Of all Napoleon’s cavalry units, the Mamluks are certainly the most famous due to their vivid appearance, exotic origins, and the strong passions they stirred among contemporaries, both in their glory and their downfall. Beyond the Imperial Guard, the image of the Mamluk is also closely associated with Napoleon’s two bodyguards: Ali and especially Roustam, who was a living witness of the Egyptian campaign and can be seen by the Emperor’s side in all his campaigns, immortalized in numerous paintings depicting the great moments of the First Empire.
Who Were the Mamluks?
In the 18th century, the Mamluks remained closely tied to the image of the Crusaders’ loss of the Holy Land. Their status as “slave kings” seemed quite unique. At that time, Ottoman authority was weakening in favor of local powers, especially the Mamluks in Egypt. By the century’s end, the country was effectively under the control of two Mamluk leaders: Mourad Bey and Ibrahim Bey.
The latter surrounded himself with a military household of around 600 adult Mamluks. In Egypt, the Mamluks formed a ruling caste with total control over the local population. One of the most visible signs of this superiority was that only the Mamluks were allowed to ride horses (though some rebellious Bedouins managed to keep their mounts). Cairo alone had 8,000 to 10,000 Mamluks.
Nevertheless, these “kings of the land” were still slaves. The recruitment of Mamluk cavalrymen was mainly done by purchasing slaves, often of Georgian or Circassian origin. There were also Kurds, Bosnians, Albanians, Anatolian Turks, Armenians, and even a few Westerners converted to Islam.
Whether independent warriors or attached to a household, the Mamluk was considered a masterful horseman. Their primary weapon was the Turkish scimitar, said to be so sharp it could slice a silk scarf in mid-air. The scimitar was worn in the traditional Oriental manner, in a sheath slung over the shoulder. In addition to the scimitar, Mamluks often carried a wide variety of weapons: daggers, maces, battle axes, pistols (some carried three pairs!), short carbines, and blunderbusses.
The Mamluks had adopted firearms, although many did not know how to use them effectively, often firing from a distance to make noise before charging with their blades. They rode the finest horses from central Arabia, though their saddles were outdated, heavy with wooden frames, and their stirrups had pointed ends instead of spurs, a design used in North Africa. Their bridles allowed immediate obedience from the horse but could also injure the animal if used roughly. During battle, the saddlebags of Mamluk warriors were often filled with their wealth in gold and jewels, giving them all the more reason to fight fiercely.
When Napoleon Bonaparte landed in Alexandria in 1798, the Mamluk leaders were convinced they would easily crush the French expeditionary force with their formidable cavalry. But they faced a well-equipped army with rifles, bayonets, and cannons that knew how to use firearms better than they did. Moreover, the French expeditionary force was made up of veterans from the German and Italian campaigns, soldiers who were not encountering cavalry charges for the first time and were not about to flee at the mere sight of the enemy, as the Mamluks had hoped.
The first clash occurred at Chebreis, where Mourad Bey, with 4,000 cavalry, charged the French who had formed into squares. Mourad Bey was repelled, losing 300 cavalry, 400 to 500 infantrymen, nine cannons, and his entire flotilla. He retreated to Cairo, where Ibrahim Bey had entrenched himself.
This prelude was not a lesson for the Mamluks, who were decimated in front of Cairo during the famous Battle of the Pyramids. Charging headlong into French divisions formed into squares, the elite of the Oriental cavalry suffered its heaviest defeat. On the evening of July 21, 1798, the French had lost 300 men, dead or wounded. On the other side, the Mamluks counted 1,500 to 2,000 dead and wounded. Later, the Mamluks adapted their tactics, especially during Mourad Bey’s pursuit by General Desaix.
The Mamluks realized that artillery could complement their excellent cavalry: if the French formed squares, they became easy targets for artillery, but if they did not, they were at the mercy of the cavalry. However, this realization came too late and did not prevent their ultimate defeat. In 1800, Mourad Bey signed a peace agreement with General Kléber.
Napoleon’s Bodyguards
Impressed by the Mamluks’ fighting prowess and eager to add an exotic element to his entourage, Bonaparte chose one of them as his bodyguard: Roustam. Raza Roustam (1782–1845) was the son of a Georgian merchant, kidnapped at the age of 13 and sold to the Bey of Cairo, who inducted him into the Mamluk corps. After his master’s death, he entered the service of Sheikh El-Becri, who gifted him to Bonaparte.
Bonaparte made him his bodyguard, accompanying him on his travels and sleeping across his doorway. Roustam followed Napoleon to France along with another Mamluk, Ali, who was later dismissed for being too violent. For Bonaparte, Roustam was a living testament to his Eastern campaign. Roustam was attached to the Bonaparte household, tasked with various duties, and slept on a cot outside Napoleon’s door.
Roustam’s close proximity to Emperor Napoleon fueled many rumors from Napoleon’s detractors, who claimed he was the lover of both Joséphine and Napoleon, as well as an assassin involved in the deaths of Villeneuve and Pichegru—fantasies of a sensual and bloodthirsty East projected onto its ambassador. On the other hand, Parisian fashion was inspired by his attire. Ultimately, Roustam’s role during both the Consulate and the Empire was mostly ceremonial.
He accompanied Napoleon on all his campaigns, taking care of his table and glasses. In 1806, Roustam married Alexandrine Douville in a Catholic ceremony. In 1814, when Napoleon failed to poison himself, he asked Roustam for his pistols. Roustam refused and fled. Under the Restoration, he was monitored by the police, and during the Hundred Days, he unsuccessfully sought to re-enter Napoleon’s service. During the Second Restoration, he lived in Paris, occasionally visiting London, supported by his pension and his wife’s work.
The second of Napoleon’s Mamluks was not Oriental at all. Ali, whose real name was Louis-Étienne Saint-Denis, was born into a servant family in Versailles in 1788. He was a notary’s assistant before becoming a riding master thanks to his father’s connections. Entering the service of the Emperor’s household, he followed Napoleon to Spain and Germany until 1811, when he became Napoleon’s second Mamluk. He performed the same duties as Roustam but remained loyal in 1814, even following Napoleon to Elba, during the Hundred Days, and to Saint Helena, where he married.
On this final island, he took on the roles of copyist and librarian. After returning to France following the Emperor’s death, and benefiting from the latter’s legacies, Ali maintained a rich correspondence with those writing the golden legend of the Empire. He published his own memoirs in 1826. Still moving in Bonapartist circles, he was made a Knight of the Legion of Honour by Napoleon III.
The Mamluks of the Imperial Guard
After Bonaparte’s departure from Egypt, General Kléber, who succeeded him, created a mounted company of Janissaries in September 1799 with Turks who had participated in the siege of Saint-Jean-d’Acre. In July, he reinforced this unit with Mamluks, allowing the formation of three companies, each with 100 cavalrymen. On October 26, this unit was named the “Mamluks of the Republic.” After being deeply involved in military operations, this unit followed the French army during the evacuation of Egypt in 1801.
The arrival of the Mamluks in France caused a sensation. People admired these colorful men who had once been Bonaparte’s enemies—now the First Consul—and who had now aligned with the Republic. However, the clash of cultures posed some problems. Accustomed to being a dominant caste with full rights over the local population, Captain Ibrahim Bey shot a passerby who mocked his outfit. Ibrahim defended his actions, explaining that such things happened in Egypt.
This rapid cultural shift was considered a mitigating factor, and the Mamluk was simply retired in Marseille with a ban on carrying weapons. He later resumed service in 1814 but was wounded and captured because his turban had fallen over his eyes, proving that the Mamluks’ attire was more impressive than practical.
Organization
On October 13, 1801, Napoleon ordered Jean Rapp to form an operational squadron of 250 men but quickly adjusted this to 150. Ultimately, by April 21, 1802, there were 13 officers and 155 men. On December 15, 1803, the Mamluks formed a company attached to the Chasseurs à Cheval of the Guard. The company was composed as follows:
- One French commanding captain
- One French second lieutenant
- One French surgeon
- One French veterinarian
- One French master saddler
- One French master tailor
- One French master cobbler
- One French master gunsmith
- Two Mamluk captains
- Two Mamluk lieutenants
- Two Mamluk second lieutenants
- One French staff sergeant
- Eight sergeants (six Mamluks and two French)
- One French quartermaster
- Ten corporals (eight Mamluks and two French)
- Two trumpeters
- Two farrier sergeants
- Eighty Mamluks
Thus, there were 9 officers and 114 men.
Under the Empire, on April 15, 1806, a new decree established 13 officers and 114 men, including a standard-bearer and a bugler. In 1813, due to the need for more men to repel the coalition counter-attacks, the unit grew to 250 men in January. On March 6, the unit was assigned to the 10th squadron of the Chasseurs à Cheval of the Guard. You might wonder: how did Napoleon manage to increase his Mamluk unit when there were only a few Mamluks who had come from Egypt? Quite simply, he recruited Westerners who only adopted the Mamluk uniform. From 1809 (the year when non-Orientals were allowed to join) to 1812, foreigners made up three-quarters of the unit, and by 1813 and 1814, the unit was mostly composed of Frenchmen. In total, of the 583 men listed in the unit’s records, 209 were foreigners and 374 were French.
Mamluk Uniforms
Regarding their dress, the Mamluks maintained the Oriental style, which made them so distinctive. Although it was a combat unit, it was also, above all, a prestige unit. Their style was Oriental but still standardized. They wore the red “cahouk” (headgear) wrapped in a white turban, a “yaleck” shirt with sleeves decorated with braids and piping, and a European-style high-collared shirt, a leather vest, a wide Arab belt, sarouel trousers, and leather boots (yellow, red, or fawn-colored).
An important detail was that their headgear had to be green, the color of the Prophet Muhammad, to show their new allegiance to France. Their headgear featured a cockade and/or a brass plaque representing a star and a crescent moon, although this detail is still debated. Ranks were aligned with those of the French army. For equipment, they carried a cartridge pouch and a red or green morocco leather shoulder belt, although in the field, the Mamluks regularly used standard French cavalry equipment.
A downside to this colorful uniform was that Napoleon decided they should not cost more than the Chasseurs à Cheval. This impacted their pay. In reality, the Mamluk unit always cost more than the Chasseurs. Not only did the cavalrymen receive pay, but the state also supported their families. At age 16, Mamluks’ sons could also join the unit.
In 1813, as many fully French recruits joined the unit, they were given a French uniform: indigo coat, indigo pelisse, scarlet vest, and indigo breeches.
Ensigns
It is known that they received an Eagle after distinguishing themselves at Austerlitz, and that Second Lieutenant Pierre Mérat became the standard-bearer. In April 1806, a decree added four “tail-bearers” to the standard-bearer, serving as the Eagle’s guards. These men carried toug, adorned with horse tails: two black, one white, and one red. In 1807, the prefect of the Seine gifted the Mamelukes’ Eagle one of the 19 crowns voted by the municipality to commemorate Austerlitz.
In 1813, the Mamelukes received a new standard with the three colors positioned vertically (the French flag as we know it today is indeed a legacy of the First Empire) with the names of the battles of Ulm, Austerlitz, Jena, Eylau, Friedland, Eckmühl, Essling, Wagram, Smolensk, Borodino , and the capitals Vienna, Berlin, Madrid, and Moscow.
Weaponry
The Mamelukes’ weaponry was a sophisticated blend of oriental style and French manufacturing. In terms of firearms, the Mamelukes carried two saddle pistols stored in holsters (called koubour) and a blunderbuss. This blunderbuss, unique in the Napoleonic army, was produced in only 73 copies by the Versailles arms factory from 1801 to 1813. Given the limited production of the blunderbuss, other Mamelukes were equipped with a cavalry carbine model An IX, worn with a strap or with a braided silk cord.
But what made the Mamelukes famous in Egypt—and where the oriental style was best preserved—were their bladed weapons. The Mamelukes were equipped with “Turkish-style” sabers, with brass hilts and scabbard fittings. They also carried daggers with brass handles, sometimes richly adorned. Finally, primarily for parade, the Mamelukes displayed axes (25 were made in 1808) and six-flanged maces (the same number produced).
The Imperial Mamelukes in Combat
Integrated into the French cavalry, the Mamelukes adopted Western combat techniques. They retained only their oriental attire, equipment style, and legendary zeal.
The Mamelukes participated in the 1805 campaign, distinguishing themselves at the Battle of Austerlitz. They later fought in the Prussian campaign of 1806-7, entering Berlin and notably engaging in the Battle of Pułtusk on Christmas Day against Russian cavalry. In 1808, they were deployed in the Iberian Peninsula, where their Moorish appearance contributed to the fury of the crowd during the May 2 riots. They were sent to Austria for the 1809 campaign, participating in Wagram and Eylau, before returning to Spain.
In 1812, the Mamelukes took part in the Russian campaign, kept in reserve with the rest of the Guard during the Battle of Borodino. During the retreat, they saved the Emperor from the Cossacks at Gorodnya. At Insterburg, only 260 of the 800 riders remained, with the majority listed as missing. Of course, the Mamelukes also participated in the defense of Germany and France in 1813 and 1814, notably at Leipzig. Some of them, like Petros Roudjieri (from Tinos) and Michel Malati (a Greek from Cairo), followed Napoleon to Elba and fought for him at Waterloo after the unit was reformed.
Notable Figures of the Unit
Among the notable figures of the Imperial Mamelukes was Sub-Lieutenant Abdallah of Asbonne, born in 1776 in Bethlehem. He was studying in Rome when Napoleon recruited him for his Egyptian expedition as an interpreter. He fought at Heliopolis and returned with the French army. In 1804, he received the Legion of Honor. After Austerlitz, he was promoted to lieutenant.
In 1811, he became an instructor, and in 1813, he took command of the second company. After the Restoration, he joined the Lancers and received the Order of Saint Louis. His military career ended after his support for Napoleon during the Hundred Days… at least until 1828, when he returned to service and went to the Algerian front!
Of the same caliber was Chahim’, a Caucasian born in 1776 who entered French service six days after the Battle of the Pyramids. He served under Kléber at Heliopolis and distinguished himself at Austerlitz, where he saved General Rapp, captured a cannon, and received three bayonet wounds, earning him the title of Knight of the Legion of Honor. After his actions at Eylau, where he was shot in the chest and had his horse killed under him, he was made an Officer of the Legion of Honor.
He was again wounded in May 1808 by Madrid insurgents. In 1813, he was promoted to captain. By the end of the Napoleonic Wars, he had accumulated 40 wounds and had five horses killed under him. In 1815, he joined Napoleon’s camp, but too late to take part in Waterloo.
After the Empire…
The Mamelukes fared relatively well after the First Restoration in 1814, with some joining the Chasseurs à Cheval of France and parading in 1815 with the Duke of Orléans, the future King Louis-Philippe.
However, things took a turn for the worse during the Second Restoration in 1815, following Napoleon’s return and defeat at Waterloo. The Mamelukes were regrouped in Melun and Marseille, forming small communities of Egyptian refugees. Louis XVIII decided to have them interned on the island of Sainte-Marguerite, off the coast of Cannes. In reality, 40 Mamelukes from Melun were sent to the penitentiary; the numbers from Marseille are unknown.
To escape this French repression, around fifty members of the community left for Egypt in 1817, only to face Turkish repression for their support of France. They were forced to return to Marseille, living in poverty, receiving only meager pensions for the officers. Officers with whom they had fought, like Rapp or Colbert, did their best to increase these pensions. As a side note, it was from this Marseille community that Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire recruited his interpreter for the journey of the giraffe Zarafa, destined for Charles X, in 1827!
In 1830, some veterans joined the French army as interpreters for the Algerian campaign.
