have been sent by his father, the Sun, to bring civilization to humanity. Accompanied by his wife, Mama Ocllo, he emerged from Lake Titicaca and decided to build a village on the site of Cuzco. Another legend tells of four Ayar brothers, each accompanied by their wives, who emerged from a cave and embarked on a great migration into the Cuzco valley, each leading a clan. However, one of them, Ayar Manco, killed his brothers to become the sole ruler. In any case, Ayar Manco or Manco Cápac is regarded as the first Inca emperor, existing around 1200 AD.
1438 – Inca Yupanqui Defends His City
The son of the eighth Inca king, Viracocha, Yupanqui defended Cuzco against the Chanca tribe, who sought to expand their dominance over the weakened kingdom. The battle was bloody, but Inca Yupanqui triumphed and soon took control of the Empire. Under the name Pachacutec, he focused on expanding the empire’s boundaries and asserting his authority over numerous tribes.
1471 – Túpac Yupanqui Succeeds His Father
Túpac Yupanqui became the tenth Inca emperor following his father, Inca Yupanqui. Having significantly contributed to territorial expansion alongside his predecessor, he continued this policy of conquest. He first turned north, where his armies advanced through much of what is now Ecuador. They then pushed the borders further, reaching the future site of Lima, and even further south into central Chile.
1493 – Huayna Cápac, New Inca Emperor
Huayna Cápac succeeded his father, Túpac Yupanqui, and inherited a vast empire, which he sought to improve and consolidate. Under his reign, the Inca Empire reached its peak. Around twenty years after his coronation, the empire extended 3,500 km long and 800 km wide.
1527 – Death of Emperor Huayna Cápac
The eleventh Inca emperor passed away, leaving the empire to his two sons: Huáscar, the legitimate heir crowned by the Cuzco nobles, and Atahualpa, who controlled the north. The two heirs violently clashed, plunging the empire into a civil war. Atahualpa eventually seized power in 1532 after a bloody battle against his half-brother near Cuzco.
January 1531 – Pizarro’s New Landing
The conquistador Francisco Pizarro set foot again on Inca territory, which was weakened by internal conflict between the heirs of the last emperor. One of them, Atahualpa, ultimately defeated his half-brother Huáscar near Cuzco, becoming the thirteenth Inca emperor. However, driven by his thirst for conquest, Pizarro organized a meeting with the new emperor, during which Atahualpa was captured.
November 16, 1532 – Pizarro Captures the Last Inca Emperor
Invited by the Spaniard Francisco Pizarro, Inca Emperor Atahualpa went to Cajamarca, in northern Peru. When presented with sacred Christian books, Atahualpa refused to convert to Christianity and allegedly threw the book to the ground. The Spaniards used this as a pretext to massacre the emperor’s escort and the village. Atahualpa was taken prisoner. His subjects amassed an extraordinary amount of gold and silver to secure his release, but to no avail. Pizarro sentenced Atahualpa to death, and he was garroted in his cell on August 29, 1533. The Inca Empire was destroyed, and the Spaniards ruled for three centuries.
August 29, 1533 – Execution of Atahualpa
Inca Emperor Atahualpa was killed in Cajamarca (Peru) by the Spaniards. The conquistador Francisco Pizarro had received permission from Emperor Charles V to undertake the conquest of the Inca Empire. He landed on the Peruvian coast in 1532, captured Atahualpa, and despite receiving a huge ransom, had him executed. Pizarro himself was later stabbed to death by a supporter of his rival Almagro in 1541.
November 15, 1533 – The Spanish Take Cuzco
Francisco Pizarro entered the capital of the Inca Empire. The city was looted, the Temple of the Sun was completely destroyed for its gold, and the tombs of the Inca rulers were desecrated. The capital of the vast and majestic empire was no more. The Spaniards would go on to build Lima and make it the new capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru.
January 18, 1535 – Foundation of Lima
The Spanish conqueror Francisco Pizarro officially founded the city, which he hoped to make his capital, Lima. He named it “Ciudad de los Reyes,” the City of Kings. The term “Lima” is a distortion of a Quechua word “rimac,” meaning “speaker.” Lima became the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru in 1542 and grew into the commercial and cultural hub of Spanish America.
1536 – Revolt of Manco Cápac II
Manco Cápac II, or Manco Inca, the son of Huayna Cápac, secretly organized an army to rebel against Spanish rule. Though placed on the throne by Pizarro, he held no real authority. His revolt ended in failure, forcing him to flee into the mountains. His son, Titu Cusi, continued the struggle through sporadic attacks against the Spaniards.
July 8, 1538 – Hernando Pizarro Executes Diego de Almagro
On July 8, 1538, Hernando Pizarro executed Diego de Almagro. The two conquistadors, once friends during the conquest of the Inca Empire, fell out when Almagro decided to arrest Pizarro, the governor of Cuzco. His older brother, Francisco Pizarro, had him freed, and the two factions clashed in the Battle of Salinas, where the Pizarro brothers emerged victorious.
June 26, 1541 – Francisco Pizarro Assassinated
The Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro was assassinated in Lima (Peru) by the supporters of his rival and former associate, Diego de Almagro, whom he had executed in 1538. After the discovery of the New World by Christopher Columbus, Pizarro set out in search of adventure and succeeded in conquering the Inca Empire by eliminating Atahualpa. On the ruins of this empire, Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia were born.
September 24, 1572 – The Last Inca Heir is Beheaded
Túpac Amaru, brother of Titu Cusi, was captured by the Spaniards under the orders of Viceroy Francisco de Toledo. Túpac Amaru was publicly beheaded. He had taken up his brother’s cause to resist colonial domination. Thus, the last heir of the Inca Empire disappeared.
Bibliography:
- Mann, Charles C. (2005). 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus. Knopf. pp. 64–105. ISBN 978-0-307-27818-0.
- McEwan, Gordon F. (2008). The Incas: New Perspectives. W.W. Norton, Incorporated. pp. 221–. ISBN 978-0-393-33301-5.
- McCandless, Byron (1917). Flags of the world. National Geographic Society. p. 356.
- Francisco López de Jerez,Verdadera relación de la conquista del Peru y provincia de Cusco, llamada la Nueva Castilla, 1534.
